Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Linear System
Rotating Machine
 From previous equations
𝜕 𝜆2
𝑓𝑚 = − อ
Linear System 𝜕𝑥 2𝐿(𝑥)
𝜆=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝜆2 𝑑𝐿(𝑥)
𝑓𝑚 = 2
Consider the electromagnetic system of figure. If the reluctance 2𝐿 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
of the magnetic core path is negligible compared to that of the
air gap path, the λ-i relation becomes linear. For this system 1 𝑑𝐿(𝑥)
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑖 2
2 𝑑𝑥
𝜆=𝐿 𝑥 𝑖 For a linear system
′ 1
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝐿(𝑥)𝑖 2
Where 𝐿(𝑥) is the inductance of the coil, whose value depends 2
on the air gap length. The field energy is
Co-energy
𝜕 1
𝑊𝑓 = න 𝑖𝑑𝜆 𝑓𝑚 = 𝐿(𝑥)𝑖 2 อ
𝜕𝑥 2
𝑖=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜆
𝜆 𝜆2
𝑊𝑓 = න 𝑑𝜆 = 1 2 𝑑𝐿(𝑥)
0 𝐿(𝑥) 2𝐿(𝑥) 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑖
2 𝑑𝑥
1 Equations for fm show that the same expressions are obtained
𝑊𝑓 = 𝐿(𝑥)𝑖 2 for force whether analysis is based on energy or co-energy
2
functions.
 Linear Systems
If the reluctance of the magnetic core path is neglected,

𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑔2
𝑁𝑖 = 𝐻𝑔 2𝑔 = 2𝑔 𝑓𝑚 = 2𝐴𝑔
𝜇0 2𝜇0

Field energy, The total cross-sectional area of the air gap is 2𝐴𝑔 .
𝐵𝑔2 Hence, the force per unit area of air gap, called
𝑊𝑓 = × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝
2𝜇0 magnetic pressure 𝐹𝑚 , is
𝐵𝑔2
𝑊𝑓 = 𝐴 2𝑔 𝐵𝑔2
2𝜇0 𝑔
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑁 Τ𝑚 2
2𝜇0
From force equations
𝜕 𝐵𝑔2
𝑓𝑚 = × 𝐴𝑔 × 2𝑔
𝜕𝑔 2𝜇0
Exercise
The system shown in the figure is made from infinitely-permeable magnetic material with a movable plunger, also
of infinitely-permeable material. The height of the plunger is much greater than the air-gap length (h >> g).
Calculate the magnetic stored energy 𝑊𝑓 as a function of plunger position (0 < x < d) for N = 1000 turns, g = 2.0
mm, d = 0.15 m, l = 0.1 m, and i = 10 A.
 Rotating Machines
The essential part of a rotating electromagnetic system is shown in
the figure. The fixed part of the magnetic system is called the stator,
and the moving part is called the rotor. The latter is mounted on a
shaft and is free to rotate between the poles of the stator.
Let us consider a general case in which both stator and rotor have
windings carrying currents, the current can be fed into the rotor
circuit through fixed brushes and rotor-mounted slip rings.

The stored field energy 𝑊𝑓 of the system can be evaluated by establishing the currents 𝑖𝑠 and 𝑖𝑟 in the windings
keeping the system static, that is with no mechanical output. Consequently,

𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝜆𝑠 + 𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝜆𝑟

 Rotating Machines
For a linear magnetic system the flux linkages 𝜆𝑠 of the stator winding and 𝜆𝑟 of the rotor winding can be expressed in
terms of inductances whose values depend on the position 𝜃 of the rotor.

𝜆𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 + 𝐿𝑠𝑟 𝑖𝑟
𝜆𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 + 𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑟

Where 𝐿𝑠𝑠 is the self-inductance of the stator winding

𝐿𝑟𝑟 is the self-inductance of the rotor winding
𝐿𝑠𝑟 , 𝐿𝑟𝑠 are mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings

For a linear magnetic system 𝐿𝑠𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟𝑠 . Last equations can be expressed in matrix form

𝜆𝑠 𝐿 𝐿𝑠𝑟 𝑖𝑠
= 𝑠𝑠
𝜆𝑟 𝐿𝑟𝑠 𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑟

From last equations

𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑑 𝐿𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 + 𝐿𝑠𝑟 𝑖𝑟 + 𝑖𝑟 𝑑 𝐿𝑠𝑟 𝑖𝑠 + 𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑟

𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝐿𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠 + 𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐿𝑠𝑟 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟

 Rotating Machines
The field energy is
𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑠 ,𝑖𝑟
𝑊𝑓 = 𝐿𝑠𝑠 න 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠 + 𝐿𝑟𝑟 න 𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐿𝑠𝑟 න 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟
0 0 0

1 1
𝑊𝑓 = 𝐿𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠2 + 𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑟2 + 𝐿𝑠𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟
2 2

Similar to the procedure used to determine an expression for force developed in a translational actuator, the torque
developed in a rotational electromagnetic system is

𝜕𝑊𝑓′ 𝑖, 𝜃
𝑇= ቤ 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝜃
In a linear magnetic system, energy and co-energy are the same, that is, 𝑊𝑓 = 𝑊𝑓′ . Therefore,

1 2 𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑠 1 2 𝑑𝐿𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑟

𝑇 = 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑖𝑟 + 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟
2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

The first two terms on the right-hand side of previous equation represent torques produced in the machine because of variation of
self-inductance with rotor position. This component of torque is called the reluctance torque. The third term represents torque
produced by the variation of the mutual inductance between the stator and rotor windings.
 Exercise 1

The inductance of a coil on a magnetic circuit similar to that of figure is

found to vary with rotor position as
𝐿 𝜃 = 𝐿0 + 𝐿2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝐿4 sin 4𝜃 .
Where 𝐿0 = 25.4 𝑚𝐻
𝐿2 = 8.3 𝑚𝐻
𝐿4 = 1.8 𝑚𝐻
1. Find the torque as a function of 𝜃 for a current in the coils of 3.5 A.
2. Find a rotor position 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 that produces the largest negative
torque.
 Exercise 2
In the electromagnetic system of figure, the rotor has no winding
(i.e., we have a reluctance motor) and the inductance of the stator
as a function of the rotor position 𝜃 is 𝐿𝑠𝑠 (𝜃) = 𝐿0 + 𝐿2 cos 2𝜃.
The stator current is 𝑖𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 .

a. Obtain an expression for the torque acting on the rotor.

b. If 𝐿0 = 10.6 𝑚𝐻 and 𝐿2 = 2.7 𝑚𝐻, find the torque for a coil
current of 2A.
c. Let 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝛿, where 𝜔𝑚 is the angular velocity of the rotor
and 𝛿 is the rotor position at t=0. Find the condition for nonzero
average torque, and obtain an expression for the average
torque.