The Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitor Hypothesis is one of the five hypotheses developed by the linguist Stephen
Krashen. It asserts that a learner’s learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing.
In other words, while only the acquired system is able to produce spontaneous speech, the
learned system is used to check what is being spoken. Before the learner produces an utterance,
he or she internally scans it for errors, and uses the learned system to make corrections.

Self-correction occurs when the learner uses the Monitor to correct a sentence after it is uttered.
According to the hypothesis, such self-monitoring and self-correction are the only functions of
conscious language learning. The Monitor model then predicts faster initial progress by adults
than children, as adults use this ‘monitor’ when producing L2 (target language) utterances before
having acquired the ability for natural performance, and adult learners will input more into
conversations earlier than children.

Three Conditions to Use the Monitor Hypothesis

1. The learner must know the rule: This is a very difficult condition to meet because it
means that the speaker must have had explicit instruction on the language form that
he or she is trying to produce.
2. The learner must be focused on form: He or she must be thinking about form, and it
is difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
3. The learner must have time to use the monitor: Using the monitor requires the
speaker to slow down and focus on form.

There are also three types of users of the monitor. They are:

1. Monitor Over-Users: These language learners are too concerned and focused on
correctness that they can’t speak with any real fluency. Some characteristics of monitor
over-users are:

 They know many of the rules of the language.

 They are not able to communicate in speech.

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  Their written language might be quite accurate.
 They don’t have speaking fluency because they are too concerned with being
grammatically correct.
 When speaking, these language learners make many pauses, repetitions and speech
repairs.

2. Monitor Under-Users: These language learners are not focused on correctness because

they have not consciously learned the rules or because they have decided not to use their
conscious knowledge of the target language. Some characteristics of monitor under-users
are:

 They don’t use the monitor under any conditions even when they have the
opportunity.
 They don’t use conscious linguistic knowledge in their speaking performance.
 These learners aren’t able to correct their own errors in written language.
 These students might not like grammar.
 They believe that grammar rules are important but hardly use when they speak.
 These learners tend to rely on instinct to spot errors in their second language
performance.
 These students are not embarrassed to make mistakes.

3. Optimal Monitor -Users: These language learners are able to keep a balance between
self-correction and fluency so error correction is not an obstacle in their quest of
communication. These learners use their knowledge appropriately. Some of the
characteristics of these users are:

 They have fluency and accuracy when they speak or write.

 These learners are able to correct errors and mistakes in their own language
performance.
 They know the rules and use them when they communicate.

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Affective Variables in Second Language Learning

The Affective Domain

“Affect” refers to emotion or feeling. The affective domain is the emotional side of human
behavior. The development of affective states or feelings involves a variety of personality
factors, feelings both about us and others with whom we come into contact.

Affective Factors in Second Language Learning

Comprehending how human beings feel, respond, believe and value is an exceedingly important
aspect of a theory of second language learning. There are many affective factors in human
behavior which relate to second language learning. Those are:

Self-esteem

The following is a well-accepted definition of self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967, pp. 4-5):

“By self-esteem, we refer to the evaluation which individuals make and customarily
maintain with regard to themselves; it expresses an attitude of approval or
disapproval, and indicates the extent to which individuals believe themselves to be
capable, significant, successful and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal
judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold
toward themselves. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to
others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior.”

Three general levels of self-esteem have been described

1. General or Global Self-esteem

It is the general or prevailing assessment one makes of one's own worth overtime and across a
number of situations. It is said to be relatively stable in a mature adult, and is resistant to change
except by active and extended therapy.

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 2. Situational or Specific Self-esteem

Refers to one's self-appraisals in particular life situations, such as social interaction, work,
education, home etc...

3. Task Self-esteem

It relates to particular tasks with in specific situations. For example, within the educational
domain, task self-esteem might refer to one subject-matter area. Specific self-esteem might
encompass second language learning in general, and task self-esteem might appropriately refer to
one's self-evaluation of a particular aspect of the process: speaking, writing, a particular class in
a second language, or even a special kind of classroom exercise.

Attribution Theory and self-Efficacy

 Attribution Theory

Focuses on how people explain the causes of their own successes and failures. It described in
terms, of four explanations: ability, effort, perceived difficulty of a task, and luck. The two are
internal to the learner: ability and effort; and the other two are attributable to external
circumstances outside of the learner: task difficulty and luck.

 Self- efficacy

It is a belief in one’s own capabilities to successfully perform an activity.

Willingness to Communicate

It is defined as “the intention to initiate communication given a choice” (Macintyre et al; 2001,
P. 369)

It can also be defined as ''an underlying continuum representing the predisposition toward or
away from communicating, given the choice" (Mac- intyre et al; 2002, P. 538). Studies generally
confirm its relationship to self-efficacy and self-confidence.
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Inhibition

Inhibition is an act of protecting an ego to ward off ideas, experiences and feelings that threaten
to dismantle the organization of values and beliefs on which appraisals of self-esteem have been
founded. Some persons; those with higher self-esteem and ego strength, are more able to with
stand threats to their existence, and thus their defenses are lower. Those with weaker self-esteem
maintain walls of inhibitions to protect what is self-perceived to be a weak or fragile ego, or a
lack of self-confidence in a situation or task.

According to Alexander Guiora et al (1972 a) and Ehrman (1996), the human ego encompasses
what is referred as "language ego" or the very personal, egoistic nature of second language
learning.

Meaningful language learning involves some degree of identity conflict as language learners take
on a new identity with their newly acquired competence. An adaptive language ego enables
learners to lower the inhibitions that may impede success.

Risk Taking

Learners have to be able to gamble a bit, to be willing to try out hunches about the language and
take the risk of being wrong.

Risk taking variation seems to be a factor in a number of issues in second language learning and
pedagogy. Self-esteem is closely connected to a risk-taking factor: when those foolish mistakes
are made, a person with high global self-esteem is not daunted by the possible consequences of
being laughed at.

Anxiety

Spielberger (1983, P.1) defined anxiety as "the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension,
nervousness; and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system.

More simply put, anxiety is associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt,
apprehension, or worry (Scovel, 1978, P. 134). Like in the case of self-esteem, it is important in

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a classroom for a teacher to try to determine whether a student's anxiety stems from a more
global trait or whether it comes from a particular situation at the moment. There are two levels of
anxiety. Those are:

1. Trait anxiety:- being predictably and generally anxious about many things.
2. State anxiety:- is an anxiety experienced in relation to some particular moment or fact.
Recent researches on language anxiety focus more on state anxiety.

Three components of foreign language anxiety have been identified. They are:

1. Communicative apprehension: arising from learner's inability to adequately express

mature thoughts and ideas.
2. Fear of Negative social evaluation: arising from a learner's need to make a positive social
impression on others.
3. Test anxiety: apprehension over academic evaluation.

Empathy

Empathy is the process of putting oneself into someone else's shoes, reaching beyond the self to
understand what another person is feeling. Communication requires a sophisticated degree of
empathy. In order to communicate effectively, we need to be able to understand the other
person's affective and cognitive states; communication breaks down when false presuppositions
or assumptions are made about the other person's state.

Extroversion

Extroversion is the extent to which a person has a deep seated need to receive ego enhancements,
self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people as opposed to receiving that affirmation
within oneself. In a comprehensive study on extroversion, Busch(1982) explored the relationship
of introversion and extroversion English proficiency in adult Japanese learners of English in
Japan. She hypothesized that extroverted students would be more proficient than introverts.

Motivation

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Motivation is another affective variable to consider, but that is so central and pervasive.
Motivation is the core element in second language learning scenarios around the world.
Countless studies and experiments in human learning have shown that motivation is a key to
learning in general.

Motivation is something that can, like self-esteem, be global, situational, or task oriented.
Learning a foreign language requires some of all there levels of motivation. For example, a
learner may possess high "global" motivation but low "task" motivation to perform well on, say,
the written mode of the language.

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Communication Strategies

Definition

Communication strategies mean the employment of verbal or non-verbal mechanisms for the
productive communication of information. When learning a second language, learners will
frequently encounter communication problems caused by lack of linguistic resources.
Communication strategies are strategies that learners use to overcome these problems in order to
convey their intended meaning.

The term communication strategy was introduced by Selinker in 1972, and the first systematic
analysis of communication strategies was made by Valadi in 1973.The real boom in
communication strategy scholarship came in the 1980s.

No comprehensive list of strategies has been agreed on by researchers in second language

learning, but some commonly used strategies have been observed. Those are:

Circumlocution

This refers to learners using different words or phrases to express their intended meaning. For
example, if learners do not know the word “grandfather” they may paraphrase it by saying “my
father’s father”.

Word Coinage

This refers to learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do not know. For
example, a learner might refer to an “art gallery” as a “picture place”.

Language Switch

Learners may insert a word from their first language into a sentence, and hope that their
interlocutor will understand.

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Asking for Clarification

The strategy of asking an interlocutor for the correct word or other help. This is done either
directly (e.g., what do you call…?) or indirectly (e.g., rising intonation, pause, eye contact,
puzzled expression etc…).

Non-verbal Strategies

This can refer to strategies such as the use of gesture and mime to augment or replace verbal
communication.

Avoidance

Avoidance can be defined as:

• Message abandonment: leaving a message unfinished because of language difficulties or

• Topic avoidance: avoiding topic areas or concepts that pose language difficulties.

Approximation

Approximation is using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical
item as closely as possible. For example, “ship” for “sailboat”.

Stalling or Time-gaining Strategy

Stalling or time-gaining strategies mean using fillers or hesitation devises to fill pauses and to
gain time to think. For example: “well”, “now let’s see”, “uh”, “as a matter of fact” etc…

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Content-based Language Teaching

Definition

“Content-based language teaching is an approach to second language teaching in which teaching

is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a
linguistic or other type of syllabus” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 204). It is also called
content-based instruction (CBI).

Content-based language teaching (CBLT) involves integrating the learning of language with the
learning of content simultaneously; here, content typically means academic subject matter such
as Maths, Science, Social Studies etc… The language learning objectives are achieved through
content learning. It is a teaching approach that focuses on learning language through learning
about something. Shortly, CBLT is a method of teaching language and content in tandem.

CBLT is considered an empowering approach which encourages learners to learn a language by

using it as a real means of communication from the very first day in class. The idea is to make
them become independent learners so they can continue the learning process even outside the
class. It is thought to be a more natural way of developing language. In a CBLT course, the focus
of learning is not on learning of a language in isolation, but rather learning of language through
the study of subject matter.

A CBLT curriculum is based on a certain subject matter and communicative competence is

acquired in context of learning about certain topics in that subject area. This falls under the top
down approach to language learning where unlike bottom up approach a learner first learns the
overall meaning of a text and then attends to the language features.

Models of CBLT

According to Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989), there are three CBLT models that practitioners
can apply. Those are:

1. Theme-based Language Instruction

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 2. Sheltered-language Instruction

3. Adjunct Language Instruction

1. Theme-based Language Instruction

In this program, a language curriculum is developed around selected topics or themes drawn
from content area such as: global warming, women’s rights, pollution etc… Materials are usually
teacher-generated or adapted from outside sources. An attempt is often made to integrate the
topic into the teaching of all skills (Brinton et al., 1989). The goal is to assist learners in
developing general academic language skills through interesting and relevant content.

Theme-based language instruction is the most widespread of the three content-based models
because, it can be implemented within virtually any existing institutional setting, and theme or
the topic can be selected to match students’ interests.

2. Sheltered-language Instruction

In sheltered-language instruction model, both native speakers and non-native speakers of a

particular language follow a regular academic curriculum. However, for classes with non-native
speakers, ‘sheltered’ instruction is applied to students’ developing second language proficiency.
L2 learners are separated or ‘sheltered’ from native-speaking students.

Sheltered-language instructors support their students through the use of particular instructional
techniques and materials. Sheltered courses usually make certain modifications for the L2
population. Sheltered-language instructors will select texts of a suitable difficulty level for L2
learners and adjust course requirements to accommodate L2 learners’ language capacities
(Brinton et al., 1989).

3. Adjunct Language Instruction

In this model, students are enrolled in two linked courses: on a content course and one a
language course with both courses sharing the same content base but differ in their focus of
instruction. The language teachers emphasize language skills, while content teachers focus on
academic concepts.

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The rationale behind this model is that the linked courses will assist students in developing
academic coping strategies and cognitive skills that will transfer from one discipline to another
(Brinton et al., 1989). This model integrates the language curriculum with the academic language
demands placed on students in their other university courses.

An adjunct program is usually limited to cases where students have language skills that are
sufficiently advanced to enable them to participate in content instruction with native speakers.

CBLT Lesson

Because of the nature of the content, all four skills get integrated. The content continues through
the whole course, not just a handful of lessons. A course on shopping on one day, using the bank
on another day, making hotel reservations etc… is an example of a CBLT class.

An example of CBLT lesson can be approached following these steps.

Preparation

• Initially, a subject of interest is chosen.

• Then, finding suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could
be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people.

How the Lesson Presented

• First, small groups of students are formed.

• Second: assigning each group a task and a source of information in the target language to
use to help them fulfil the task.

• Then, groups sharing and comparing information.

• Finally, a result in the form of an end product such as a report or presentation.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CBLT

Advantages

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 • Language learning becomes more interesting and motivating.

• CBLT offers a wide educational knowledge to learners in the form of the different topics
instructed.

• It helps students develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and
extracting key information from texts.

• Developing collaborative skills, especially when using group work, which can have great
social value.

Disadvantages

• CBLT can confuse learners and may give them the impression that they are not actually
learning language.

• Overuse of native language can be a problem in some parts of the lesson.

• Finding information sources and texts that lower levels can understand can be difficult.

In a nutshell, although CBLT is a challenging approach for both teachers and students, the
outcome of its implementation can be rewarding and motivating.

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Whole Language Approach

Introduction

Whole language is an approach to learning that sees language as a whole entity, and writing,
speaking, reading, and listening should be integrated when learned. In whole language, learning
is built upon the real experiences and background knowledge of the learner. Most importantly,
language is viewed as a whole and should be taught as such. When language is broken down into
separate skills, the learner can neither appreciate nor comprehend it fully. Concerning this,
Brockman (1994) stated, “The learner should experience language wholly before examining its
components”. This is referred to as a "top-to-bottom" approach as opposed to a "bottom-up"
method used in traditional approaches (Huerta-Macias, 1993).

In a whole language classroom, reading, writing, listening, and speaking are taught together,
rather than in isolation. According to Lamb and Best (1990), when a teacher integrates these
skills, he or she maximizes learning time while exposing students to the many forms of language.

Characteristics of Whole Language Approach

Whole language learning is based on real texts and real life experiences. Language is learned
through usage, similar to the way a baby learns language. According to Edelsky, Altwerger and
Flores (1991), students should learn by doing, not by practice and drill. This means that materials
used are real. Basal readers are substituted for trade books. Writing is based on the students'
personal experiences; it is not done solely to please the teacher. According to Rigg (1991), the
focus of writing class is on the writing process, not the product.

Whole language learners and teachers focus on meaning and comprehension in language use.
The expression of meaning is the most important goal of any language activity. Reading and
writing is meaningful for a student who can connect it with his or her own experience. This is a
motivating, purposeful, and, therefore, positive experience for the learner. "Learners need to see
a purpose in their activities, and it must be their purpose, not the teacher's" (Brockman, 1994).

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Another focus of whole language is on the social content of language; because, whenever
language is used, there is a sender of a message and a receiver. Texts are written to convey
meaning to others. In the whole language classroom, learners socialize naturally as they do in the
real world and are thus creating meaningful experiences. Edelsky, Altwerger and Flores (1991)
describe meaning conveyed socially through language:

“The meanings for texts are not in the texts or even in the language. Language
can only mean what its community of users know; the meanings users have
attached to the experiences they have had. When the language community has
new experiences the range of potential meanings for the language (users) is
expanded" (p. 10).

In this way, a whole language teacher acknowledges the importance of sharing language through
socialization. The other feature of whole language is the learner-centered environment. Freeman
&Freeman (1988) stated that by incorporating the prior knowledge of students and focusing on
their strengths, learning is centered around the student. In effect, the learners' previous and
current experience guide the curriculum. The role of the whole language teacher is that of a
facilitator or collaborator who guides the learner by providing an environment filled with
language. When this concept is combined with the other principles of whole language, the result
is a natural language learning process. Because of this, these theories of learning provide learners
with skills to use in real life situations.

Application of Whole Language Approach

Whole language techniques help both children and adults learn a second language much in the
same way they learned their first languages. Babies learn to
use language by engaging in language and building on what they know. Their purpose is to
convey meaning as Edelsky, Altwerger & Flores (1991) argue. This is also the purpose in whole
language and research demonstrates that it is an effective and motivating approach for both
children and adult ESL learners. Heald-Taylor (1986) compiled a list of eight ways in which the
whole approach can benefit ESL learners as follows:

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1. Youngsters can participate in all language activities regardless of their level of proficiency in
English.
2. Mixed ability groups can learn together.
3. Learning strategies are child-centered, causing youngsters to continually experience and use
language to think and to seek meaning.
4. Development in oral language, reading, and writing are totally integrated and grow
simultaneously.
5. Rate of growth is completely individual.
6. The student uses his/her developing English in the reading and writing process right from the
start.
7. Students learn to speak, read, and write by being engaged in the process.
8. Whole language processes facilitate growth in both first and second languages.

The whole language approach, therefore, is one that includes learners of varying ability,
cultures, levels, and learning styles. As Brockman (1994) points out, ESL learners can
comfortably practice using English in an environment that is welcoming and safe. The focus
is on the meaning and knowledge that learners bring to the class, not on their lack of
knowledge.

Whole Language Classes

Rigg (1991) describes kindergarten and first grade classes in which students are composing texts
and writing in dialogue journals even though they lack many structural skills. Students learn
about language by hearing literature and actually writing. The teacher focuses on meaning in
their writing, and the form eventually develops also. The students feel successful because they
convey meaning and the teacher commends their efforts. Because of their success, they continue
to write more.

Rupp (1986) shares his experiences with an elementary whole language program and describes
several activities used daily. All the activities begin with a shared class experience and follow up

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with individual and small group reading and writing activities. This process allows students to
work at their own level and pace "risk-free."
They learn from working with peers, and they learn how to work with others. Time is included to
confer with the teacher one-on-one to improve skills, and students learn language without fear of
making mistakes.

In the elementary whole language classroom, it is important that the students have opportunities
to share their writing. Writing conferences are one way for teachers and peers to provide
personal feedback. Whole language activities in the elementary whole language classroom
include individual and small group reading and writing activities, ungraded dialogue journals,
writing portfolios, writing conferences, and student-made books.

Lamb and Best (1990) discuss several whole language activities during which children develop
reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. By encouraging spontaneous conversations,
teachers allow students to reinforce existing knowledge while learning new language from
others. Ungraded dialogue journals provide a "non-threatening, comfortable environment to
write". Students' writing portfolios provide a means of assessing progress in writing throughout
the year. And through the portfolio, a teacher can continually evaluate not only writing
development, but also students' use of the writing process.

It is important to note that much research also demonstrates the effectiveness of the whole
language approach in adult ESL classrooms. Brockman (1994) provides reasons why the whole
language approach is appropriate for adult learners as follows: “Adult learners have an extensive
bank of life experiences. This means that adult learners have much to write, read, and talk
about. This is an advantage to adult learners in a classroom setting where students are asked to
draw meaning from their background knowledge.” Whole language philosophy says that
"meaning is not something that a reader gets from the language; rather, the reader brings
meaning to the language" (Brockman, 1994). Focusing on meaning means the whole language
approach focuses on strengths of adult learners.

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Finally, the materials used in whole language are authentic, not contrived for the lesson.
Authentic materials are appealing to adults because they know that they are challenges that they
will eventually encounter in order to survive. Some examples are bus schedules, recipes, and
news reports.

Conclusions

Whole language is an approach to, or attitude toward learning that sees language as a whole
entity, and writing, speaking, reading, and listening should be integrated when learned. It is not a
teaching method. Whole language techniques help both children and adults learn a second
language much in the same way they learned their first languages.

Whole language activities in the elementary whole language classroom include individual and
small group reading and writing activities, ungraded dialogue journals, writing portfolios, writing
conferences, and student-made books.

Much research also demonstrates the effectiveness of the whole language approach in adult
classrooms. The whole language approach is an attractive approach to adults for several reasons:
adults respond well to a classroom environment that asks them to actually do something; adults
look for a purpose or usefulness in a lesson; whole language activities are applicable to daily life;
and the materials used in whole language are authentic, not contrived for the lesson.

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