DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF LEGAZPI

Legazpi City

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USED IN LOGIC-MTh, 8:30AM-10:25AM/MTh, 10:30AM-12:00NN DURING THE ONLINE CLASSES OF MARCH – APRIL,
2020

DATE OBJECTIVES TOPIC/S DISCUSSION LEARNING

OUTCOMES
/OUTPUTS
REQUIRED
March 16, 1. To provide 1. Judgment JUDGMENT 1. The
2020 the students an and Proposition Judgment is a mental operation that pronounces the agreement or disagreement between two ideas. students shall
outline reviewer ELEMENTS OF A JUDGMENT pass the
for their 1. Understanding of each of the ideas about which a judgment is to be made. midterm
midterm 2. A comparison of the two ideas in question. examinations
examinations 3. The mental act pronouncing that the ideas are in agreement or disagreement. with high
during the PROPOSITION scores.
sudden shift A proposition1 is a linguistic expression or the sensible sign of judgment. It is used to express
from face to judgment in the concrete.
face classroom THE CONSTITUENTS OF A PROPOSITION2
interaction to 1. Subject; 2. Predicate; 3. Copula3
virtual class PROPOSITION AND SENTENCE
sessions/online A proposition is a sentence however a sentence is not always a proposition.4 Some sentences
examinations; do not explicitly affirm that something is or is not; for this reason, they are neither true nor false.
and Types of Sentences
2. To aid the 1. Declarative Sentences 5;
students in Example: The teachers are directed to attend training for online teaching.
preparing for 2. Interrogative Sentences
their online Example: Where have you been?
midterm 3. Imperative Sentences
examination Example: Shut the door when you leave.
4. Request Sentences

1 A proposition is a statement in which anything whatsoever is affirmed or denied. It is a discourse that expresses either truth or falsity.
2 The subject and the predicate are called the matter because they are the materials or ingredients out of which the proposition is made.
3 The copula is the form for it is the unifying principle that gives the structure of the proposition.
4 A proposition is expressed by what grammarians call a declarative sentence, and must be distinguished from a question, exclamation, wish, command, and entreaty.
5
Only declarative sentences can be considered a proposition because it is the only kind of sentence that is either true or false.
 Example: Please do not start a fight right now, I am exhausted.
5. Exclamatory Sentences
Example: Wow!
2.Categorical A categorical proposition is that which gives a direct assertion of agreement or disagreement
and Compound between the subject term and the predicate term.6 It is also called as simple proposition. A compound
Proposition proposition, on the other hand, is composed of several simple propositions.

3.The Standard THE STANDARD FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

Form Elements
Categorical 1. Quantifier7 – indicates the degree of universality (quantity of the subject)
Proposition  A universal quantifier is used for universal propositions.8 It makes use of all, every, any and other
words of similar import for affirmative proposition; and words such as no, none, and other words parallel
to these for negative propositions.
Example: All books are reading materials
No cat has nine tails.
 A particular quantifier is used for particular propositions.9 It makes use of words such as some, at
least one, most, almost all, the majority and words of similar import for particular propositions.
Example: Some children were playing at the park.
Most students are diligent in their studies.
2. Subject Term – is that about which something is affirmed or denied
Examples: All men are mortal.
Some cats are not black.
3. Predicate Term – is that which is affirmed or denied of the subject term
Examples: All men are mortal.
Some cats are not black.
4. Copula – is the linking verb (is, are, am, etc.,) and (is not, are not, am not, etc.,) which indicates the
agreement or disagreement between the subject term and the predicate term. It determines the quality of the
proposition. Affirmative and Negative are the two kinds of quality that a proposition can have.
Examples: All men are mortal.
Some cats are not black.
Therefore, one that follows the S-C-P (subject-copula-predicate-) arrangement is a standard form
proposition.
4. The Non- THE NON-STANDARD FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

6 This is sometimes called as an attributive proposition. It is a proposition in which a predicate is affirmed or denied of the subject.
7 The quantity of a proposition refers to the number of individuals to whom the subject applies
8 Universal proposition which takes the subject in the entirety of its extension while a singular proposition is one whose subject term applies to a single individual only, as in an example of “Juan de la

Cruz is always present in his classes.” is regarded as a universal in that the singular subject may be treated as a class having only one member and therefore including all of its members.
9 It limits the extension of a universal proposition
Standard Form
Categorical While some propositions fulfill the requirements for the standard-form categorical proposition,
Proposition others are not expressed in such manner. These propositions, however, can be translated into a standard one.

Non-standard form Standard form

1. The guests came. 1. All guests are those who came.
2. Italians like to hug. 2. All Italians are people who like to hug.
3. Finders, keepers. 3. All persons who find anything are
persons who can keep what they found.

A, E, I, O PROPOSITIONS

Propositions Affirmative Negative

Universal and Singular A E

Particular I O

A – Propositions
1. All voters are citizens.
2. Every voter is a citizen.
3. A dog is an animal.
E – Propositions
1. No relationship is pain-proof.
2. All dogs are not cats.
3. I am not a doctor.
I – Propositions
1. Some houses are concrete.
2. Many ladies are generous.
3. Most cats are cute.
O – Propositions
1. Some wounds were not healed.
2. Most cats are cold-hearted.
3. Not every man is a saint.

5. Equivalence EQUVALENCE OF PROPOSITION

 of Proposition Obversion10 is a form of immediate inference which consists in substituting an affirmative
5.1 Obversion proposition with its negative equivalent or vice versa. This type of equivalence is also known as
equipollence (Lt. “aequus” meaning equal and “pollens” meaning strength). The original proposition is
called obvertend; the resultant inference is called the obverse.
Rules of Obversion
1. Change the quality of the proposition.
2. Substitute in place of the predicate its contradictory term.

Examples:
Obvertend Obverse
A. Every dog is an animal. E. No dog is a non-animal.
A. All men are free. E. No men are non-free.
E. No men are free. A. All men are non-free.
I. Some men are free. O. Some men are not non-free.
O. Some men are not free. I. Some men are non-free.
5.2 Conversion Conversion is a form of immediate inference which consists in transposing the subject and predicate
without changing their meaning. The original proposition is called convertend; the resultant inference is
called the converse.

Two Kinds of conversion

A. Simple Conversion11
Rules:
1. Transpose the subject and the predicate of the convertend.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
3. Retain the quantity of the terms.

Note: Only E and I propositions undergo simple conversion because they are the only ones whose meaning
is retained even after conversion.

Examples:

Convertend Converse
E. No pen is a chalk. E. No chalk is a pen.
E. No cat is a dog. E. No dog is a cat.
I. Some students are scholars. I. Some scholars are students.

10
It is the formulation of a new proposition by retaining the subject and quantity of an original proposition, changing its quality, and using as predicate the contradictory of the original predicate.
11
It is simple if the quantity of the converse is the same as the quantity of the convertend.
 I. Some houses are white things. I. Some white things are houses.

A – propositions cannot be converted simply because it involves a change in the quantity of predicate term.
No term can have a greater extension in the converse than in the convertend, otherwise, the meaning of the
converse differs from that of the convertend. Consider the following:

Convertend Converse
A. All dogs are animals. A. All animals are dogs.
A. Every rose is a flower. A. Every flower is a rose.
A. All mothers are females. A. All females are mothers.

Lika A – Propositions, O – Propositions cannot be converted simply either. Its conversion results in an
invalid inference. Consider the following:

Convertend Converse
O. Some females are not mothers. O. Some mothers are not females.
O. Some lawyers are not judges. O. Some judges are not lawyers.

In the given examples, the quantity of the original subject term is particular; it becomes a universal
predicate term in the converse, hence, a change in meaning.

B. Partial Conversion12

Rules:
1. Transpose the subject and the predicate of the convertend.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
3. The universal affirmative proposition (A – proposition)13 becomes particular.

Examples:

Convertend Converse
A. All men are mortal beings. I. Some mortal beings are men.
A. Every cat is an animal. I. Some animal is cat.
14
5.3 Contraposition is a form of immediate inference that involves the method of obversion and
Contraposition conversion. The original proposition is called contraponend; the resultant inference is called contraposit.

12
It is partial if the quantity of the proposition is reduced from universal to particular. It is also called accidental conversion, conversion by limitation, and reduced conversion.
13
A – proposition is converted to I proposition
 Two Kinds of Contraposition

A. Partial Contraposition
Rules:
1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert the resultant proposition.

Examples:
1.
Contraponend A. All roses are flowers
Obverse E. No roses are non-flowers.
Converse E. Non-flowers are not roses.

Note: The obverse being an E proposition converts simply.

2.
Contraponend E. No dogs are cats.
Obverse A. All dogs are non-cats.
Converse I. Some non-cats are dogs.

Note: The obverse being an A proposition converts partially.

3.
Contraponend O. Some students are not scholars.
Obverse I. Some students are non-scholars.
Converse I. Some non-scholars are students.

Note: The obverse being an I proposition converts partially

B. Full Contraposition
Rules:
1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert its obverse (resultant proposition)
3. Obvert its converse.
Examples:

14
Contraposition is the formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of the original predicate. It is a combination of obversion and conversion
 1.
Contraponend A. All roses are flowers
Obverse E. No roses are non-flowers.
Converse (Partial Contraposition) E. Non-flowers are not roses.
Obverse (Full Contraposition) A. Non-flowers are non-roses.

2.
Contraponend E. No dogs are cats.
Obverse A. All dogs are non-cats.
Converse (Partial Contraposition) I. Some non-cats are dogs.
Obverse (Full Contraposition) O. Some non-cats are not non-dogs.

3.
Contraponend O. Some students are not scholars.
Obverse I. Some students are non-scholars.
Converse (Partial Contraposition) I. Some non-scholars are students.
Obverse (Full Contraposition) O. Some non-scholars are not non-students.
5.4 Inversion Inversion merely introduces negative particles before the subject and the predicate. The original
proposition is called invertend; the resultant inference is called inverse.
The inverse of a proposition is valid only for A and E propositions.
Two Kinds of Inversion
A. Full Inversion
B. Partial Inversion
Examples:
INVERSION OF A PROPOSITION (O-C-O-C-O)
Invertend A. All roses are flowers
Obverse E. No roses are non-flowers.
Converse E. Non-flowers are not roses.
Obverse A. All non-flowers are non-roses.
Converse (Full Inverse) I. Some non-roses are non-flowers.
Obverse (Partial Inverse) O. Some non-roses are not flowers.
INVERSION OF E-PROPOSITION (C-O-C-O)
Invertend E. No dogs are cats.
Converse I. No cats are dogs.
Obverse A. All cats are non-dogs.
Converse (Full Inverse) I. Some non-dogs are cats.
 Obverse (Partial Inverse) O. Some non-dogs are not non-cats.

March 19, 2020 -ONLINE MIDTERM EXAMINATIONS

March 23-26, 1. To enable the 6. Inference and INFERENCE 1. The

2020 mind to get Syllogism Broad meaning: Inference, according to its broadest meaning, signifies any process by which the mind students are
knew proceeds from one or more propositions to other propositions seen to be implied in the former. expected to be
knowledge by Strict and proper sense: Inference signifies the operation by which the mind gets knew knowledge by able to draw
drawing out the drawing out the implications of what it already knows. conclusions
implications of TWO KINDS OF INFERENCE based on
what it already 1. Mediate Inference: the conclusion is drawn from two premises because the conclusion is inferred premises and
knows; from one premise through the mediation of another; apply it in
2. To proceed 2. Immediate Inference: when a conclusion is derived only from one premise. their day to
from the day situations;
previously SYLLOGISM and
16
known truth to a It is the external expression of an argument . 2. The
new truth; and TWO KINDS OF SYLLOGISM students
3. To answer 1. Categorical Syllogism – is an inferential thinking that draws the conclusion in an absolute manner. should have
worksheets15 Example: Punishing the guilty restores order in the country; But putting criminals behind bars is a correctly
intending to form of punishing the guilty; Putting criminals behind bars restores order in the country. answered the
stimulate the 2. Hypothetical Syllogism – is an inferential thinking which concludes with certainty, affirming or worksheets
mind and draw denying a statement, from the affirmation or denial of another. given.
conclusions Example: If the students plagiarize, then they should be punished; But, the students plagiarize; They
from given should be punished.
situations and
passages;
March 30- 1. To diligently 7. Fallacies FALLACIES 1. The
April 6, 2020 analyze a sound are statements that might sound reasonable or true but are actually flawed or dishonest. When students are
and valid readers/listeners detect them, these logical fallacies backfire by making the audience think the expected to
reasoning; writer/speaker is (a) unintelligent or (b) deceptive. It is important to avoid them in your own arguments, and make an
2. To think it is also important to be able to spot them in others' arguments so a false line of reasoning won't fool you. analysis of
correctly and Think of this as intellectual kung-fu: the vital art of intellectual self-defense. Love Is a
reason out 7.1 Fallacies of I. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE: Fallacy17 and
scientifically; Relevance These fallacies appeal to evidence or examples irrelevant to the argument at hand. logically
3. To be able to Appeal to Force: (Argumentum ad Baculum, or the “Might-Makes-Right” Fallacy): This relate their

15
A copy of the worksheets are hereto attached as Appendix ‘’A” and ‘’A-1”
16
As used in this topic, argument is a mental product of inferential thinking.
17
A copy of which is hereto attached as Appendix “B”
spot fallacious argument uses force, the threat of force, or some other unpleasant backlash to make the audience accept a individual
statements and conclusion. It commonly appears as a last resort when evidence or rational arguments fail to convince. experiences as
reasoning; Logically, this consideration has nothing to do with the merits of the points under consideration. Example: a growing
4. To prevent ―Superintendent, it would be a good idea for your school to cut the budget by PhP1, 000,000. I need not individual;
oneself from remind you that past school boards have fired superintendents who cannot keep down costs.‖ While 2. The
being a victim intimidation might force the superintendent to conform, it does not convince him that the choice to cut the students are
of trolls, fake budget was the most beneficial for the school or community. Lobbyists use this method when they remind expected to
news, and legislators that they represent so many thousand votes in the legislators‘ constituencies and threaten to write a
misinformation; throw them out of office. reaction paper
and Genetic Fallacy: The genetic fallacy is the claim that, because an idea, product, or person must be and analysis
5. To make wrong because of its origin. "That car can't possibly be any good! It was made in Japan!" Or, "Why should I of the
one‘s mind listen to her argument? She comes from California, and we all know those people are flakes." This type of interview of
vigilant in these fallacy is closely related to the fallacy of argumentum ad hominem, below. Sen. Koko
trying times. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Literally, “Argument to the Man.” Also called “Poisoning the Pimentel with
Well” and "Personal Attack"): Attacking or praising the people who make an argument rather than Jessica Soho
discussing the argument itself. This practice is fallacious because the personal character of an individual is regarding his
logically irrelevant to the truth or falseness of the argument itself. The statement "2+2=4" is true regardless careless and
if is stated by a criminal, congressman, or a pastor. There are two subcategories: condemned
Abusive: To argue that proposals, assertions, or arguments must be false or dangerous action in
because they originate with atheists, Christians, Muslims, Communists, the John Birch Makati
Society, Catholics, anti-Catholics, racists, anti-racists, feminists, misogynists (or any other Medical
group) is fallacious. This persuasion comes from irrational psychological transference rather Center.
than from an appeal to evidence or logic concerning the issue at hand. This is similar to the 3.The students
genetic fallacy. are expected
Circumstantial: To argue that opponents should accept or refute an argument only to spot
because of circumstances in their lives is a fallacy. If one‘s adversary is a clergyman, fallacies and
suggesting that he should accept a particular argument because not to do so would be make an
incompatible with the scriptures is a circumstantial fallacy. To argue that, because the reader analysis of
is a Republican, he must vote for a specific measure is likewise a circumstantial fallacy. The commentaries
opponent‘s special circumstances do not affect the truth or untruth of a specific contention. , news
The speaker or writer must find additional evidence beyond that to make a strong case. articles, social
Argumentum Ad Populum ("Argument to the People"): Using an appeal to popular assent, often media rants
by arousing the feelings and enthusiasm of the multitude rather than building an argument. It is a favorite about
device with the propagandist, the demagogue, and the advertiser. An example of this type of argument is President
Shakespeare‘s version of Mark Antony‘s funeral oration for Julius Caesar. There are three basic Duterte‘s
approaches: Speech dated
1. Bandwagon Approach: ―Eve rybody is doing it.‖ This argumentum ad populum April 4, 2020.
asserts that, since the majority of people believes an argument or chooses a particular course
of action, the argument must be true or the course of action must be the best one. For
 instance, ―85% of consumers purchase Quarko computers rather than Hyperion; all those
people can‘t be wrong. Quarko must make the best computers.‖ Popular acceptance of any
argument does not prove it to be valid, nor does popular use of any product necessarily prove
it is the best one. After all, 85% of people possibly once thought planet earth was flat, but
that majority's belief didn't mean the earth really was flat! Keep this in mind, and remember
that all should avoid this logical fallacy.
2. Patriotic Approach: ―Draping oneself in the flag.‖ This argument asserts that a
certain stance is true or correct because it is somehow patriotic, and that those who disagree
are somehow unpatriotic. It overlaps with pathos and argumentum ad hominem to a certain
extent. The best way to spot it is to look for emotionally charged terms like Americanism,
rugged individualism, motherhood, patriotism, godless communism, etc. A true American
would never use this approach. And a truly free man will exercise his American right to
drink beer, since beer belongs in this great country of ours. This approach is unworthy of a
good citizen.
3. Snob Approach: This type of argumentum ad populum doesn‘t assert ―everybody
is doing it,‖ but rather that ―all the best people are doing it.‖ For instance, ―Any true
intellectual would recognize the necessity for studying logical fallacies.‖ The implication is
that anyone who fails to recognize the truth of the author‘s assertion is not an intellectual,
and thus the reader had best recognize that necessity. In all three of these examples, the
rhetorician does not supply evidence that an argument is true; he merely makes assertions
about people who agree or disagree with the argument.
Appeal to Tradition (Argumentum ad Traditionem): This line of thought asserts that a premise
must be true because people have always believed it or done it. Alternatively, it may conclude that the
premise has always worked in the past and will thus always work in the future: ―Jefferson City has kept its
urban growth boundary at six miles for the past thirty years. That has been good enough for thirty years, so
why should we change it now? If it ain‘t broke, don‘t fix it.‖ Such an argument is appealing in that it seems
to be common sense, but it ignores important questions. Might an alternative policy work even better than
the old one? Are there drawbacks to that longstanding policy? Are circumstances changing from the way
they were thirty years ago?
Appeal to Improper Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundium): An appeal to an improper
authority, such as a famous person or a source that may not be reliable. This fallacy attempts to capitalize
upon feelings of respect or familiarity with a famous individual. It is not fallacious to refer to an admitted
authority if the individual‘s expertise is within a strict field of knowledge. On the other hand, to cite
Einstein to settle an argument about education is fallacious. To cite Darwin, an authority on biology, on
religious matters is fallacious. To cite Cardinal Spellman on legal problems is fallacious. The worst
offenders usually involve movie stars and psychic hotlines. A subcategory is the Appeal to Biased
Authority. In this sort of appeal, the authority is one who truly is knowledgeable on the topic, but
unfortunately one who may have professional or personal motivations that render that judgment suspect:
―To determine whether fraternities are beneficial to this campus, we interviewed all the frat presidents.‖
 Indeed, it is important to get "both viewpoints" on an argument, but basing a substantial part of your
argument on a source that has personal, professional, or financial interests at stake may lead to biased
arguments.
Argumentum Ad Misericordiam: An emotional appeal concerning what should be a logical issue.
While pathos generally works to reinforce a reader‘s sense of duty or outrage at some abuse, if a
writer/speaker tries to use emotion for the sake of getting the reader/listener to accept a logical conclusion,
the approach is fallacious. For example, in the 1880s, Virginian prosecutors presented overwhelming proof
that a boy was guilty of murdering his parents with an ax. The defense presented a "not-guilty" plea for on
the grounds that the boy was now an orphan, with no one to look after his interests if the courts were not
lenient. This appeal to emotion obviously seems misplaced, and it is irrelevant to the question of whether or
not he did the crime.
Argument from Adverse Consequences: Asserting that an argument must be false because the
implications of it being true would create negative results. For instance, ―The medical tests show that
Grandma has advanced cancer. However, that can‘t be true because then she would die! I refuse to believe
it!‖ The argument is illogical because truth and falsity are not contingent based upon how much we like or
dislike the consequences of that truth. Grandma, indeed, might have cancer in spite of how it might affect
her or us.
Argument from Personal Incredulity: Asserting that opponent‘s argument must be false because
you personally don‘t understand it or can‘t follow its technicalities. For instance, one person might assert, ―I
don‘t understand that engineer‘s argument about how airplanes can fly. Therefore, I cannot believe that
airplanes are able to fly.‖ Au contraire that speaker‘s own mental limitations do not limit the physical world
— so airplanes may very well be able to fly in spite of his or her inability to understand how they work.
One person‘s comprehension is not relevant to the truth of a matter.

7.2 Component COMPONENT FALLACIES:

Fallacies Component fallacies are errors in inductive and deductive reasoning or in syllogistic terms that fail to
overlap.
Begging the Question (also called Petitio Principii and “Circular Reasoning”): If the
writers/speakers assume as evidence for their argument the very conclusion they are attempting to prove,
they engage in the fallacy of begging the question. The most common form of this fallacy is when the claim
is initially loaded with the same conclusion one has yet to prove. For instance, suppose a particular student
group states, "Useless courses like English 101 should be dropped from the college's curriculum." The
members of the group then immediately move on, illustrating that spending money on a useless course is
something nobody wants. Yes, we all agree that spending money on useless courses is a bad thing.
However, those students never did prove that English 101 was itself a useless course--they merely "begged
the question" and moved on to the next component of the argument, skipping the most important part.
Begging the question is often hidden in the form of a complex question (see below).
Circular Reasoning is a subtype of begging the question. Often the authors word the two statements
sufficiently differently to obscure the fact that that the same proposition occurs as both a premise and a
conclusion. Richard Whately wrote in Elements of Logic (London 1826): ―To allow every man unbounded
freedom of speech must always be on the whole, advantageous to the state; for it is highly conducive to the
interest of the community that each individual should enjoy a liberty perfectly unlimited of expressing his
sentiments.‖ Obviously the premise is not logically irrelevant to the conclusion, for if the premise is true the
conclusion must also be true. It is, however, logically irrelevant in proving the conclusion. In the example,
the author is repeating the same point in different words, and then attempting to "prove" the first assertion
with the second one. An all too common example is a sequence like this one: "God exists." "How do you
know that God exists?" "The Bible says so." "Why should I believe the Bible?" "Because it's the inspired
word of God." The so-called "final proof" relies on unproven evidence set forth initially as the subject of
debate. Surely God deserves a more intelligible argument than the circular reasoning proposed in this
example!
Hasty Generalization (also called “Jumping to Conclusions,” "Converse Accident," and Dicto
Simpliciter): Mistaken use of inductive reasoning when there are too few samples to prove a point. In
understanding and characterizing general cases, a logician cannot normally examine every single example.
However, the examples used in inductive reasoning should be typical of the problem or situation at hand. If
a logician considers only exceptional or dramatic cases and generalizes a rule that fits these alone, the
author commits the fallacy of hasty generalization. One common type of hasty generalization is the Fallacy
of Accident. This error occurs when one applies a general rule to a particular case when accidental
circumstances render the general rule inapplicable. For example, in Plato‘s Republic, Plato finds an
exception to the general rule that one should return what one has borrowed: ―Suppose that a friend when in
his right mind has deposited arms with me and asks for them when he is not in his right mind. Ought I to
give the weapons back to him? No one would say that I ought or that I should be right in doing so. . . .‖
What is true in general may not be true universally and without qualification. So remember, generalizations
are bad. All of them. Every single last one. Another common example of this fallacy is the misleading
statistic. Suppose an individual argues that women must be incompetent drivers, and he points out that last
Tuesday at the Department of Motor Vehicles, 50% of the women who took the driving test failed. That
would seem to be compelling evidence from the way the statistic is set forth. However, if only two women
took the test that day, the results would be far less clear-cut.
False Cause: This fallacy establishes a cause/effect relationship that does not exist. There are
various Latin names for various analyses of the fallacy. The two most common include these:
Non Causa Pro Causa: a general, catchall category for mistaking a false cause of an
event for the real cause.
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc: Literally, "After this, therefore because of this." This
type of false cause occurs when the writer/speaker mistakenly assumes that, because the first
event preceded the second event, it must mean the first event must have caused the later one.
Sometimes it does, but sometimes it doesn't. It is the honest writer‘s/speaker‘s job to
establish that connection rather than merely assert it. The most common examples are
arguments that viewing a particular movie or show, or listening to a particular type of music
―caused‖ the listener to perform an antisocial act--to snort coke, shoot classmates, or take up
 a life of crime. These may be potential suspects for the cause, but the mere fact that an
individual did these acts and subsequently behaved in a certain way does not yet
conclusively rule out other causes. Perhaps the listener had an abusive home-life or school-
life, suffered from a chemical imbalance leading to depression and paranoia, or made a bad
choice in his companions. Other potential causes must be examined before asserting that one
event or circumstance alone caused an event. Frequently, sloppy thinkers confuse correlation
with causation.
Ignorantio Elenchi (Irrelevant Conclusion): This fallacy occurs when a rhetorician adapts an
argument purporting to establish a particular conclusion and directs it to prove a different conclusion. For
example, when a particular proposal for housing legislation is under consideration, a legislator may argue
that decent housing for all people is desirable. Everyone, presumably, will agree. However, the question at
hand concerns a particular measure. The question really isn't, "is it good to have decent housing?" The
question really is, "will that measure provide decent housing or is there a better alternative?" This type of
fallacy is a common one in student papers when students use a shared assumption--such as the fact that
decent housing is a desirable thing to have--and then spend the bulk of their essays focused on that fact
rather than the real question at issue. It's very similar to begging the question, above.
One of the most common forms of ignorantio elenchi is the “Red Herring.” A red herring is a
deliberate attempt to change the subject or divert the argument from the real question at issue; for instance,
―Senator Jones should not be held accountable for cheating on his income tax. After all, there are other
senators who have done far worse things.‖ Another example: ―I should not pay a fine for reckless driving.
There are many other people on the street who are dangerous criminals and rapists, and the police should be
chasing them, not harassing a decent tax-paying citizen like me.‖ Certainly, worse criminals do exist, but
that it is another issue! The question at hand is, did the speaker drive recklessly, and should he pay a fine for
it?
Another similar example of the red herring is the fallacy known as Tu Quoque (Latin for "And you
too!"), which asserts that the advice or argument must be false simply because the person presenting the
advice doesn't always follow it herself. For instance, "Reverend Jeremias claims that theft is wrong, but
how can theft be wrong if Jeremias himself admits he stole objects when he was a child?" Or "Thomas
Jefferson himself kept slaves, so we should dismiss his arguments in favor of freeing them."
Straw Man: This fallacy is a type of red herring in which a writer/speaker creates an
oversimplified, easy-to-refute argument, places it in the mouth of his opponent, and then tries to "win" the
debate by knocking down that empty or trivial argument. For instance, one speaker might be engaged in a
debate concerning welfare. The opponent argues, "Tennessee should increase funding to unemployed single
mothers during the first year after childbirth because they need sufficient money to provide medical care for
their newborn children." The second speaker retorts, "My opponent believes that some parasites who don't
work should get a free ride from the tax money of hard-working honest citizens. I'll show you why he's
wrong. . ." In this example, the second speaker is engaging in a straw man strategy, distorting the
opposition's statement into an oversimplified form so he can more easily "win." However, the second
speaker is only defeating a dummy-argument rather than honestly engaging in the real nuances of the
debate.
Non Sequitur (literally, "It does not follow"): A non sequitur is any argument that does not
follow from the previous statements. Usually what happened is that the writer /speaker leaped from A to B
and then jumped to D, leaving out step C of an argument she thought through in her head, but did not put
down on paper. The phrase is applicable in general to any type of logical fallacy, but logicians use the term
particularly in reference to syllogistic errors such as the undistributed middle term, non causa pro causa, and
ignorantio elenchi. A common example would be an argument along these lines: "Giving up our nuclear
arsenal in the 1980s weakened the United States' military. Giving up nuclear weaponry also weakened
China in the 1990s. For this reason, it is wrong to try to outlaw pistols and rifles in the United States today."
Obviously a step or two is missing here.
The "Slippery Slope" Fallacy (also called "The Camel's Nose Fallacy") is a non sequitur in
which the speaker argues that, once the first step is undertaken, a second or third step will inevitably follow,
much like the way one step on a slippery incline will cause a person to fall and slide all the way to the
bottom. It is also called "the Camel's Nose Fallacy" because of the image of a sheik who let his camel stick
its nose into its tent on a cold night. The idea is that the sheik is afraid to let the camel stick its nose into the
tent because once the beast sticks in its nose, it will inevitably stick in its head, and then its neck, and
eventually its whole body. However, this sort of thinking does not allow for any possibility of stopping the
process. It simply assumes that, once the nose is in, the rest must follow--that the sheik can't stop the
progression once it has begun--and thus the argument is a logical fallacy. For instance, if one were to argue,
"If we allow the government to infringe upon our right to privacy on the Internet, it will then feel free to
infringe upon our privacy on the telephone. After that, FBI agents will be reading our mail. Then they will
be placing cameras in our houses. We must not let any governmental agency interfere with our Internet
communications, or privacy will completely vanish in the United States." Such thinking is fallacious; no
logical proof has been provided yet that infringement in one area will necessarily lead to infringement in
another, no more than a person buying a single can of CocaCola in a grocery store would indicate the
person will inevitably go on to buy every item available in the store, helpless to stop herself.
Either/Or Fallacy (also called "the black and white fallacy" “excluded middle,” and "false
dilemma” or “false dichotomy"): This fallacy occurs when a writer/speaker builds an argument upon the
assumption that there are only two choices or possible outcomes when actually there are several. Outcomes
are seldom so simple. This fallacy most frequently appears in connection to sweeping generalizations:
―Either we must ban X or the American way of life will collapse.‖ "We go to war with Canada, or else
Canada will eventually grow in population and overwhelm the United States." "Either you drink Burpsy
Cola, or you will have no friends and no social life." You must avoid either/or fallacies, or everyone will
think you are foolish.
Faulty Analogy: Relying only on comparisons to prove a point rather than arguing deductively and
inductively. ―Education is like cake; a small amount tastes sweet, but eat too much and your teeth will rot
out. Likewise, more than two years of education is bad for a student.‖ The analogy is only acceptable to the
degree to which a reader agrees that education is similar to cake. As you can see, faulty analogies are like
flimsy wood, and just as no carpenter would build a house out of flimsy wood, no writer should ever
 construct an argument out of flimsy material.
Undistributed Middle Term: A specific type of error in deductive reasoning in which the minor
premise and the major premise may or may not overlap. Consider these two examples: (1) ―All reptiles are
cold-blooded. All snakes are reptiles. All snakes are cold-blooded.‖ In the first example, the middle term
―snakes‖ fits in the categories of both ―reptile‖ and ―things-that-arecold-blooded.‖ (2) ―All snails are cold-
blooded. All snakes are cold-blooded. All snails are snakes.‖ In the second example, the middle term of
―snakes‖ does not fit into the categories of both ―things-that-are-cold-blooded‖ and ―snails.‖ Sometimes,
equivocation (see below) leads to an undistributed middle term.
Contradictory Premises (also called a "Logical Paradox"): Establishing a premise in such a way
that it contradicts another, earlier premise. For instance, "If God can do anything, he can make a stone so
heavy that he can't lift it." The first premise establishes a deity that has the irresistible capacity to move
other objects. The second premise establishes an immovable object impervious to any movement. If the first
object capable of moving anything exists, by definition, the immovable object cannot exist, and vice-versa.
Closely related is the fallacy of Special Pleading, in which the writer/speaker creates a universal principle,
then insists that principle does not for some reason apply to the issue at hand. For instance, ―Everything
must have a source or creator that caused it to come into existence. Except God.‖ In such an assertion,
either God must have his own source or creator, or else the universal principle must be set aside—the
person making the argument can‘t have it both ways logically.
7.3 Fallacies of FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY:
Ambiguity These errors occur with ambiguous words or phrases, the meanings of which shift and change in the course
of discussion. Such more or less subtle changes can render arguments fallacious.
Equivocation: Using a word in a different way than the author used it in the original premise, or
changing definitions halfway through a discussion. When we use the same word or phrase in different
senses within one line of argument, we commit the fallacy of equivocation. Consider this example: ―Plato
says the end of a thing is its perfection; I say that death is the end of life; hence, death is the perfection of
life.‖ Here the word end means goal in Plato's usage, but it means last event in the author's second usage.
Clearly, the speaker is twisting Plato's meaning of the word to draw a very different conclusion.
Amphiboly (from the Greek word “indeterminate”): This fallacy is a subtype of equivocation.
Here, the ambiguity results from grammatical construction. A statement may be true according to one
interpretation of how each word functions in a sentence and false according to another. When a premise
works with an interpretation that is true, but the conclusion uses the secondary ―false‖ interpretation, we
have the fallacy of amphiboly on our hands. In the command, ―Save soap and waste paper,‖ the
amphibolean use of the word waste results in the problem of determining whether "waste" functions as a
verb (Should I save the soap but waste all the paper?) or as an adjective ("Is that a pile of waste paper I
should save along with the soap?").
Composition: This fallacy is a result of reasoning from the properties of the parts of the whole to
the properties of the whole itself--it is an inductive error. Such an argument might hold that, because every
individual part of a large tractor is lightweight, the entire machine also must be lightweight. This fallacy is
similar to Hasty Generalization (see above), but it focuses on parts of a single whole rather than using too
 few examples to create a categorical generalization. Also compare it with Division (see below).
Division: This fallacy is the reverse of composition. It is the misapplication of deductive reasoning.
One fallacy of division argues falsely that what is true of the whole must be true of individual parts. Such
an argument concludes that because Mr. Smith is an employee of an influential company, he must be an
influential individual. Another fallacy of division attributes the properties of the whole to the individual
member of the whole. "Microtech is an immoral business incorporation that engages in unethical trading
schemes. Susan Jones is a janitor at Microtech. She must be an immoral individual."
Fallacy of Reification (Also called “Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness” by Alfred North
Whitehead): The fallacy of treating a word or an idea as equivalent to the actual thing represented by the
word or idea, or the fallacy of treating an abstraction or process as equivalent to a concrete object or thing.
In the first case, we might imagine a reformer trying to eliminate illicit lust by banning all mention of extra-
marital affairs or certain sexual acts in publications. The problem is that eliminating the words for these
deeds is not the same as eliminating the deeds themselves. In the second case, we might imagine a person or
declaring ―a war on poverty.‖ In this case, the fallacy comes from the fact that ―war‖ implies a concrete
struggle with another nation. ―Poverty,‖ however is an abstraction that cannot surrender or sign peace
treaties, cannot be shot or bombed, etc. Reification of the concept merely confuses the issue of what
policies to follow.
7.4 Fallacies of FALLACIES OF OMISSION:
Omission These errors occur because the logician leaves out material in an argument or focuses exclusively on
missing information.
Stacking the Deck: In this fallacy, the speaker "stacks the deck" in her favor by ignoring examples
that disprove the point, and listing only those examples that support her case. This fallacy is closely related
to hasty generalization, but the term usually implies deliberate deception rather than an accidental logical
error. Contrast it with the straw man argument.
„No True Scotsman‟ Fallacy: Attempting to stack the deck specifically by defining terms in such a
narrow or unrealistic manner as to exclude or omit relevant examples from a sample. For instance, suppose
speaker #1 asserts, ―The Scottish national character is brave and patriotic. No Scottish soldier has ever fled
the field of battle in the face of the enemy.‖ Speaker #2 objects, ―Ah, but what about Lucas MacDurgan?
He fled from German troops in World War I.‖ Speaker #1 retorts, ―Well, obviously he doesn‘t count as a
true Scotsman because he did not live up to Scottish ideals, thus he forfeited his Scottish identity.‖ By this
fallacious reasoning, any individual who would serve as evidence contradicting the first speaker‘s assertion
is conveniently and automatically dismissed from consideration. We commonly see this fallacy when a
company asserts that it cannot be blamed for one of its particularly unsafe or shoddy products because that
particular one doesn‘t live up to its normally high standards, and thus shouldn‘t ―count‖ against its fine
reputation. Likewise, defenders of Christianity as a positive historical influence in their zeal might argue the
atrocities of the eight Crusades do not ―count‖ in an argument because the Crusaders weren‘t living up to
Christian ideals, and thus aren‘t really Christians, etc.
Argument from the Negative: Arguing from the negative asserts that, since one position is
untenable, the opposite stance must be true. This fallacy is often used interchangeably with Argumentum
 Ad Ignorantium (listed below) and the either/or fallacy (listed above). For instance, one might mistakenly
argue that, since the Newtonian theory of mathematics is not one hundred percent accurate, Einstein‘s
theory of relativity must be true. Perhaps not. Perhaps the theories of quantum mechanics are more accurate,
and Einstein‘s theory is flawed. Perhaps they are all wrong. Disproving an opponent‘s argument does not
necessarily mean your own argument must be true automatically, no more than disproving your opponent's
assertion that 2+2=5 would automatically mean another argument that 2+2=7 must be the correct one.
Argument from a Lack of Evidence (Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam): Appealing to a lack of
information to prove a point, or arguing that, since the opposition cannot disprove a claim, the opposite
must be true. An example of such an argument is the assertion that ghosts must exist because no one has
been able to prove that they do not exist.
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact (Argumentum Ad Speculum): Trying to prove something in the
real world by using imaginary examples, or asserting that, if hypothetically X had occurred, Y would have
been the result. For instance, suppose an individual asserts that if Einstein had been aborted in utero, the
world would never have learned about relativity, or that if Monet had been trained as a butcher rather than
going to college, the impressionistic movement would have never influenced modern art. Such hypotheses
are misleading lines of argument because it is often possible that some other individual would have solved
the relativistic equations or introduced an impressionistic art style. The speculation is simply useless when
it comes to actually proving anything about the real world. A common example is the idea that one "owes"
her success to another individual who taught her. For instance, "You owe me part of your increased salary.
If I hadn't taught you how to recognize logical fallacies, you would be flipping hamburgers at McDonald's
right now." Perhaps. But perhaps the audience would have learned about logical fallacies elsewhere, so the
hypothetical situation described is meaningless.
Complex Question (Also called the "Loaded Question"): Phrasing a question or statement in
such a way as to imply another unproven statement is true without evidence or discussion. This fallacy
often overlaps with begging the question (above), since it also presupposes a definite answer to a previous,
unstated question. For instance, if I were to ask you ―Have you stopped taking drugs yet?‖ my supposition
is that you have been taking drugs. Such a question cannot be answered with a simple yes or no answer. It is
not a simple question but consists of several questions rolled into one. In this case the unstated question is,
―Have you taken drugs in the past?‖ followed by, ―If you have taken drugs in the past, have you stopped
taking them now?‖ In cross-examination, a lawyer might ask a flustered witness, ―Where did you hide the
evidence?‖ The intelligent procedure when faced with such a question is to analyze its component parts. If
one answers or discusses the prior, implicit question first, the explicit question may dissolve.
Complex questions appear in written argument frequently. A student might write, ―Why is private
development of resources so much more efficient than any public control?‖ The rhetorical question leads
directly into his next argument. However, an observant reader may disagree, recognizing the prior, implicit
question remains unaddressed. That question is, of course, whether private development of resources really
is more efficient in all cases, a point that the author skips entirely and merely assumes to be true without
discussion.
April 13, 2020 British Parliamentary Debate Format
APPENDIX A 4. Why is Max upset? 9. Which boy does Veronica like?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
Inferences Worksheet 1 -5 How do you know this? What in the text supports your idea?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
Name: ____________________ 5. What was Mom planning on doing today? 10. Why did Bartleby run?
Course: ____________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
Schedule: MTh, 8:55AM-10:25AM What in the text supports your description? What in the text supports your idea?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
WS No. 1
―Tommy!‖ Mom called out as she walked in the front door. WS #2
Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions. ―Tommy,‖ she continued shouting, ―I sure could use some help
Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on with these groceries. There was still no reply. Mom walked into Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions.
textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text. the kitchen to put the grocery bags down on the counter when she Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on
noticed shattered glass from the picture window all over the textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text.
Every day after work Paul took his muddy boots off on the steps living room floor and a baseball not far from there. ―I‘m going to
of the front porch. Alice would have a fit if the boots made it so kill you, Tommy!‖ Mom yelled to herself as she realized that Kyle ran into his house, slamming the door behind him. He
far as the welcome mat. He then took off his dusty overalls and Tommy‘s shoes were gone. threw his book bag on the floor and plopped onto the couch.
threw them into a plastic garbage bag; Alice left a new garbage 6. What happened to the window? After six hours of playing Grand Larceny VII, he ate some pizza
bag tied to the porch railing for him every morning. On his way ____________________________________________________ and fell asleep with a slice on his stomach and his feet on his
in the house, he dropped the garbage bag off at the washing How do you know this? book bag. When Kyle came home from school the next day, he
machine and went straight up the stairs to the shower as he was ____________________________________________________ was noticeably distraught. He balled up his report card and
instructed. He would eat dinner with her after he was 7. Why did Tommy leave? placed it inside a soup can in the garbage. He then flipped the
―presentable,‖ as Alice had often said. ____________________________________________________ soup can upside down in the garbage can and arranged loose
1. What type of job does Paul do? What in the text supports your description? pieces of trash over it. As he plopped down on the couch, he let
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ out a sigh and picked up his controller.
How do you know this? 1. Why is Kyle distraught?
____________________________________________________ Today was a special day in Ms. Smith‘s class. Some of the ____________________________________________________
2. Describe Alice: children were walking around the room, some of them were How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ standing in small groups, and some of them were at their desks, ____________________________________________________
What in the text supports your description? putting finishing touches on cardboard mailboxes. After coloring 2. Why does Kyle put the report card in a soup can?
____________________________________________________ a cool flame on the side of his racecar mailbox, Johnny hopped ____________________________________________________
3. What relationship do Paul and Alice have? off his chair, strutted over to Veronica‘s desk, and dropped a How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ small white envelope into her princess castle mailbox. Veronica 3. Was Kyle‘s report card good or bad and why was it like that?
Why do you feel this way? blushed and played with her hair. While this was happening, ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ Bartleby was frantically trying to put a small white envelope into How do you know this?
everyone‘s mailbox. After giving one to Ms. Smith, Bartleby ____________________________________________________
Crack! Thunder struck and rain poured. Max stared blankly out pulled out a medium-sized red envelope from his pocket. He
the window, trying to contain his emotions that raged like the blushed and tried to put it in Veronica‘s mailbox, but it wouldn‘t Anastasia sat by the fountain in the park with her head in her
weather. He was beginning to lose it. Dropping the kite from his quite fit. Bartleby struggled with it for a few seconds and then palms. She was weeping mournfully and her clothing was
hand, Max broke out into full sobs. His mother comforted him, ran off with the envelope. Veronica rolled her eyes and popped disheveled. In between gasps and sobs, Anastasia cried out a
―There, there, Max. We‘ll just find something else to do.‖ She her gum. name: ―Oh... John…‖ And then her cell phone beeped. Her
began to unpack the picnic basket that was on the counter and 8. Why is today a special day? hand ran into her purse and her heart fluttered. The text message
offered him a sandwich. Max snapped, ―I don‘t wanna sand- ____________________________________________________ was from John. She opened up the message and read the few
mich!‖ A flash from the sky lit up the living room. Boom! What in the text supports your idea? bare words, ―I need to get my jacket back from you.‖ Anastasia
Mom sighed. ____________________________________________________ threw her head into her arms and continued sobbing.
4. What relationship do John and Anastasia have? What in the text supports your idea? How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
Why do you feel this way? 4. Who is Georgie?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
5. Why is Anastasia sad? WS # 3 How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
How do you know this? Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions.
____________________________________________________ Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on As the teacher brought the class back from the washroom, he
textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text. noticed that Alvin and Elijah were nowhere to be seen. He asked
Cassie rolled over in her bed as she felt the sunlight hit her face. the class, "Has anyone seen Alvin or Elijah?" Most of the
The beams were warming the back of her neck when she slowly Ryan was looking forward to sleeping over at his friend Robert's students confirmed that they had not seen them, except for
realized that it was a Thursday, and she felt a little too good for a house. Though they had been classmates for a while, the two had Rodney, who remained silent while tapping his foot on the floor
Thursday. Struggling to open her eyes, she looked up at the only recently become good friends. Ryan packed up his sleeping anxiously. The teacher noticed this. "Rodney, do you happen to
clock. ―9:48,‖ she shouted, ―Holy cow!‖ Cassie jumped out of bag, a pillow, and a few of his favorite toys and games, and then know where your best buddies Alvin and Elijah went?" Rodney
bed, threw on the first outfit that she grabbed, brushed her teeth his mom dropped him off at Robert's. Robert met Ryan on the looked away and said, "Nah, I haven't seen them." The teacher
in two swipes, threw her books into her backpack, and then ran porch and the two did their secret handshake and started playing notified the office of the missing students. An announcement was
out the door. right away. First they played pirates in Robert's tree fort. Next made over the PA system and a few minutes later, Alvin and
6. What problem is Cassie having? they played ninjas in the driveway. Then it started getting dark Elijah returned to class. Both of them were very sweaty and
____________________________________________________ and they went inside of Robert's house. As soon as they walked Elijah was carrying a basketball. "Sorry we took so long. We had
How do you know this? in the house, Ryan's eyes starting getting red and itchy. He saw a to use the bathroom," said Elijah. "Yeah," chimed in Alvin, "it
7. Where is Cassie going? big orange cat sitting on the couch. Then he started sneezing took longer than we thought."
____________________________________________________ uncontrollably. "I'm sorry, Robert. It's been a lot of fun, but I 5. What were Alvin and Elijah doing while they were gone?
How do you know this? have to call my mom." ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ 1. Why do Ryan's eyes get red and itchy when he walks into How do you know this?
Robert's house? ____________________________________________________
Kelvin was waiting in front of the corner store at 3:56. His ____________________________________________________ 6. Why was Rodney acting so strangely?
muscles were tense and he was sweating a bit more than usual. How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
The other kids gathered in front of the little storefront were much ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
more relaxed, even playful. They joked back and forth lightly to 2. Why does Ryan want to call his mother? ____________________________________________________
each other but for Kelvin, time slowed. 3:57. ―Don‘t worry, ____________________________________________________ 7. Will the teacher believe Alvin and Elijah's story?
Kelvin. He ain‘t even gonna show up.‖ Kelvin hoped that he How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
wouldn‘t. A black fourdoor Camry with tinted windows pulled ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
up and parked across the street. Kelvin gulped. 3:58. A group of ____________________________________________________
teenagers piled out of the car. James was in the front. ―Hi-ya, "William, don't forget your towel!" Mom shouted as she applied
Kelvin. Glad you could make it,‖ James said. Kelvin felt sunblock on the baby. William threw the folding chairs in the Tony walked out of the shopping mall with his arms full of bags
smaller. back of the minivan and shouted through the garage door, "OK and the sun shining on him. As he approached his car, he started
8. Why is Kelvin waiting at the corner store? Mom!" He then ran up and grabbed his towel. "Georgie!" awkwardly feeling around his pockets with his arm full of bags.
____________________________________________________ William shouted. There was no response. Mom packed the baby He did not find what he was looking for so he transferred the
How do you know this? up into the car seat. "William, can you help me with his bags on one arm to the other arm, which already had bags. Tony
____________________________________________________ umbrella?" William ran down the stairs, almost tripping over a had a lot of bags on one arm. He still couldn't find what he was
9. Are James and Kelvin friends? chew toy, and then he helped his mother load the large umbrella looking for. Now he dropped the bags and plunged both hands
____________________________________________________ in the minivan. "Mom, I can't find Georgie," William said. His desperately into all of the pockets on his jeans. With a look of
What in the text supports your idea? mother shrugged and replied, "That's OK, William. He probably despair, Tony ran to his car. He tried to open the door, but it was
____________________________________________________ shouldn't come with us anyway." locked. Then he saw something on the passenger seat of the car.
10. Why is Kelvin so nervous? 3. Where are Mom and William going? He stopped looking and pulled his phone out of his pocket.
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
8. Why does Tony get so frantic? have to answer the call." Mr. Ericson rubbed his forehead. "We
____________________________________________________ really need you here, April, but the government needs you more. Justin came running down the stairs wearing his Tatakai Ninjas
How do you know this? Take the time. We'll be alright." Mr. Ericson had thought that pajamas. He did a karate kick off of the last step and shouted
____________________________________________________ they needed her there at the office, but they managed fine without "Kiya!" He slipped on the floor and almost fell as he landed,
9. What does Tony see on the passenger seat? her. When April returned a week later, Mr. Ericson noticed that which didn't stop him from continuing to practice his ninja strikes
____________________________________________________ most of her skin was bright shade of red except for around her on his way to the bathroom. He brushed his teeth with his Tatakai
How do you know this? eyes. Pale white circles ran from the top of her eyebrows to the Ninjas toothbrush and rinsed his mouth out with water from a
____________________________________________________ bottom of her cheeks. These pale circles were surrounded by Tatakai Ninjas cup. "Moooooom, Daaaaad! It's time to open my
10. Why is Tony getting on the phone? sunburned flesh. That's when Mr. Ericson knew. "April, step into present!" After his parents came downstairs and poured
___________________________________________________ my office. There are some things we need to discuss," Mr. themselves coffee, Justin began to open his present. His fingers
How do you know this? Ericson said ominously. were tense with excitement. Then they were still. It was six pairs
____________________________________________________ 3. Where was April? of plain white socks. Justin checked in the box for something
____________________________________________________ else. There was nothing. He looked at his parents and said, "Oh,
WS #4 How do you know this? socks. Just what I needed. Thank you so much," and then he
____________________________________________________ sighed.
Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions. 4. What does Mr. Ericson want to talk about with April? 9. Is Justin happy with the socks?
Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text. Mr. How do you know this? How do you know this?
Thomas sat on the front porch of his house in a bathrobe and ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
bunny slippers with his head in his hands. He was holding the 5. Why does April have white circles around her eyes? 10. What present would have made Justin happier?
daily newspaper. The sun shined brightly in the sky. His ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
neighbors were coming out of their houses and getting in their How do you know this? How do you know this?
cars. Mr. Thomas sighed. His neighbor Mr. Rosencrantz stepped ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
out on his porch and saw Mr. Thomas. "Did it again, huh?" said
Mr. Rosencrantz. Mr. Thomas replied, "Yep." Mr. Rosencrantz Gloria was driving around the neighborhood in her pajamas. WS # 5
chuckled and said, "Here, Mr. Thomas, you can use my cell Every block or so she'd stop the car, hold her head out of the
phone. I could even keep a key over here if you wanted." Tom door, whistle, and call out "Candy! Candy! Come here girl!" Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions.
thankfully grabbed the cell phone and called his wife. "Honey, I Then she'd start the car again and slowly drive another block or Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on
did it again." Mr. Rosencrantz heard Mrs. Thomas yelling at Mr. two, looking around from left to right. Curtis sat in the passenger textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text.
Thomas in a distorted high-pitched squeal. "Yes, dear. I'm so seat. He was looking around too, but he held his head low. "How
sorry. I'll see you soon," Mr. Thomas returned the phone, sighed many times have I told you to make sure that you shut and lock Jenna was shocked when she opened the door to her apartment.
deeply, and ran his fingers through his hair. the door after you come in?" Gloria reprimanded Curtis. Curtis There were long rips in the couch, as though someone had run
1. What is the thing that Mr. Thomas "did again"? sighed. He felt bad enough without her finger-wagging. knives down the front of it. A lamp was shattered on the floor.
____________________________________________________ Some picture frames were hanging crookedly, some of them had
How do you know this? 6. Who is Candy and what are Gloria and Curtis doing? fallen off the wall and the door to her cat's travel cage was open.
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ Not only that, but the door to the birdcage was swinging back and
2. Why will Mr. Thomas see Mrs. Thomas soon? How do you know this? forth and there were feathers on the floor. She could have sworn
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ that she had locked her cat in the travel cage before she left for
How do you know this? 7. How did Candy get out? work. At first Jenna thought it might have been burglars. Oh no,
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ she thought. Someone broke into my apartment, trashed the
How do you know this? place, and stole my cat! Then she heard the cat meowing in her
Mr. Ericson was a manager at a small insurance company in ____________________________________________________ bedroom. She ran to the bedroom and saw the cat patting one of
Minnesota. One cold winter day, April McKenzie, one of his 8. Why does Curtis feel bad? Jenna's favorite shoes with its claws. "That's it!" Jenna yelled.
employees, approached him about some time off from work. ____________________________________________________ "I'm done with this." She threw the cat back into its travel cage
"This job is very important to me, Mr. Ericson, but I've been How do you know this? and tried to shut the door, but the lock wouldn't catch. Jenna
called into jury duty. When my government asks for my help, I ____________________________________________________ huffed and then grabbed some duct tape.
1. What happened to Jenna's apartment? jet to Colorado." Gus's eyes widened and his heart began ____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ thumping rapidly. "Wow, Mr. Matthews! I don't know what to How do you know this?
How do you know this? say," Gus replied honestly. Mr. Matthews continued, "Then we ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ will be climbing up a mountain to a private cabin." Gus loosened
2. Why is there an empty birdcage in Jenna's apartment? his tie a bit a gulped. He was hoping that it would be over but Mr.
____________________________________________________ Matthews continued, "After completing some team building
How do you know this? activities, we will take a hot air balloon ride over the mountains!"
____________________________________________________ Gus's heart was now pounding so hard that he was worried that
3. What is Jenna going to do with the cat? Mr. Matthews might see it thumping through his shirt. He was
____________________________________________________ sweating excessively. Mr. Matthews slapped him on the shoulder,
How do you know this? "So what do you say Gus?" Gus did not know what to say.
____________________________________________________ 6. Why does the view from Mr. Matthews' office make Gus
uncomfortable?
"I'm home!" Earl shouted as he walked in the door. His wife Gail ____________________________________________________
came bounding down the stairs. She hadn't seen him since he had How do you know this?
left to go on his silly fishing trip two weeks ago. "I missed you, ____________________________________________________
Husband. Did you catch anything?" Gail reluctantly asked, 7. How does Gus really feel about his boss's invitation?
knowing that Earl was not a very good fisherman. Earl scratched ____________________________________________________
his head and responded, "You're not going to believe what I'm Why does he feel this way?
bringing home." Earl unzipped a cooler and pulled out several ____________________________________________________
perfectly filleted salmon steaks. "Wow, Earl, I didn't know that How do you know this?
you could fillet a fish like that." Earl looked around the room a ____________________________________________________
little bit and scratched his head, "Uh, yeah, Jeff taught me how." 8. Why is Gus reluctant to tell Mr. Matthews how he truly feels?
Gail looked at him suspiciously. "Well, let me help you unpack." ____________________________________________________
As Gail was helping Earl unpack his truck, she found a receipt How do you know this?
from the grocery store. It was dated from that morning. What she ____________________________________________________
saw was both disappointing and unsurprising.
4. What did Gail find on the receipt? Mike got out of the driver seat of the classic car. He looked at the
____________________________________________________ mailbox and then at the bumper. The mailbox was smashed and
How do you know this? bent. The shiny chrome bumper had a dent about the size of a
____________________________________________________ football around the passenger side. Mike shook his head and got
5. Why was Gail disappointed and unsurprised with what she back in the driver seat. He knew what he had to do. He didn't
saw? want to do it, but he had to. He drove back home and sat in the
____________________________________________________ driveway for a few minutes, holding his head in his hands. Mike's
How do you know this? dad came out of the house carrying a black garbage bag. He
____________________________________________________ smiled and waved at Mike as he passed the driver side of the car.
Then he looked again as he walked past the passenger side of the
"Gus, I need to see you in my office," said Mr. Matthews. Gus vehicle. His mouth dropped open and he let go of the garbage
nervously shut the door to Mr. Matthews' office behind him and bag.
took a seat. Mr. Matthews' office was so high up that Gus had to 9. In the text it says, "[Mike] knew what he had to do." What did
angle his chair awkwardly so that he couldn't see out of the Mike have to do?
window. Mr. Matthews pointed his finger at Gus and began ____________________________________________________
talking, "You have been fitting in great over here, and that's one How do you know this?
of the most important things you can do in this company." Gus let ____________________________________________________
out a sigh of relief. Mr. Matthews continued speaking. "Gus, I 10. What is Mike going to tell his father and how will his father
want to invite you on a company trip. We will be taking a private react?
APPENDIX A-1 5. How did Otto's mom know what he was doing? This upset Michael greatly. Then one day Amanda told him that
____________________________________________________ she and Michael needed to have a talk after school. Michael did
Inferences Worksheet 6 - 10 How do you know this? not like the sound of that.
Name: ____________________ ____________________________________________________ 9. What does Amanda want to talk about with Michael?
Course: ____________________ Shawn sat in his seat as the morning bell rang and released a big ____________________________________________________
Schedule: MTh, 10:30AM-12:00NN yawn. He rubbed his eyes and could feel how baggy they were. How do you know this?
He stretched as the teacher went to the front of the class and ____________________________________________________
WS # 6 began talking, "Good morning, students! I'll take attendance 10. Why does Amanda want to have this talk?
Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions. while you start working on that test that I promised you." The ____________________________________________________
Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on class let out a collective groan, but Shawn's eyes widened. He How do you know this?
textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text. began rummaging through his backpack and pulled out a ____________________________________________________
crumpled notebook with part of the cover torn off it. He
Miya came out of the bathroom with tears in her eyes. She ran frantically rifled through the pages, many of which were filled WS # 7
down to the cafeteria and asked the staff if they had any rice. with just a few words or doodles. The teacher looked directly at Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions.
Fortunately for Miya, Ms. Lucille did. Ms. Lucille filled a red Shawn as he said, "OK, class, put your notes away and clear off Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on
plastic cup about half way with white rice grains and handed it to your desks. It's test time." Shawn began looking around the room textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text.
Miya. Miya pulled a damp phone from out of her back pocket frantically. He saw Cassie sitting next to him. Shawn whispered,
and pushed it into the dry rice grains inside of the plastic cup. She "Psst... Cassie." She turned to him with a scowl. His eyes pleaded Screech! Karen stomped on the gas pedal the moment the light
sincerely thanked Ms. Lucille and then went back to class. She with hers. "Not gonna happen, Shawn," Cassie said loudly. This turned green. She looked over her left shoulder and zigged past a
felt relieved, but she was still a little worried. startled Shawn and he jumped in his seat. The teacher looked at semi-truck. She zoomed ahead and looked over her right shoulder
1. Why is Miya upset at the beginning of the passage? Shawn again, "No more talking class." and then zagged past a motorbike. She glanced at the clock on the
____________________________________________________ 6. Was Shawn up late last night studying for the test? console and darted into the parking lot. Whipping into a parking
How do you know this? ____________________________________________________ spot, she grabbed her suitcase and ran through the lot, up the
2. Why does Miya put her phone in the cup of rice? How do you know this? escalator, and into the terminal. Her heavy suitcase was bumping
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ and bouncing the whole way. Just as she entered the terminal, she
How do you know this? 7. Why does Shawn suddenly liven up when the teacher heard an announcement over the loudspeaker, "Final boarding
3. Why is Miya relieved but still worried at the end of the text? announces the test? call for flight 205 to JFK..." Karen looked at her ticket and then
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ at the line to get through the security checkpoint, which wrapped
How do you know this? How do you know this? around several turnstiles and slithered like a lethargic snake.
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ Karen sighed and then slowly walked to the customer service
8. What did Shawn want from Cassie? desk.
Otto stuffed another candy bar in his mouth. He lay sprawled on ___________________________________________________ 1. Why is Karen in a hurry?
the floor with his back against his bed. Candy wrappers How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
surrounded him. His shirt was caught in the folds of his belly and ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
he had melted chocolate all over his face and hands. "Ugh…" he ____________________________________________________
groaned weakly as he struggled to finish chewing. Suddenly, the Michael was the star quarterback of the football team and he was 2. Why does she start walking slowly at the end of the passage?
front door opened. "Otto, I'm home!" It was his mom. Otto rolled dating Amanda Barnes, the captain of the cheerleading squad. ____________________________________________________
almost gracefully from his sprawled position and began kicking Everything was going perfectly for them until Michael was How do you know this?
the candy wrappers under his bed. As she walked slowly up the seriously injured during one of the last games of the season. The ____________________________________________________
stairs to his room, he managed to get all of the wrappers under doctors told him that he would probably never play football again 3. What is Karen going to do at the customer service desk?
the bed and then he threw a blanket over them. She opened the and that he would have to wear a large cast on his leg for several ____________________________________________________
door, took one look at his face, and knew. months. Amanda stayed really close with Michael immediately How do you know this?
4. Why does Otto act guiltily when his mom comes home? after the injury, but then she started to change. She would not ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ visit him often. She would not wait by his locker or help him
How do you know this? carry his books to class anymore. Also, he noticed that she was Brenda reached for the box of tissue. She blew her nose with a
____________________________________________________ talking more and more with Ken Madsen, the new quarterback. thunderous force and then tried breathing through it again. It was
still clogged. She stood up and got a head rush that almost heard a distant crack of thunder and noticed a storm cloud rolling odorous juice poured out, splashing Warren's leg. "Ew... gross!"
knocked her back down to the bed, but she regained her balance. in from the west. Troy kicked the water bucket over and said, Warren shouted as he adjusted the bag. He walked out to the
As she tottered over to the phone on her dresser, all of her "Doggone it!" alley and deposited the bag in a large plastic container, closing
muscles ached. She located the contact labeled "Work" and 9. What is Troy doing? the lid behind him as he left, still muttering about his pants.
pressed send. A couple of rings later, a familiar voice answered ____________________________________________________ 4. What is Warren doing?
the phone, "Happy Fun Land, this is Deidra speaking. How can I How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
help you have a happy fun day?" Brenda moaned, "Oh, Deidra, ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
it's Brenda." Deidra responded with pep, "Hey, Brenda! I can't 10. Why does Troy get mad at the end of the passage? ____________________________________________________
wait to see you this afternoon." Brenda grunted and replied, ____________________________________________________ 5. Why does Warren get so angry when the bag spills on his leg?
"Yeah, well, actually, I need to talk to the manager." How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
4. Why is Brenda moving so slowly? ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ WS # 8
How do you know this? Pablo slowly got off the ground and wiped the dust from his
____________________________________________________ Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions. pants. There were several tears in both legs. He could see blood
5. What is Brenda going to talk about with the manager? Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on through the holes. He picked the gravel from his wounds, wiped
____________________________________________________ textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text. off the dust and looked at the motorbike. The bike was on its
How do you know this? side, the front wheel was turned around, and the wheel was
____________________________________________________ Mr. Johnson looked up at the sky. It was clear as far as the eye spinning. Pablo's elbow and shoulder hurt as he struggled to pull
could see, except for the cruel sun. The insatiable sun drained the the heavy bike upright once again. He got back on his seat and
"Shh…" Dale whispered to his friend Jim. Jim stopped talking land of all moisture. He cursed the sun. Mr. Johnson ran his headed once more for home. When he got there, he quickly
mid-sentence and looked at Dale. Dale was dressed in a fingers through one of the rows of dirt and grabbed a handful. It grabbed the hose and sprayed the motorbike. He wiped it down
fluorescent orange sweater with the hood up and a camouflage was bone dry, almost powdery. He let the dirt sift through his with a rag from his father's garage and then parked it against the
vest over the sweater. He saw Dale point his rifle at the horizon fingers and it turned to dust in the wind. Mr. Johnson put his wall. He walked into his house where his mother was shocked to
and squint, and then Jim looked where the barrel was aimed. A hands on his hips and surveyed the field. It was well seeded, that see him. "Oh my! By heavens, what happened to you, Pablo?"
large 10-point buck trotted about thirty meters from the bushes he knew. He had seeded it himself, yet nothing sprang from the Pablo did not even hesitate, "I got attacked by a dog after school
behind which Jim and Dale were positioned. dirt. "Well, there's only one thing left to do," he said to himself. by Jalen's house. It was one of his neighbor's dogs."
6. What are Jim and Dale doing in the bushes? Mr. Johnson headed to church.
____________________________________________________ 6. How did Pablo injure himself?
How do you know this? 1. What does Mr. Johnson do for a living? ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
7. Why does Dale shush Jim? How do you know this? 7. Why does Pablo wash his bike off when he gets home?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
How do you know this? 2. Why is Mr. Johnson cursing the sun? How do you know this?
___________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
8. What event is most likely to occur next? How do you know this? 8. Why does Pablo tell his mother the story about the dog?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
How do you know this? 3. Why does Mr. Johnson go to church at the end of the passage? How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
How do you know this?
Troy moved the cloth in a circular direction on his car's fender. ____________________________________________________ Virgil slammed his fist against the locker. The hallway had been
Troy loved this car. It wasn't a racecar, but he took really good packed one minute ago, but now most of the students had filed
care of it. Next he wiped down the trunk with the chamois and Warren pushed the back door open with his elbow. He was into their classes. The bell would ring shortly. Virgil looked
then the bumper. He put the chamois down and took a step back, dragging a heavy black plastic sack behind him. Thud, thud, thud. around urgently but saw no friendly faces. He faced the locker
putting his hands on his hips and admiring his work. The chrome The bag thumped each stair Warren descended. Thud, thud, rip, again and started spinning the lock, first right, then left, then
bumper shined dazzlingly. Suddenly, Troy felt a cool breeze. He drip, drip. The bag had gotten caught on a nail and a foul, right. He took a deep breath and pulled the lock. It held tight.
Virgil cursed under his breath at the exact moment that the bell a counter stool, careful not to damage the flowers that he was gazed into the mirror, and then scowled and threw her fists down
rang. Virgil grabbed the handle of the locker and yanked it carrying. "Where are you, honey?" Valentino asked. "I'm in disappointment. She heard her mother's voice through the
repeatedly in a fit of frustration. Then he threw his arms against upstairs, dearest!" Dulce shouted as she finished wrapping the tie. door, "Amber, Scott's here. Are you almost ready?" Amber
the locker and burrowed his head into his arms. Finally, he Valentino held the flowers behind his back and crept up the groaned, "OK, just tell him I'll be down in two minutes!" She slid
pushed himself off of the locker and went to look for a custodian. stairs. Dulce tied the bow and concealed the package behind her the silver dress back off and threw it onto the ever-growing
9. Why is Virgil upset? back as she stepped into the hallway. Their eyes met and multicolored pile of clothes.
____________________________________________________ Valentino and Dulce smiled at one another. 10. What problem is Amber having?
How do you know this? 4. What is Valentino's relationship to Dulce? ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
10. Why did Virgil go to look for a custodian at the end of the How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
passage? ____________________________________________________ 11. Will Amber be ready to meet Scott in two minutes? Why or
____________________________________________________ 5. What event is likely to occur next? why not?
How do you know this? ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ How do you know this? How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
WS # 9 6. Why is today significant for Valentino and Dulce?
Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the questions. ____________________________________________________ WS #10 Directions: Read each passage and then respond to the
Each question will ask you to make a logical inference based on How do you know this? questions. Each question will ask you to make a logical inference
textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the text. ____________________________________________________ based on textual details. Explain your answer by referencing the
text.
Emilio took the cap off his head, dropped the baseball bat, and "Nico!" Erin shouted at the top of her lungs as she bounded
rested his elbows on the fence. It wasn't that he couldn't find the through the meadow, "Come back, Nico!" She was nearly out of Gina looked in the mirror at the bright red pustule on her nose.
ball. It was sitting right in the middle of the lawn, just beyond the breath but she kept running through the tall grass. "Nico, come She poked at it carefully, afraid that it might burst on her dress. It
fence. The fence was not very high either. Emilio could probably on, boy! It's time to go home!" Erin continued shouting, her voice was large and painful. The more she prodded it, the larger it got.
get a running start, grab the top of the fence, and flip right over it. hoarse from shouting similar expressions all day. Then she This is not how it was supposed to go! Gina thought to herself.
But there was a dog, a large Rottweiler with a spiked collar. He stumbled over the leash that she was carrying, "Whoa… Come on Then she began crying. Her mother yelled up the stairs, "Gina!
sat under an awning a few feet away from the ball. He looked at Nico!" Erin shouted, regaining her balance. Eric is here!" This news made Gina even more distraught. Now
Emilio and let out a menacing growl. Archie, Scotty, and Dutch 7. Who is Nico? her makeup was running and just as she feared, some of it got on
ran up to Emilio and surveyed the situation. Archie was the first ____________________________________________________ her dress. "Why me? Why today?" Gina lamented to herself
to speak, "So, are you going to do it, Emilio?" How do you know this? between sobs and gasps.
1. What were the boys doing right before the text begins? ____________________________________________________ 1. Why is Gina upset at the beginning of the passage?
____________________________________________________ 8. Where did Nico go? ____________________________________________________
How do you know this? ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
2. What problem is Emilio facing? ____________________________________________________ 2. Who is Eric?
____________________________________________________ 9. Why has Erin been "shouting similar expressions all day"? ____________________________________________________
How do you know this? ____________________________________________________ How do you know this?
____________________________________________________ How do you know this? ____________________________________________________
3. Why is this problem Emilio's instead of Archie's, Scotty's, or ____________________________________________________
Dutch's? Iggy squinted as he tried to see through the holes in the ski mask.
____________________________________________________ "Argh!" Amber exclaimed as she pulled off her sweater and He could make out the large bag on the counter. The frightened
How do you know this? threw it into a multicolored pile of clothes. She walked into her woman who put it there now had both hands raised. As he took
____________________________________________________ closet and swept her hand recklessly through the rows of hanging the bag off of the counter, Iggy tipped an imaginary hat to the
garments, her face reflecting her dissatisfaction. She huffed and woman. The jest did not brighten her demeanor. Iggy exited the
"Honey, I'm home!" Valentino shouted as he crossed the grabbed a silver dress. She held it up to the mirror against her first set of doors but stopped in the vestibule. Soon the windows
threshold. He walked into the kitchen and put his coat and bag on body for a moment, sighed, and then stepped into the dress. She
of the building pulsated with blue and red lights. Iggy hurriedly scowled at her and made another check on his clipboard. He said
walked back into the building. dryly, "Turn right here." Sweat beads gathered on Pam's brow.
3. What is Iggy doing in this building? She timidly exited the parking lot. Now she was on a
___________________________________________________ thoroughfare and was travelling 15 MPH below the speed limit.
How do you know this? Traffic accumulated behind her. The man made a few more
____________________________________________________ checks on his clipboard and wrote a comment. "Turn left at this
4. Why does Iggy tip "an imaginary hat to the woman"? stop sign," he said. Pam slowly turned left, but she did not stop.
____________________________________________________ Several cars honked, and then she ran over a curb and bumped
How do you know this? into a newspaper vending machine. The man hurriedly made
5. Why does Iggy return inside of the building after having left? several more checks on his clipboard and said, "OK, we're done
_____________________________ here. Please get in the passenger seat. I will drive back to the
How do you know this? facility."
____________________________________________________ 8. What is Pam doing?
____________________________________________________
Missy looked at her brother Kirk with burning eyes. Her hatred How do you know this?
seared through him. Sensing this, Kirk turned toward her and ____________________________________________________
they met eyes. Kirk knew Missy well, but he had never seen this 9. Who is the man with Pam?
particular expression on her face before and it startled him. He ____________________________________________________
said, "Look, there's no use wasting a bunch of energy fighting. How do you know this?
Let's look for it. Where does it go anyway?" Missy fumed at his ____________________________________________________
nonchalance. She replied, "Look at the puzzle, Kirk. You can't 10. What information is the man putting on his clipboard?
miss it." Kurt looked at the jigsaw representation of the Statue of ____________________________________________________
Liberty that lay on the table. It was composed of 2,500 tiny How do you know this?
pieces, well, only 2,499 really. The red and yellow piece that ____________________________________________________
went in the center of the torch flame was mysteriously absent.
Missy sneered at him and said in a vitriolic tone, "I told you not
to move the puzzle pieces, but you insisted. You said that you
had to have a better seat. Well, I hope you're happy, Kirk." Kirk
ran his index finger along the inside of his shirt collar. "Gee,
Missy… I'm sorry," he murmured.

6. Why is Missy in such a bad mood?

___________________________________________________
How do you know this?
____________________________________________________
7. Why is Missy specifically mad at Kirk?
________________________________________________
How do you know this?
____________________________________________________

Pam clutched the steering wheel awkwardly. The man in the

passenger seat looked at her from behind wireframe glasses and
then looked back at his clipboard and made some checks. Pam
attempted to pull out from the parking spot slowly, but her foot
slipped and she pressed on the gas too hard. The car jerked back
suddenly and she almost crashed into a parked van. The man
APPENDIX B hands on a raccoon coat. My father had had one in his ―Listen,‖ he said, clutching my arm eagerly, ―while you‘re home,
undergraduate days; it lay now in a trunk in the attic back home. you couldn‘t get some money from your old man, could you, and
Max Shulman: Love is a Fallacy It also happened that Petey had something I wanted. He didn‘t lend it to me so I can buy a raccoon coat?‖ ―I may do better than
have it exactly, but at least he had first rights on it. I refer to his that,‖ I said with a mysterious wink and closed my bag and left.
Cool was I and logical. Keen, calculating, perspicacious, acute
girl, Polly Espy. I had long coveted Polly Espy. Let me ―Look,‖ I said to Petey when I got back Monday morning. I
and astute—I was all of these. My brain was as powerful as a
emphasize that my desire for this young woman was not threw open the suitcase and revealed the huge, hairy, gamy object
dynamo, precise as a chemist‘s scales, as penetrating as a scalpel.
emotional in nature. She was, to be sure, a girl who excited the that my father had worn in his Stutz Bearcat in 1925. ―Holy
And—think of it!—I only eighteen. It is not often that one so
emotions, but I was not Toledo!‖ said Petey reverently. He plunged his hands into the
young has such a giant intellect. Take, for example, Petey
raccoon coat and then his face. ―Holy Toledo!‖ he repeated
Bellows, my roommate at the university. Same age, same one to let my heart rule my head. I wanted Polly for a shrewdly fifteen or twenty times. ―Would you like it?‖ I asked. ―Oh yes!‖
background, but dumb as an ox. A nice enough fellow, you calculated, entirely cerebral reason. I was a freshman in law he cried, clutching the greasy pelt to him. Then a canny look
understand, but nothing upstairs. Emotional type. Unstable. school. In a few years I would be out in practice. I was well came into his eyes. ―What do you want for it?‖ ―Your girl.‖ I
Impressionable. Worst of all, a faddist. Fads, I submit, are the aware of the importance of the right kind of wife in furthering a said, mincing no words.
very negation of reason. To be swept up in every new craze that lawyer‘s career. The successful lawyers I had observed were,
comes along, to surrender oneself to idiocy just because almost without exception, married to beautiful, gracious, ―Polly?‖ he said in a horrified whisper. ―You want Polly?‖
everybody else is doing it—this, to me, is the acme of intelligent women. With one omission, Polly fitted these ―That‘s right.‖ He flung the coat from him. ―Never,‖ he said
mindlessness. Not, however, to Petey. One afternoon I found specifications perfectly. Beautiful she was. She was not yet of stoutly. I shrugged. ―Okay. If you don‘t want to be in the swim, I
Petey lying on his bed with an expression of such distress on his pin-up proportions, but I felt that time would supply the lack. She guess it‘s your business.‖ I sat down in a chair and pretended to
face that I immediately diagnosed appendicitis. ―Don‘t move,‖ I already had the makings. Gracious she was. By gracious I mean read a book, but out of the corner of my eye I kept watching
said, ―Don‘t take a laxative. I‘ll get a doctor.‖ ―Raccoon,‖ he full of graces. She had an erectness of carriage, an ease of Petey. He was a torn man. First he looked at the coat with the
mumbled thickly. ―Raccoon?‖ I said, pausing in my flight. ―I bearing, a poise that clearly indicated the best of breeding. At expression of a waif at a bakery window. Then he turned away
want a raccoon coat,‖ he wailed. I perceived that his trouble was table her manners were exquisite. I had seen her at the Kozy and set his jaw resolutely. Then he looked back at the coat, with
not physical, but mental. ―Why do you want a raccoon coat?‖ ―I Kampus Korner eating the specialty of the house—a sandwich even more longing in his face. Then he turned away, but with not
should have known it,‖ he cried, pounding his temples. ―I should that contained scraps of pot roast, gravy, chopped nuts, and a so much resolution this time. Back and forth his head swiveled,
have known they‘d come back when the Charleston came back. dipper of sauerkraut— without even getting her fingers moist. desire waxing, resolution waning. Finally he didn‘t turn away at
Like a fool I spent all my money for textbooks, and now I can‘t Intelligent she was not. In fact, she veered in the opposite all; he just stood and stared with mad lust at the coat. ―It isn‘t as
get a raccoon coat.‖ ―Can you mean,‖ I said incredulously, ―that direction. But I believed that under my guidance she would though I was in love with Polly,‖ he said thickly. ―Or going
people are actually wearing raccoon coats again?‖ ―All the Big smarten up. At any rate, it was worth a try. It is, after all, easier to steady or anything like that.‖ ―That‘s right,‖ I murmured.
Men on Campus are wearing them. Where‘ve you been?‖ ―In the make a beautiful dumb girl smart than to make an ugly smart girl ―What‘s Polly to me, or me to Polly?‖ ―Not a thing,‖ said I. ―It‘s
library,‖ I said, naming a place not frequented by Big Men on beautiful. ―Petey,‖ I said, ―are you in love with Polly Espy?‖ ―I just been a casual kick—just a few laughs, that‘s all.‖ ―Try on the
Campus. He leaped from the bed and paced the room. ―I‘ve got to think she‘s a keen kid,‖ he replied, ―but I don‘t know if you‘d coat,‖ said I. He complied. The coat bunched high over his ears
have a raccoon coat,‖ he said passionately. ―I‘ve got to!‖ ―Petey, call it love. Why?‖ ―Do you,‖ I asked, ―have any kind of formal and dropped all the way down to his shoe tops. He looked like a
why? Look at it rationally. Raccoon coats are unsanitary. They arrangement with her? I mean are you going steady or anything mound of dead raccoons. ―Fits fine,‖ he said happily. I rose from
shed. They smell bad. They weigh too much. They‘re unsightly. like that?‖ ―No. We see each other quite a bit, but we both have my chair. ―Is it a deal?‖ I asked, extending my hand. He
They—‖ ―You don‘t understand,‖ he interrupted impatiently. other dates. Why?‖ ―Is there,‖ I asked, ―any other man for whom swallowed. ―It‘s a deal,‖ he said and shook my hand. I had my
―It‘s the thing to do. Don‘t you want to be in the swim?‖ ―No,‖ I she has a particular fondness?‖ ―Not that I know of. Why?‖ I first date with Polly the following evening. This was in the nature
said truthfully. ―Well, I do,‖ he declared. ―I‘d give anything for a nodded with satisfaction. ―In other words, if you were out of the of a survey; I wanted to find out just how much work I had to do
raccoon coat. Anything!‖ My brain, that precision instrument, picture, the field would be open. Is that right?‖ ―I guess so. What to get her mind up to the standard I required. I took her first to
slipped into high gear. ―Anything?‖ I asked, looking at him are you getting at?‖ ―Nothing , nothing,‖ I said innocently, and dinner. ―Gee, that was a delish dinner,‖ she said as we left the
narrowly. ―Anything,‖ he affirmed in ringing tones. I stroked my took my suitcase out the closet. ―Where are you going?‖ asked restaurant. Then I took her to a movie. ―Gee, that was a marvy
chin thoughtfully. It so happened that I knew where to get my Petey. ―Home for weekend.‖ I threw a few things into the bag. movie,‖ she said as we left the theatre. And then I took her home.
―Gee, I had a sensaysh time,‖ she said as she bade me good night. Generalization. Listen carefully: You can‘t speak French. Petey and telling him that he could have his girl back. It seemed clear
I went back to my room with a heavy heart. I had gravely Bellows can‘t speak French. I must therefore conclude that that my project was doomed to failure. The girl simply had a
underestimated the size of my task. This girl‘s lack of nobody at the University of Minnesota can speak French.‖ logic-proof head. But then I reconsidered. I had wasted one
information was terrifying. Nor would it be enough merely to ―Really?‖ said Polly, amazed. ―Nobody?‖ I hid my exasperation. evening; I might as well waste another. Who knew? Maybe
supply her with information. First she had to be taught to think. ―Polly, it‘s a fallacy. The generalization is reached too hastily. somewhere in the extinct crater of her mind a few members still
This loomed as a project of no small dimensions, and at first I There are too few instances to support such a conclusion.‖ smoldered. Maybe somehow I could fan them into flame.
was tempted to give her back to Petey. But then I got to thinking ―Know any more fallacies?‖ she asked breathlessly. ―This is Admittedly it was not a prospect fraught with hope, but I decided
about her abundant physical charms and about the way she more fun than dancing even.‖ I fought off a wave of despair. I to give it one more try. Seated under the oak the next evening I
entered a room and the way she handled a knife and fork, and I was getting nowhere with this girl, absolutely nowhere. Still, I said, ―Our first fallacy tonight is called Ad Misericordiam.‖ She
decided to make an effort. I went about it, as in all things, am nothing if not persistent. I continued. ―Next comes Post Hoc. quivered with delight. ―Listen closely,‖ I said. ―A man applies for
systematically. I gave her a course in logic. It happened that I, as Listen to this: Let‘s not take Bill on our picnic. Every time we a job. When the boss asks him what his qualifications are, he
a law student, was taking a course in logic myself, so I had all the take him out with us, it rains.‖ ―I know somebody just like that,‖ replies that he has a wife and six children at home, the wife is a
facts at my fingertips. ―Poll‘,‖ I said to her when I picked her up she exclaimed. ―A girl back home—Eula Becker, her name is. It helpless cripple, the children have nothing to eat, no clothes to
on our next date, ―tonight we are going over to the Knoll and never fails. Every single time we take her on a picnic—‖ ―Polly,‖ wear, no shoes on their feet, there are no beds in the house, no
talk.‖ ―Oo, terrif,‖ she replied. One thing I will say for this girl: I said sharply, ―it‘s a fallacy. Eula Becker doesn‘t cause the rain. coal in the cellar, and winter is coming.‖ A tear rolled down each
you would go far to find another so agreeable. We went to the She has no connection with the rain. You are guilty of Post Hoc if of Polly‘s pink cheeks. ―Oh, this is awful, awful,‖ she sobbed.
Knoll, the campus trysting place, and we sat down under an old you blame Eula Becker.‖ ―I‘ll never do it again,‖ she promised ―Yes, it‘s awful,‖ I agreed, ―but it‘s no argument. The man never
oak, and she looked at me expectantly. ―What are we going to contritely. ―Are you mad at me?‖ I sighed. ―No, Polly, I‘m not answered the boss‘s question about his qualifications. Instead he
talk about?‖ she asked. ―Logic.‖ mad.‖ ―Then tell me some more fallacies.‖ ―All right. Let‘s try appealed to the boss‘s sympathy. He committed the fallacy of Ad
Contradictory Premises.‖ ―Yes, let‘s,‖ she chirped, blinking her Misericordiam. Do you understand?‖ ―Have you got a
She thought this over for a minute and decided she liked it. eyes happily. I frowned, but plunged ahead. ―Here‘s an example handkerchief?‖ she blubbered. I handed her a handkerchief and
―Magnif,‖ she said. ―Logic,‖ I said, clearing my throat, ―is the of Contradictory Premises: If God can do anything, can He make tried to keep from screaming while she wiped her eyes. ―Next,‖ I
science of thinking. Before we can think correctly, we must first a stone so heavy that He won‘t be able to lift it?‖ ―Of course,‖ said in a carefully controlled tone, ―we will discuss False
learn to recognize the common fallacies of logic. These we will she replied promptly. Analogy. Here is an example: Students should be allowed to look
take up tonight.‖ ―Wow-dow!‖ she cried, clapping her hands at their textbooks during examinations. After all, surgeons have
delightedly. I winced, but went bravely on. ―First let us examine ―But if He can do anything, He can lift the stone,‖ I pointed out. X-rays to guide them during an operation, lawyers have briefs to
the fallacy called Dicto Simpliciter.‖ ―By all means,‖ she urged, ―Yeah,‖ she said thoughtfully. ―Well, then I guess He can‘t make guide them during a trial, carpenters have blueprints to guide
batting her lashes eagerly. ―Dicto Simpliciter means an argument the stone.‖ ―But He can do anything,‖ I reminded her. She them when they are building a house. Why, then, shouldn‘t
based on an unqualified generalization. For example: Exercise is scratched her pretty, empty head. ―I‘m all confused,‖ she students be allowed to look at their textbooks during an
good. Therefore everybody should exercise.‖ ―I agree,‖ said admitted. ―Of course you are. Because when the premises of an examination?‖ ―There now,‖ she said enthusiastically, ―is the
Polly earnestly. ―I mean exercise is wonderful. I mean it builds argument contradict each other, there can be no argument. If most marvy idea I‘ve heard in years.‖ ―Polly,‖ I said testily, ―the
the body and everything.‖ ―Polly,‖ I said gently, ―the argument is there is an irresistible force, there can be no immovable object. If argument is all wrong. Doctors, lawyers, and carpenters aren‘t
a fallacy. Exercise is good is an unqualified generalization. For there is an immovable object, there can be no irresistible force. taking a test to see how much they have learned, but students are.
instance, if you have heart disease, exercise is bad, not good. Get it?‖ ―Tell me more of this keen stuff,‖ she said eagerly. I The situations are altogether different, and you can‘t make an
Many people are ordered by their doctors not to exercise. You consulted my watch. ―I think we‘d better call it a night. I‘ll take analogy between them.‖ ―I still think it‘s a good idea,‖ said Polly.
must qualify the generalization. You must say exercise is usually you home now, and you go over all the things you‘ve learned.
good, or exercise is good for most people. Otherwise you have We‘ll have another session tomorrow night.‖ I deposited her at ―Nuts,‖ I muttered. Doggedly I pressed on. ―Next we‘ll try
committed a Dicto Simpliciter. Do you see?‖ ―No,‖ she the girls‘ dormitory, where she assured me that she had had a Hypothesis Contrary to Fact.‖ ―Sounds yummy,‖ was Polly‘s
confessed. ―But this is marvy. Do more! Do more!‖ ―It will be perfectly terrif evening, and I went glumly home to my room. reaction. ―Listen: If Madame Curie had not happened to leave a
better if you stop tugging at my sleeve,‖ I told her, and when she Petey lay snoring in his bed, the raccoon coat huddled like a great photographic plate in a drawer with a chunk of pitchblende, the
desisted, I continued. ―Next we take up a fallacy called Hasty hairy beast at his feet. For a moment I considered waking him world today would not know about radium.‖ ―True, true,‖ said
Polly, nodding her head ―Did you see the movie? Oh, it just hostess for my many mansions, a suitable mother for my well- I mean this is just classroom stuff. You know that the things you
knocked me out. That Walter Pidgeon is so dreamy. I mean he heeled children. It must not be thought that I was without love for learn in school don‘t have anything to do with life.‖ ―Dicto
fractures me.‖ ―If you can forget Mr. Pidgeon for a moment,‖ I this girl. Quite the contrary. Just as Pygmalion loved the perfect Simpliciter,‖ she said, wagging her finger at me playfully. That
said coldly, ―I would like to point out that statement is a fallacy. woman he had fashioned, so I loved mine. I decided to acquaint did it. I leaped to my feet, bellowing like a bull. ―Will you or will
Maybe Madame Curie would have discovered radium at some you not go steady with me?‖
later date. Maybe somebody else would have discovered it. her with my feelings at our very next meeting. The time had
Maybe any number of things would have happened. You can‘t come to change our relationship from academic to romantic. ―I will not,‖ she replied. ―Why not?‖ I demanded. ―Because this
start with a hypothesis that is not true and then draw any ―Polly,‖ I said when next we sat beneath our oak, ―tonight we afternoon I promised Petey Bellows that I would go steady with
supportable conclusions from it.‖ ―They ought to put Walter will not discuss fallacies.‖ ―Aw, gee,‖ she said, disappointed. him.‖ I reeled back, overcome with the infamy of it. After he
Pidgeon in more pictures,‖ said Polly, ―I hardly ever see him any ―My dear,‖ I said, favoring her with a smile, ―we have now spent promised, after he made a deal, after he shook my hand! ―The
more.‖ One more chance, I decided. But just one more. There is a five evenings together. We have gotten along splendidly. It is rat!‖ I shrieked, kicking up great chunks of turf. ―You can‘t go
limit to what flesh and blood can bear. ―The next fallacy is called clear that we are well matched.‖ ―Hasty Generalization,‖ said with him, Polly. He‘s a liar. He‘s a cheat. He‘s a rat.‖ ―Poisoning
Poisoning the Well.‖ ―How cute!‖ she gurgled. ―Two men are Polly brightly. ―I beg your pardon,‖ said I. ―Hasty the Well ,‖ said Polly, ―and stop shouting. I think shouting must
having a debate. The first one gets up and says, ‗My opponent is Generalization,‖ she repeated. ―How can you say that we are well be a fallacy too.‖ With an immense effort of will, I modulated my
a notorious liar. You can‘t believe a word that he is going to say.‘ matched on the basis of only five dates?‖ I chuckled with voice. ―All right,‖ I said. ―You‘re a logician. Let‘s look at this
… Now, Polly, think. Think hard. What‘s wrong?‖ I watched her amusement. The dear child had learned her lessons well. ―My thing logically. How could you choose Petey Bellows over me?
closely as she knit her creamy brow in concentration. Suddenly a dear,‖ I said, patting her hand in a tolerant manner, ―five dates is Look at me—a brilliant student, a tremendous intellectual, a man
glimmer of intelligence—the first I had seen—came into her plenty. After all, you don‘t have to eat a whole cake to know that with an assured future. Look at Petey—a knothead, a jitterbug, a
eyes. ―It‘s not fair,‖ she said with indignation. ―It‘s not a bit fair. it‘s good.‖ ―False Analogy,‖ said Polly promptly. ―I‘m not a guy who‘ll never know where his next meal is coming from. Can
What chance has the second man got if the first man calls him a cake. I‘m a girl.‖ I chuckled with somewhat less amusement. The you give me one logical reason why you should go steady with
liar before he even begins talking?‖ ―Right!‖ I cried exultantly. dear child had learned her lessons perhaps too well. I decided to Petey Bellows?‖ ―I certainly can,‖ declared Polly. ―He‘s got a
―One hundred per cent right. It‘s not fair. The first man has change tactics. Obviously the best approach was a simple, strong, raccoon coat.‖
poisoned the well before anybody could drink from it. He has direct declaration of love. I paused for a moment while my
hamstrung his opponent before he could even start … Polly, I‘m massive brain chose the proper word. Then I began: ―Polly, I love
proud of you.‖ ―Pshaws,‖ she murmured, blushing with pleasure. you. You are the whole world to me, the moon and the stars and
―You see, my dear, these things aren‘t so hard. All you have to do the constellations of outer space. Please, my darling, say that you
is concentrate. Think— examine—evaluate. Come now, let‘s will go steady with me, for if you will not, life will be
review everything we have learned.‖ ―Fire away,‖ she said with meaningless. I will languish. I will refuse my meals. I will
an airy wave of her hand. Heartened by the knowledge that Polly wander the face of the earth, a shambling, hollow-eyed hulk.‖
was not altogether a cretin, I began a long, patient review of all I There, I thought, folding my arms, that ought to do it. ―Ad
had told her. Over and over and over again I cited instances, Misericordiam,‖ said Polly. I ground my teeth. I was not
pointed out flaws, kept hammering away without letup. It was Pygmalion; I was Frankenstein, and my monster had me by the
like digging a tunnel. At first, everything was work, sweat, and throat. Frantically I fought back the tide of panic surging through
darkness. I had no idea when I would reach the light, or even if I me; at all costs I had to keep cool. ―Well, Polly,‖ I said, forcing a
would. But I persisted. I pounded and clawed and scraped, and smile, ―you certainly have learned your fallacies.‖ ―You‘re darn
finally I was rewarded. I saw a chink of light. And then the chink right,‖ she said with a vigorous nod. ―And who taught them to
got bigger and the sun came pouring in and all was bright. Five you, Polly?‖ ―You did.‖ ―That‘s right. So you do owe me
grueling nights with this took, but it was worth it. I had made a something, don‘t you, my dear? If I hadn‘t come along you never
logician out of Polly; I had taught her to think. My job was done. would have learned about fallacies.‖ ―Hypothesis Contrary to
She was worthy of me, at last. She was a fit wife for me, a proper Fact,‖ she said instantly. I dashed perspiration from my brow.
―Polly,‖ I croaked, ―you mustn‘t take all these things so literally.