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Chapter 1

Current And Potential Transformers

Current Transformers
Introduction
Practically all electrical measurements and relaying
decisions are derived from current and voltage signals. Since relaying
hardware works with smaller range of current (in amperes and not kA)
and voltage (volts and not kV), real life signals (feeder or transmission
line currents) and bus voltages have to be scaled to lower levels and
then fed to the relays. This job is done by current and voltage
transformers (CTs and VTs). CTs and VTs also electrically isolate the
relaying system from the actual power apparatus. The electrical
isolation from the primary voltage also provides safety of both human
personnel and the equipment. Thus,
• CT and VTs are the sensors for the relay.
• CT and VT function like ‘ears' and the ‘eyes' of the protection
system. They listen to and observe all happening in the external
world. Relay itself is the brain which processes these signals and
issues decision commands implemented by circuit breakers, alarms
etc.
• Clearly, quality of the relaying decision depends upon ‘faithful'
reproduction on the secondary side of the transformer.

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Equivalent Circuit of CT
To begin with,
equivalent circuit of a CT is
not much different from that
of a regular transformer (fig
5.1). However, a fundamental
difference is that while
regular power transformers
are excited by a voltage
source, a current transformer
has current source excitation.
Primary winding of the CT is
connected in series with the
transmission line. The load on
the secondary side is the
relaying burden and the lead
wire resistance.

Total load in ohms that is

introduced by CT in series with the
transmission line is insignificant and
hence, the connection of the CT does
not alter current in the feeder or the
power apparatus at all. Hence from
modeling perspectives it is reasonable
to assume that CT primary is
connected to a current source.
Therefore, the CT equivalent circuit
will look as shown in fig 5.2. The
remaining steps in modeling are as
follows: As impedance in series with
the current source can be neglected,
we can neglect the primary winding
resistance and leakage reactance in CT
modeling.
For the convenience in analysis, we
can shift the magnetizing impedance
from the primary side to the
secondary side of the ideal
transformer.

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After application of the

above steps, the CT equivalent
circuit is as shown in the fig 5.3.
Note that the secondary winding
resistance and leakage reactance
is not neglected as it will affect
the performance of CT. The total
impedance on the secondary side
is the sum of relay burden, lead
wire resistance and leakage
impedance of secondary winding.
Therefore, the voltage developed
in the secondary winding
depends upon these parameters
directly. The secondary voltage
developed by the CT has to be
monitored because as per the
transformer emf equation, the
flux level in the core depends
upon it.
The transformer emf equation is
given by,

above the knee point, it is more

or less obvious that the CT will
saturate. During saturation, CT
secondary winding cannot replicate
the primary current accurately and
hence, the performance of the CT
deteriorates.
Thus, we conclude that in
practice, while selecting a CT we
should ascertain that it should not
saturate on the sinusoidal currents
that it would be subjected to. Use of
numerical relays due to their very
small burden vis-a-vis solid state and
electromechanical relays, improves
the CT performance. CT is to be
operated always in closed condition.
If the CT is open circuited,all the
current Ip/N, would flow through X .
This will lead to the development of
dangerously high level of voltage in
secondary winding which can even
burn out the CT.

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One of the major problems

faced by the protection systems
engineer is the saturation of CT on
large ac currents and dc offset current
present during the transient. When
the CT is saturated, primary current
source cannot be faithfully reflected
to the secondary side. In other words,
we can open circuit the current source
in fig 5.4. Also, the magnetizing
impedance falls down during
saturation. Then the transformer
behaves more like an air core device,
with negligible coupling between the
primary and secondary winding. The
high reluctance due to the air path
implies that the magnetizing
impedance (inductance) falls down.
The corresponding equivalent circuit is
shown in fig 5.5.

Classification of CTs

The CTs can be classified into following types:

• Measurement CTs
• Protection CTs
One of the major problems faced by the protection systems engineer is the
saturation of CT on large ac currents and dc offset current present during the
transient. When the CT is saturated, primary current source cannot be faithfully
reflected to the secondary side. In other words, we can open circuit the current source
in fig 5.4. Also, the magnetizing impedance falls down during saturation. Then the
transformer behaves more like an air core device, with negligible coupling between
the primary and secondary winding. The high reluctance due to the air path implies
that the magnetizing impedance (inductance) falls down. The corresponding
equivalent circuit is shown in fig 5.5. A measurement grade CT has much lower VA
capacity than a protection grade CT. A measurement CT has to be accurate over its
complete range e.g. from 5% to 125% of normal current. In other words, its
magnetizing impedance at low current levels. (and hence low flux levels) should be
very high. Note that due to non-linear nature of B-H curve, magnetizing impedance is
not constant but varies over the CT's operating range. It is not expected to give linear
response (secondary current a scaled replica of the primary current) during large fault
currents.
In contrast, for a protection grade CT, linear response is expected up to 20 times
the rated current. Its performance has to be accurate in the range of normal currents
and up to fault currents. Specifically, for protection grade CT's magnetizing impedance
should be maintained to a large value in the range of the currents of the order of fault
currents.

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When a CT is used for both the purposes, it has to be

of required accuracy class to satisfy both accuracy conditions
of measurement CTs and protection CTs. In other words, it has
to be accurate for both very small and very large values of
current. Typically, CT secondary rated current is standardized
to 1A or 5A (more common).
However, it would be unreasonable to assume that the
linear response will be independent of the net burden on the
CT secondary. For simplicity, we refer to the net impedance on
the secondary side (neglecting magnetizing impedance) as the
CT burden. It is quite obvious that the driving force (E2)
required to drive the primary current replica will increase as
this burden increases. If this voltage exceeds the designer's
set limits, then the CT core will saturate and hence linear
response will be lost. Hence, when we say that a CT will give
linear response up to 20 times the rated current, there is also
an implicit constraint that the CT burden will be kept to a low
value. In general, name-plate rating specifies a voltage limit on
the secondary (e.g., 100 V) up to which linear response is
expected. If the CT burden causes this voltage to be exceeded,
CT saturation results.

ANSI / IEEE classification

ANSI/IEEE standards classify CTs into two types:
• Class T CT
• Class C CT
Class T CTs
Typically, a class T CT is a wound type CT with one
or more primary turns wound on a core. It is associated with
high leakage flux in the core. Because of this, the only way to
determine it's performance is by test. In other words,
standardized performance curves cannot be used with this
types of CTs. Typically, a class T CT is a wound type CT with
one or more primary turns wound on a core. It is associated
with high leakage flux in the core. Because of this, the only
way to determine it's performance is by test. In other words,
standardized performance curves cannot be used with this
types of CTs.

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Figure 5.6 shows one such

experimentally calibrated
curve for a CT. The letter ‘B'
indicates the burden in ohms
to which the CT is subjected. It
is seen that when burden is
less than say 0.1 ohms, CT
meets the linear performance
criterion. However, as the
burden increases to 0.5 ohms,
the corresponding linearity
criteria is not met till the end.
At 4 ohms burden, there is
significant deviation from the
linear response. A general rule
of thumb is that, one should
try to keep the CT burden as
low as possible.

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When the CT is saturated, coupling

between primary and secondary is reduced.
Hence large ratio errors E since are expected in
saturation. The current in the secondary is also
phase shifted. For measurement grade CTs,
there are strict performance requirements on
phase angle errors also. Error in phase angle
measurement affects power factor calculation
and ultimately real and reactive power
measurements. It is expected that the ratio
error for protection grade CTs will be maintained
within ± 10%.

Class C CT
Letter designation 'C' indicates that the leakage
flux is negligible. Class C CTs are the more accurate bar type
CTs. In such CTs, the leakage flux from the core is kept very
small. For such CTs, the performance can be evaluated from
the standard exciting curves. Also, the ratio error is
maintained within ± 10% for standard operating conditions.
For such CTs, voltage rating on the secondary is specified up to
which linear response is guaranteed. For example, a class C CT
specification could be as follows: 200:5 C 100. The labeling
scheme indicates that we are dealing with a 200:5 class C CT
which will provide linear response up to 20 times rated
current provided the burden on the secondary is kept below
(100/(5*20)=1) ohm. Similarly, a corresponding class T CT
may be labeled as 200:5 T 100. For class C CTs, standard chart
for E2 versus excitation current on the secondary side is
available. This provides the protection engineer data to do
more exact calculations (refer fig 5.7). e.g., in determining
relaying sensitivity

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Origin of DC Off-set Current

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CT Saturation due to DC - Offset Current

We now plan to show that CT can saturate on dc
offset current. Also, we plan to show that the resulting
distortions in the CT secondary current can be
unacceptably high. While doing this analysis, we will
neglect ac symmetrical component. Note that when a CT
core is saturated, it cannot replicate the ac component as
the strong mutual coupling between primary and
secondary is lost.
First consider an ideal CT excited by the dc offset
current source. An ideal CT will faithfully replicate the
primary current waveform on the secondary side. Hence,
the secondary current would be given by First consider an
ideal CT excited by the dc

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As a consequence of CT core saturation, the

secondary current would not faithfully replicate the primary
current. In fact, in practice it is observed that CT secondary
current is clipped as shown in fig 7.8. The clipping of CT
current leads to “blinding” of the relay which cannot function
any further. Hence, CT saturation in presence of dc offset
current is a serious problem which relay designers have to
face.
Note that dc flux accumulates gradually. In fact it
depends upon the transmission line time constant ( τ ). It is
apparent that saturation should not occur immediately after
the inception of the fault. Thus, if the relay is fast enough in
decision making, it is likely that a relaying decision would be
undertaken before the CT fully saturates. This is another
important reason for demanding speed from the relaying
system. For bus-fault protection, where the CT
saturation due to dc offset current can be a significant
contributing factor, quarter cycle operations specification are
imposed. Similarly, a distance relay is expected to operate
within ½ - 1 cycle time.

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CT Oversizing Factor

Cautions in CT Selection
While choosing a CT for a particular application, it is
necessary to observe following precautions.
• The CT rating and continuous load current should match. For
example, if maximum load current is 90A, a 100:5 CT may be
acceptable but 50:5 is not acceptable.
• The maximum fault current should be less than 20 times the CT
rated current. For example, 100:5 CT can be used, so long as burden
on the CT is within the rated values and maximum primary fault
current is below 2000A.
• The voltage rating of CT should be compatible. For example, 100:5
C100 would give linear response, up to 20 times rated current
provided CT burden is kept below(100/20 x 5 = 1 ). With 2 burden,
this CT can be used only if maximum current is limited to 1000A.
• Paralleling of CT's e.g. in differential protection, or with SLG fault
can create significant errors in CT performance. One should
generally ascertain that magnetizing current is kept much below the
pick up value.

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Secondary Open Circuit

When the secondary of a CT is open
circuited, then all primary current would be
considered as magnetizing current, so
dangerous voltage spikes will produced across
the secondary winding.

Linear couplers and electronic current transformers

Linear couplers are CTs without an iron core. The
magnetizing reactance of these transformers is linear, and is
very small compared to that of a steel-cored CT. Most of the
primary current is used up in establishing the mutual flux in
the linear coupler, and the secondary windings are very
limited in the amount of current they can deliver. Indeed, the
linear coupler operates as a current-to-voltage converter: the
voltage in the secondary circuit is a faithful reproduction of
the primary current. As long as the secondary current is very
small, the transformation ratio is practically constant. The
main use of linear couplers is in applications where saturation
of the CT presents a major problem – as in the case of bus
protection applications to be discussed later. Linear couplers
are not much in use, since they must be installed in addition
to CTs, which are needed for most relaying and metering
functions.

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A number of electronic CTs have been developed,

which offer many advantages when compared to traditional CTs. Most
of the practical electronic CTs are based upon the relationship
between the magnetizing field produced by a current-carrying
conductor and the plane of polarization of polarized light passing
through a fiber-optic block placed around the conductor. In some
designs, a fiber-optic cable goes around the conductor (making several
turns as necessary). The angle through which the plane of polarization
of the light rotates is detected at the receiving end (Figure 3.13). This
angular shift is electronically converted to a voltage, which is
proportional to the instantaneous value of the magnetizing force
around the current-carrying conductor, and hence to the
instantaneous value of the current. This voltage may then be suitably
amplified and filtered to provide a replica of the current in the primary
conductor. Alternatively, the voltage may be sampled at a suitable rate
to provide a sampled-data representation of the primary current. It
should be clear that such an electronic CT is most suited to relays and
meters which can utilize low-power signals, or sampled data of the
signals. As will be seen later, this type of signal source is particularly
suited for electronic relays and computer relays.

Electronic CTs are linear, and have a very wide

dynamic range, i.e. they are able to measure
accurately currents at light loads as well as those
corresponding to very heavy faults. Furthermore,
since they do not include oil as an insulating
medium, they do not constitute a fire hazard. They
are also smaller in size and require less space in a
substation. However, they do require a power
supply to operate the various electronic circuits
required to sense and amplify the signals. Getting
reliable power to these devices in the substation
yard is a significant problem. Nevertheless, with the
advent of electronic and computer-based relays, it
is only a matter of time before electronic CTs make
a significant impact on relaying practices.

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Voltage Or Potential Transformers(V.T.,or,P.T.)

Many relaying
applications like distance
relays, directional
overcurrent relays require
measurement of voltages at
a bus. This task is done by a
voltage transformer (VT).
The principle of a voltage
transformer is identical to
the conventional
transformer. Hence, its
equivalent circuit can be
represented as shown in fig
8.1.

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Typically, the
secondary voltage of the VT
is standardized to 110 V (ac).
Hence, as the primary
voltage increases, the turns
ratio N1:N2 increases and
transformer becomes bulky.
To cut down the VT
size and cost, a capacitance
potential divider is used (fig
8.2). Thus, a reduced
voltage is fed to primary of
the transformer. This
reduces the size of VT. This
leads to development of
coupling capacitor voltage
transformers (CCVT).

Role of Tuning Reactor

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Assuming, the transformer to be ideal, the Thevenin's

equivalent circuit of CCVT is shown in fig 8.3. It is now obvious
that Zth due to the capacitance divider, affects the voltage
received by the relay. To achieve high level of accuracy, it is
therefore necessary to compensate for this voltage drop by
connecting a tuning inductor. The tuning inductor‘s value is so
chosen that it compensates for the ‘net C‘ at power frequency
(50Hz in India). The phasor diagram across resistive load, is as
shown in fig 8.4(a). (See fig 8.4).
From the corresponding equivalent circuit, it is

CCVT in Power Line Communication

The capacitance potential divider also
serves the dual purpose of providing a shunt
path to high frequency signal used in power
line carrier communication. Normally, CCVT
is used in HV/EHV systems where carrier line
communication is used. High frequency i.e.
Radio Frequency (RF) signals (50 - 400 kHz)
can be coupled to power line for
communication. At high frequency, the
capacitive shunt impedance is very small
and hence these signals can be tapped by
the potential divider. To block the path to
ground for the RF signal, a small drainage
reactor is connected in series with the
capacitance divider. At power frequencies, it
has a very small impedance. Thus, the role
of capacitance potential divider at power
frequency is not compromised. On the other
hand, at RF, the impedance of drainage
reactor is large and it blocks the RF signal.
Also, compensating reactor and transformer
leakage reactance by their inductive nature,
block the path of RF signal. This signal is
then tapped by a tuning pack which
provides low impedance to the RF signal.

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Ferro Resonance Problem in CCVT

The iron cores of the reactor and
transformer will not only introduce copper and core
losses but it can also produce ferroresonance
caused by the nonlinearity of the iron cores. Hence
a ferroresonance suppression circuit is also included
in the secondary of the transformer. The dangerous
overvoltages caused by ferroresonance are
eliminated by this circuit. Unfortunately, it can
aggravate CCVT transients.

Transient Response of CCVT

As can be seen in the fig 8.5, CCVT equivalent circuit is a
R-L-C circuit. If transformer is considered ideal,it can be
described by integrodifferential equation of the type,

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Classification of CCVTs
CCVTs can be classified into following two types:
• Class 1
• Class 2
Table 8.1 shows the maximum limit for the ratio and phase angle errors. It
can be seen that errors of Class 2 type are double than that of class 1 type.

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