WEEK4

MEASUREMENT, SCALING
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN AND
SAMPLING

By Dr. Muhammad Ramzan

[email protected],
03004487844

Edited by Ahsan Khan Eco

[email protected]
03008046243
Scale
 Series of items arranged according to value for the
purpose of quantification
 A continuous spectrum
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal Numbers
Finish
Assigned
7 8 3
to Runners

Ordinal Rank Order Finish

of Winners
Third Second First
place place place
Interval Performance
Rating on a 8.2 9.1 9.6

0 to 10 Scale

Ratio Time to
15.2 14.1 13.4
Finish, in
 Nominal Scale

 The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and

classifying objects.
 When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one
correspondence between the numbers and the objects.
 The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic
possessed by the objects.
 The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal
scale is counting.
 Social security number, hockey players number. Imn marketing
research respondents, brands, attributes, stores and other
objects
Ordinal Scale

 A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to

indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some
characteristic.
 Can determine whether an object has more or less of a
characteristic than some other object, but not how much more
or less.
 Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the
ordered relationships between the objects. So relative
position of objects not the magnitude of difference between
the objects.
 In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal
scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based
on percentile, quartile, median.
 Possess description and order, not distance or origin
Interval Scale

 Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal

values in the characteristic being measured.
 It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
 The difference between 1 & 2 is same as between 2 & 3
 The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point
and the units of measurement are arbitrary.
 Everyday temperature scale. Attitudinal data obtained on
rating scales.
 Do not possess origin characteristics (zero and exact
measurement)
Ratio Scale

 The highest scale that allows to identify objects, rank order of

objects, and compare intervals or differences. It is also
meaningful to compute ratios of scale values
 Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and
interval scales. It has an absolute zero point.
 Height, weight, age, money. Sales, costs, market share and
number of customers are variables measured on a ratio scale
 All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.
 Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Scale Scale Scale Scale
Preference
Preference $ spent last
No. Store Rankings Ratings 3
months 1-7 11-17
7 79 5 15 0
1. Lord & Taylor 2 25 7 17 200
2. Macy’s 8 82 4 14 0
3. Kmart 3 30 6 16 100
4. Rich’s 1 10 7 17 250
5. J.C. Penney 5 53 5 15 35
6. Neiman Marcus 9 95 4 14 0
7. Target 6 61 5 15 100
8. Saks Fifth Avenue 4 45 6 16 0
9. Sears 10 115 2 12 10
10.Wal-Mart
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale Basic Common Marketing Permissible Statistics
Characteristics Examples Examples Descriptive Inferential
Nominal Numbers identify Social Security Brand nos., store Percentages, Chi-square,
& classify objects nos., numbering types mode binomial test
of football players
Ordinal Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, Preference Percentile, Rank-order
relative positions rankings of teams rankings, market median correlation,
of objects but not in a tournament position, social Friedman
the magnitude of class ANOVA
differences
between them
Interval Differences Temperature Attitudes, Range, mean, Product-
between objects (Fahrenheit) opinions, index standard moment
Ratio Zero point is fixed, Length, weight Age, sales, Geometric Coefficient of
ratios of scale income, costs mean, harmonic variation
values can be mean
compared
 Scale Evaluation
Scale Evaluation

Reliability Validity Generalizability

Test/ Alternative Internal

Content Criterion Construct
Retest Forms Consistency

Convergent Discriminant Nomological

Reliability
 Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures
are free from random error, the measure is perfectly
reliable.
 In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered
identical sets of scale items at two different times and the
degree of similarity between the two measurements is
determined.
 In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of the
scale are constructed and the same respondents are
measured at two different times, with a different form
being used each time.
Reliability
 Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which
different parts of a summated scale are consistent in what they
indicate about the characteristic being measured.
 In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into
two halves and the resulting half scores are correlated.
 The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the average of
all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways
of splitting the scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1,
and a value of 0.6 or less generally indicates unsatisfactory
internal consistency reliability.
Validity
 The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to which
differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences
among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather
than systematic or random error. Perfect validity requires that
there be no measurement error.
 Content validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation of
how well the content of a scale represents the measurement
task at hand.
 Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as
expected in relation to other variables selected (criterion
variables) as meaningful criteria.
 Validity
 Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or
characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. Researcher tries to
answer theoretical questions, why the sale works and what
deductions can be made concerning the underlying theory. It
requires a sound theory of the nature of construct being measures
and how it relates to other construct. Construct validity includes
convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity.
 Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with
other measures of the same construct.
 Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with
other constructs from which it is supposed to differ.
 Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates in
theoretically predicted ways with measures of different but related constructs.
Relationship Between Reliability and Validity

 If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable.

 If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly valid.
 Furthermore, systematic error may also be present, Thus,
unreliability implies invalidity.
 If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not be
perfectly valid, because systematic error may still be present.
 Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
validity.
A Good Questionnaire Appears
 As easy to compose as a good poem
 But, it is usually the result of long, painstaking work
The Major Decisions in Questionnaire
Design
1. What should be asked?
2. How should each question be phrased?
3. In what sequence should the questions be
arranged?
4. What questionnaire layout will best serve the
research objectives?
5. How should the questionnaire be pretested?
Does the questionnaire need to be revised?
• Avoid Complexity: use simple, conversational
language
• Avoid leading and loaded questions

• Avoid ambiguity: be as specific as possible

• Avoid double-barreled items

• Avoid making assumptions

• Avoid burdensome questions

1. Do you believe that private citizens have the right to
own firearms to defend themselves, their families, and
property from violent criminal attack?

Yes No Undecided

2. Do you believe that a ban on the private ownership

of firearms would be significantly reduce the number of
murders and robberies in your community?

Yes No Undecided
1a. How many years have you been playing tennis on a regular basis?
Number of years: __________

b. What is your level of play?

Novice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 Advanced . . . . . . . -4
Lower Intermediate . . . . . -2 Expert . . . . . . . . . -5
Upper Intermediate . . . . . -3 Teaching Pro . . . . -6

c. In the last 12 months, has your level of play improved, remained the
same or decreased?

Improved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 Decreased. . . . . . . -3
Remained the same . . . . . -2
2a. Do you belong to a club with tennis facilities? Yes . . . . . . . -1
No . . . . . . . -2

b. How many people in your household - including yourself - play tennis?

Number who play tennis ___________

3a. Why do you play tennis? (Please “X” all that apply.)

To have fun . . . . . . . . . . -1
To stay fit. . . . . . . . . . . . -2
To be with friends. . . . . . -3
To improve my game . . . -4
To compete. . . . . . . . . . . -5
To win. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -6

b. In the past 12 months, have you purchased any tennis instructional

books or video tapes? Yes . . . . . . . -1
No . . . . . . . -2
Dear Passenger:

American Airlines is pleased to have you on board today.

To help us provide the best service possible, we need to know

more about you and your opinions of our service. If you are
over 11 years old, we would appreciate it if you would complete
this questionnaire.

Your flight attendant will pick up your completed questionnaire

shortly.

Thank you.
1. Please indicate: Flight number ___________ Date_____________

2a. At the city where you boarded this particular plane, did you make a
connection from another flight?
Yes, from American . . . . 1
Yes, from Other Airline . . 2
No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

b. Did you board this plane at the airport from which it just took off, or
were you a through passenger for which that was an intermediate stop?

Boarded here . . . . . . . . . . 1
Through passenger. . . . . . 2

3. How would you rate the overall service from American for this flight,
all things considered, from your arrival at the airport terminal until now?

Excellent Good Fair Poor

Overall Service . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4
4. Please rate each of the following with regard to this flight, if applicable.
Excellent Good Fair Poor
1 2 3 4
Courtesy and Treatment from the:
Skycap at airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airport Ticket Counter Agent . . . . .
Boarding Point (Gate) Agent . . . . .
Flight Attendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Your Meal or Snack. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beverage Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seat Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carry-On Stowage Space. . . . . . . .
Cabin Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Video/Stereo Entertainment . . . . . .
On-Time Departure . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questionnaire Design
 Question sequence
 Question layout
 Pretesting is Important
Sampling Terminology- 1
 Population: The aggregate of all the elements
sharing some common set of characteristics that
comprises the universe for the purpose of the
marketing research problem. The population
parameters are typically numbers such as customers
loyal to a particular brand of toothpaste. The
information about the population parameters may
be obtained through a census or sample.

 Census involves a complete enumeration of the

elements of a population
 Sampling Terminology-2
 Sample is a subgroup of the elements of the
population selected for participation in the study.

 Sample characteristics/statistics are used to make

inferences about the population parameters. The
inferences that link sample characteristics and
population parameters are estimation procedures
and test of hypotheses
Conditions for Sample vs. Census Use

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget Small Large

2. Time available Short Long

3. Population size Large Small

4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large

5. Cost of sampling errors Low High

6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low

7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive

8. Attention to individual cases Yes No

The Sampling Design Process

Define the Population

Determine the Sampling Frame

Select Sampling Technique(s)

Determine the Sample Size

Execute the Sampling Process

Define the Target Population
The target population is the collection of elements or objects
that possess the information sought by the researcher and
about which inferences are to be made. The target population
should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent,
and time.

 An element is the object about which or from which the

information is desired, e.g., the respondent.
 A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the
element, that is available for selection at some stage of the
sampling process.
 Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
 Time is the time period under consideration.
Define the Target Population
Important qualitative factors in determining the sample size

 the importance of the decision

 the nature of the research

 the number of variables

 the nature of the analysis

 sample sizes used in similar studies

 incidence rates

 completion rates

 resource constraints
 Sample Sizes Used in Business
Research Studies

Type of Study Minimum Size Typical Range

Problem identification research 500 1,000-2,500

(e.g. market potential)
Problem-solving research (e.g. 200 300-500
pricing)

Product tests 200 300-500

Test marketing studies 200 300-500

TV, radio, or print advertising (per 150 200-300

commercial or ad tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20 stores

Focus groups 2 groups 4-12 groups

 Classification of Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability sampling relies on personal judgment of the
researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. The
researcher can arbitrary or consciously decide what elements to
include in the sample and may yield good estimates of the
population characteristics. The estimates obtained are not
statistically projectable to the population.

Probability sampling is a procedure in which each element of the

population has a fixed probabilistic chance of being selected for
the sample. Sampling units are selected by chance. It requires a
precise definition of the target population and general specification
of the sampling frame. Confidence intervals which contain the true
population value with a given level of certainty, can be calculated.
This allows researcher to make inferences and projections about the
target population, from which sample was drawn.
Nonprobability: Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of

convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected because
they happen to be in the right place at the right time.

 use of students, and members of social organizations

 mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents

 department stores using charge account lists

 “people on the street” interviews

Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in
which the population elements are selected based on the
judgment of the researcher.

 test markets
 purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research

 bellwether precincts selected in voting behavior research

 expert witnesses used in court

 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.
 The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements.
 In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is
selected, usually at random.

 After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to

identify others who belong to the target population of
interest.
 Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.
Probability: Simple Random Sampling
 Each element in the population has a known and
equal probability of selection.
 Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known
and equal probability of being the sample actually
selected.
 This implies that every element is selected
independently of every other element.
 Systematic Sampling
 The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then
picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.
 The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population
size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
 When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic
of interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of
the sample.
 If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern,
systematic sampling may decrease the representativeness of the
sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a
sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is
100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for
example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23,
123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
Stratified Sampling
 A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into
subpopulations, or strata.
 The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive in that every population element should be
assigned to one and only one stratum and no population
elements should be omitted.
 Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random
procedure, usually SRS.
 A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision
without increasing cost.
 Stratified Sampling
 The elements within a stratum should be as uniform as possible, but
the elements in different strata should be as mixed as possible.
 The stratification variables should also be closely related to the
characteristic of interest.
 Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification
process by being easy to measure and apply.
 In proportionate(balanced) stratified sampling, the size of the
sample drawn from each stratum is proportionate to the relative
size of that stratum in the total population.
 In disproportionate (unequal) stratified sampling, the size of the
sample from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of
that stratum and to the standard deviation of the distribution of the
characteristic of interest among all the elements in that stratum.
 Cluster Sampling
 The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.
 Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a
probability sampling technique such as SRS.
 For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn
probabilistically (two-stage).
 Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous (mixed) as
possible, but clusters themselves should be as homogeneous (uniform)
as possible. Ideally, each cluster should be a small-scale
representation of the population.
 In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage,
the probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster
varies inversely with the size of the cluster.
Non probability Sampling
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Convenience Least expensive, least time- Selection bias, sample not representative, not
consuming, most convenient recommended for descriptive or causal research

Judgmental Low cost, convenient, not time- Does not allow generalization, subjective
consuming
Quota Sample can be controlled for Selection bias, no assurance of representativeness
certain characteristics
Snowball Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics
Probability Sampling
Simple Easily understood, results Difficult to construct sampling frame, expensive, lower
random (SRS) projectable precision, no assurance of representativeness
Systematic Can increase repre…tiveness, Can decrease repre..iveness
easier to implement than SRS, if there are cyclical patterns
sampling frame not necessary
Stratified Includes all important Difficult to select relevant stratification variables, not
subpopulations, precision feasible to stratify on many variables, expensive

Cluster Easy to implement, Cost - Imprecise, Difficult to compute and interpret results
effective
Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Simple Random
Sampling

1. Select a suitable sampling frame

2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N
(pop. size)
3. Generate n (sample size) different random numbers
between 1 and N
4. The numbers generated denote the elements that
should be included in the sample
Procedures for Drawing
Probability Samples
Systematic
Sampling

1. Select a suitable sampling frame

2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (pop. size)
3. Determine the sampling interval i:i=N/n. If i is a fraction,
round to the nearest integer
4. Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in
simple random sampling
5. The elements with the following numbers will comprise the
systematic random sample: r, r+i,r+2i,r+3i,r+4i,...,r+(n-1)i
 Procedures for Drawing
Probability Samples
Stratified
Sampling

1. Select a suitable frame

2. Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata, H
3. Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the
classification variable, each element of the population is assigned
to one of the H strata
4. In each stratum, number the elements from 1 to Nh (the pop.
size of stratum h)
5. Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on
proportionate or disproportionate stratified sampling, where
H
nh = n
h=1
6. In each stratum, select a simple random sample of size nh
 Procedures for Drawing
Cluster
Probability Samples Sampling

1. Assign a number from 1 to N to each element in the population

2. Divide the population into C clusters of which c will be included in
the sample
3. Calculate the sampling interval i, i=N/c (round to nearest integer)
4. Select a random number r between 1 and i, as explained in simple
random sampling
5. Identify elements with the following numbers:
r,r+i,r+2i,... r+(c-1)i
6. Select the clusters that contain the identified elements
7. Select sampling units within each selected cluster based on SRS
or systematic sampling
8. Remove clusters exceeding sampling interval i. Calculate new
population size N*, number of clusters to be selected C*= C-1,
and new sampling interval i*.
Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Cluster
Sampling

Repeat the process until each of the remaining

clusters has a population less than the
sampling interval. If b clusters have been
selected with certainty, select the remaining
c-b clusters according to steps 1 through 7.
The fraction of units to be sampled with
certainty is the overall sampling fraction = n/N.
Thus, for clusters selected with certainty, we
would select ns=(n/N)(N1+N2+...+Nb) units. The
units selected from clusters selected under
PPS sampling will therefore be n*=n- ns.
 Choosing Nonprobability vs. Probability Sampling

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Factors Nonprobability Probability
sampling sampling

Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive

Relative magnitude of sampling Nonsampling Sampling

and nonsampling errors errors are errors are
larger larger

Variability in the population Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(low) (high)

Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable

Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable

 Improving Response Rates
Methods of Improving
Response Rates

Reducing Reducing
Refusals Not-at-Homes

Prior Motivating Incentives Questionnaire Follow-Up Other

Notification Respondents Design Facilitators
and
Administration

Callbacks
 You are good
students
By Dr. Muhammad Ramzan
[email protected],
03004487844

Edited by Ahsan Khan Eco

[email protected]
03008046243