PRECISION ENGINEERING & METROLOGY

[ME3312]
BOOK

 Process Control Instrumentation Technology 8th Edition by Curtis D Johnson

BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENT METHODS
INTRODUCTION
MEASUREMENT

“Act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable”

 The physical variable is the measured variable.

 Everyday measurements

 Objective: To answer a question

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

 A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured variable by extend the abilities of the
human senses.
 A measurement system is composed of components that work together to accomplish a specific objective.

 Example

 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) measures profile of a surface at Nano scale.

Sensor and
Measurement
Sensor Stage Transducer Output Stage
System
Stage
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE)

1. Sensor Stage

 A physical element that employs some natural

phenomenon to sense the variable being
measured.
 Natural Phenomenon:
 Deflection under the action of force

 Variable Measurement:
 Height of the surface
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE)

2. Sensor and Transducer Stage

 A transducer converts the sensed information into a detectable

signal.
 The signal might be mechanical, electrical, optical, or may take
any other form that can be meaningfully recorded.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE)

3. Output Stage

 The goal of a measurement system is to convert the sensed

information into a form that can be easily quantifies.
 Output Stage indicates or records the value measured.

 This might be a simple readout display, a marked scale, or even a

recording device such as a computer disk drive.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (CONTROL)

Open Loop System

 Open-Loop Control System is used in
applications in which no feedback and
error handling are required.
 It is simple and economical.

 Examples

 Light, Pedestal Fan, Switch

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (CONTROL)

Closed Loop System

 Closed-Loop Control System is used in applications where feedback and error handling are required.

 It is a complex system and not economical but optimization is possible.

 Example

 Air conditioner auto-tripping

 Brightness adjust in smart phone

GENERAL TEMPLATE FOR A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

General Stage:
 Sensor-transducer stage

 Output Stage

 Feedback-control stage

Optional / Intermediate Stages: modify transducer signal

 Amplification

 Filtering Signal-Conditioning
Stage
 Linkages
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
CHOOSING APPROPRIATE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Instrument choice is a compromise between:

 Performance characteristics (Accuracy and Precision)
 Simplicity
 Resolution
 Display and readout
 Ruggedness (Environment)
 Reliability
 Maintenance requirements
 Purchase cost.
 Availability
SENSOR
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another form of energy.

 A sensor is a transducer that converts a measurable quantity to an electrical voltage or current.

 An actuator is a transducer that converts an electrical signal to another form of energy such as mechanical
energy.
GOOD SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS

Should not
 Influence the measurement
Should
 Have output that deviates randomly over
 Sensitive to only the measured property
time
 Have sensitivity adequate for measurement
 Consume high power
 Be linear
 High Cost

 Be huge

 Be toxic
SENSOR
CHARACTERISTICS

“Characteristics is Type Characteristics

knowing how sensor • Static
behaves” • Dynamics
CHARACTERISTICS
Static Characteristics
 Static characteristics of a sensor is the behavior of a sensor when the input to the sensor is not changing.
 When input is constant, output is constant such measurement in static environment where input and output is not
changing gives you static characteristics.
Dynamic Characteristics
 It represents how fast a sensor responds to a change in input.
 How to check dynamic characteristics randomly changing input values and recording output.
 Example
 Keeping a thermometer in ice and suddenly taking it out and put in boiling water.
 After this, measure how long the sensor takes to give an output corresponding to new input which is boiling water.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Calibration
 It can be performed by placing thermometer in
ice water tab and temperature sensor in it.
 Note down the reading of thermometer and
voltage from thermocouple.
 Plot a graph and develop a calibration equation.

 The known input value is called standard.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Linearity
 “Property of calibrated equation being a straight line.”

 Relationship between temperature and voltage having straight line is linearity.

 Linearity makes the sensitivity of sensor constant throughout the input of the sensor.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Accuracy and Precision

 Accuracy is how close are we to the true value.

 Precision is capability to give same results.

 PITAC (Precision means together, Accuracy means the center)

Accurate Precise Inaccurate

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sensitivity
 Amount of change in output with small change in input.
 Identify low and high sensitivity regions
 This is response of non-linear sensor.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sensitivity
 Linear Sensors

 High sensitivity sensor (more change in output with same input)

 Small changes in input can resolve output
 Can measure small change in input
 Disadvantage: Reduce the range of sensor

 Low sensitivity sensor (more change in less with same input)

 High changes in input can resolve output
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Input Impedance
 It is the measure of the sensors ability to not interfere with the signal it is measuring.

 Sensor 1 will influence the temperature of T1 body as it is of same mass. Part of heat will be conducted into the
sensor 2. However, Sensor 2 can measure temperature without influence.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Errors
1. Systematic Errors
 Errors which do not change when measurement conditions do not change or change predictably when conditions change
 Example
 Instrument, Method

2. Random Errors
 Errors that remain after eliminating systematic errors.
 Positive and negative errors are equally likely to occur
 Large errors are less likely
 Mean of errors in a number of measurements approaches zero.
 Example
 Electrical interference, Mechanical variation
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Resolution
 Minimal change in input necessary to produce a detectable change in output.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Input Operating Range

 Knowing input values from min to max for which the measurement system is to be used.

 Full Scale Operating Range

 Output operating range
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Uncertainty
 Estimated range of an error
 Individual errors are properties of the instruments, the test
method, the analysis and the measurement system.
 Uncertainty is a property of the test result

 Assigned Uncertainty
 Based on available information, the operator might feel
confident that the error is within certain bounds, a plus or
minus range of the indicated reading.
 Values assigned to each error is the uncertainty
SEQUENTIAL TEST AND HYSTERESIS

 A sequential test applies a sequential variation in the input value over the desired input range.
 Upscale
 Downscale

 Effective diagnostic technique for identifying and quantifying hysteresis error.

 Hysteresis error refers to differences between an upscale sequential test and a downscale sequential test.

 The hysteresis error of the system is estimated by its uncertainty.

HYSTERESIS ERROR AND LINEARITY ERROR
SENSITIVITY ERROR VS ZERO SHIFT (NULL) ERROR

 Sensitivity error
 Statistical measure of the random error in the estimate of the slope of the calibration curve.

 zero shift (null) error

 Sensitivity is constant but zero-intercept is not fixed
REPEATABILITY ERROR

 The ability of a measurement system to indicate the same

value on repeated but independent application of the same
input provides a measure.
REPRODUCIBILITY VS INSTRUMENT PRECISION

 Reproducibility in instrument specification, refers to the closeness of agreement in results obtained from
duplicate tests carried out under similar conditions of measurement.
 The term instrument precision in instrument specifications, refers to a random uncertainty based on the results
of separate repeatability tests.
OVERALL INSTRUMENT ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY

 An estimate of the overall instrument error is made by combining the estimates of all known errors into a term
called the instrument uncertainty.
 The estimate is computed from the square root of the sum of the squares of all known uncertainty values. For
M known errors, the overall instrument uncertainty, uc, is estimated by

 For example, for an instrument having known hysteresis, linearity, and sensitivity errors, the instrument
uncertainty is estimated by
CHARACTERISTICS (DYNAMIC)

 It represents how fast a sensor responds to a change in input.

 How to check dynamic characteristics randomly changing input values and recording output.

 Example

 Keeping a thermometer in ice and suddenly taking it out and put in boiling water. After this, measure how long
the sensor takes to give an output corresponding to new input which is boiling water.
 Jumps observed while travelling in a car (suspension system)

 Car can suddenly come to rest of gradually come to rest depending upon type of suspension system.
DYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS (RESPONSE)

Speed of Response
The rapidity with which an instrument responds to a change in the value of the quantity
being measured.
CHARACTERISTICS (DYNAMIC)

Overshoot
 It refers to an output exceeding its final, steady-state value.

 Due to mass and inertia of moving part the pointer of the instrument does not immediately come to rest in the
final deflected position.
Rise Time
 The time required for the response to rise to its final commanded value.

Delay
 Delays the signal for an amount of time or time of response delay before reaching commanded position.
CHARACTERISTICS (DYNAMIC)
Overdamped
 Response that does not oscillate about the steady-state value but takes longer to reach steady-state than the critically
damped case
Underdamped
 The system oscillates (at reduced frequency compared to the undamped case) with the amplitude gradually decreasing to
zero.
Critically damped
 The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible without oscillating.
 Between the overdamped and underdamped cases, there exists a certain level of damping at which the system will just fail to
overshoot and will not make a single oscillation. This case is called critical damping
Steady-state error
 The difference between the desired value and the actual value of a system output
CHARACTERISTICS (DYNAMIC)

Damping Ratio
 The ratio of the damping coefficient in the system's differential equation to the critical damping coefficient.

 The damping ratio is a system parameter, denoted by ζ (zeta)

 Undamped (ζ = 0),
 Underdamped (ζ < 1) through
 Critically damped (ζ = 1) to
 Overdamped (ζ > 1).
VARIABLE TYPES

 Variables are entities that influence the test

 In addition to the measured variable, there may be other variables that will affect the outcome.

1. Independent Variable

2. Dependent Variable

3. Continuous Variable or Discrete Variable

4. Controlled Variable
 Constant value or some prescribed condition during a measurement
5. Extraneous Variables
 That are not or cannot be controlled but have effect
 Introduce differences in repeated measurements under identical operating conditions
 Impose a false trend onto the behavior of measured variable
 Superimpose signal as noise and drift
TEMPERATURE SENSORS

 Most physical, electronic, chemical, mechanical, and biological systems are affected by temperature.
 Certain chemical reactions, biological processes, and even electronic circuits perform best within limited temperature ranges
 Temperature sensing can be done either through
 Direct contact with the heating source
 Remotely (using radiated energy)

 Sensor Types
 Thermocouples
 Thermometer
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
 Thermistors
 Infrared
 Semiconductor Sensors
THERMOMETER

 Application of heat expands the liquid in column and scale provides

measurement.
 Low accuracy
 Small range
THERMOCOUPLE

Devices that measure temperature on the basis of this thermoelectric principle are called thermocouples (TCs).
Working principle (Thermoelectric Principle/Seebeck Effect)
 Temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage
difference between the two substances.
 A current flows in a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when one junction is heated, while other
junction is kept constant.
 The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The other end of these dissimilar metals is referred to as the COLD END or
COLD JUNCTION.
 Self powered
WORKING PRINCIPLE

 When a temperature differential is maintained across a given metal, the vibration of atoms and motion of
electrons is affected so that a difference in potential exists across the material.
 This potential difference is related to the fact that electrons in the hotter end of the material have more
thermal energy than those in the cooler end, and thus tend to drift toward the cooler end.
 Drift varies for different metals at the same temperature because of differences in their thermal conductivities.

 If a circuit is closed by connecting the ends through another conductor, a current is found to flow in the closed
loop.
 The proper description of such an effect is to say that an emf has been established in the circuit and is causing
the current to flow. (Seebeck effect)
THERMOCOUPLE

 Why two different metals?

WORKING PRINCIPLE

 This equation, which describes the Seebeck effect, shows that the emf produced is proportional to the
difference in temperature.
 Thus, if the metals are the same, the emf is zero, and if the temperatures are the same, the emf is also zero.
PROBLEM
PELTIER EFFECT

Peltier effect
 The reverse of the Seebeck effect

 In this case, we construct a closed loop of two different metals, A and B, as before.

 An external voltage is applied to the system to cause a current to flow in the circuit.

 Because of the different electrothermal transport properties of the metals, it is found that one of the junctions
will be heated and the other cooled. ( the device is a refrigerator)
Applications
 Cooling small electronic parts

 Mini refrigerator (one can)

COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION

 One temperature must already be known because the Seebeck voltage is proportional to the difference
between junction temperatures.
 The voltage produced has a magnitude dependent on
 Absolute magnitude of the temperature difference
 Polarity dependent on which temperature is larger, reference or measurement junction

 In most industrial environments, this would be difficult to achieve if the measurement junction and reference
junction were close.
 It is possible to move the reference junctions to a remote location without upsetting the measurement process
by the use of extension wires.
THERMOCOUPLE TYPES
 Standard configurations of thermocouples using specific metals (or alloys of metals) have been adopted.

 Each type has its particular features, such as range, linearity, inertness to hostile environments, sensitivity, and
so on, and is chosen for specific applications accordingly.
THERMOCOUPLE POLARITY

 The voltage produced by a TC is differential in the sense that it is measured between the two metal wires. As
noted in the footnote to thermocouple type Table.
 A type J thermocouple is called iron-constantan. This means that if the reference temperature is less than the
measurement junction temperature, the iron will be more positive than the constantan.
Example
 A type J with a reference will 0oC reference will produce +5.27mV for a measurement junction of 100oC,
meaning that the iron is more positive than the constantan.
 For a measurement junction of -100oC, the polarity changes, and the voltage will be -4.63mV, meaning that the
iron is less positive than the constantan.
THERMOCOUPLE TABLE

 Tables simply give the voltage that results for a particular type of thermocouple when the reference junctions
are at a particular reference temperature, and the measurement junction is at a temperature of interest.
 For a type J thermocouple at with a reference of 0oC, the voltage is
THERMOCOUPLE TABLE
CHANGE OF TABLE REFERENCE
THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR

Sensitivity
Construction
 Joints welded or even twisted junction between two metals
 TC is sheathed in a protective covering or even sealed in glass (hostile environment)
 Size of the TC wire: Determined by the application and can range from #10 wire in rugged environments to fine #30
AWG wires or even 0.02-mm microwire in refined biological measurements of temperature.
Range (Refer to range figure)
Time Response
 How long it takes the TC system to reach thermal equilibrium with the environment
Signal Conditioning
 Amplifier (high gain)
THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR

Reference Compensation
 Controlled temperature reference block (temperature-controlled box)

 Reference compensation circuits

 Software reference correction

Noise
 Twisted and then wrapped with a grounded foil Sheath

 Grounded at the point of measurement

 Instrumentation amplifier that has excellent common-mode rejection is employed for measurement.
REFERENCE PICTURES