Operating Systems

Operating System Concept :-

An operating system (often referred to as OS) is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources (the
CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer system and provides its users with an interface or virtual
machine that is more convenient to use than the bare machine. According to this definition, the two objectives
of an operating system are:

1. Making a computer system convenient to use : An operating system is a layer of software on top of the
bare hardware of a computer system, which manages all parts of the system, and presents to the user
with an interface or virtual machine, which is easier to program and use. That is, the operating system
hides the details of the hardware resources from the programmer and provides the programmer with a
convenient interface for using the computer system.

Users
Other System
Software and Application Programs
Operating System
Computer Hardware

Fig. Logical architecture of a computer system. The operating system layer

hides the details of the hardware from the programmer and provides the
programmer with a convenient interface for using the system.

2. Managing the resources of a computer system : The second important objective of an operating
system is to manage the various resources of the computer system. This involves performing such tasks
as keeping track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, accounting for resource
usage, and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users. The efficient and fair sharing
of resources among users and / or programs is a key goal of most operating systems.

Main Functions of an Operating System

The main functions performed by most operating systems of today are as follows:
1. Process Management : The process management module of an operating system takes care of the
creation and deletion of processes, scheduling of various system resources to the different processes
requesting them, and providing mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.
2. Memory Management : The memory management module of an operating system takes care of the
allocation and deal location of memory space to the various programs in need of this resource.
3. File Management : The file management module of an operating system takes care of file-related
activities such as organization, storing retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
4. Security : The security module of an operating system protects the resources and information of a
computer system against destruction and unauthorized access.
5. Command Interpretation : The command interpretation module of an operating system takes care of
interpreting user commands, and directing the system resources to handle the requests. With this mode of
interaction with the system, the user is usually not too concerned with the hardware details of the system.

In addition to the above listed major functions, an operating system also performs few other functions such as
keeping an account of which users (or processes) use how much and what kinds of computer resources,
maintenance of log of system usage by all users, and maintenance of internal time clock.
Measuring System Performance
The efficiency of an operating system and the overall performance of a computer system are usually measured
in terms of the following:
1. Through put : Throughput is the amount of work that the system is able to do per unit time. It is
measured as the number of processes that are completed by the system per unit time. For example, if n
processes are completed in an interval of t seconds, the throughput is taken as n/t processes per second
during that interval. Throughput is normally measured in processes / hour. Note that the value of
throughput does not depend only on the capability of a system, but also on the nature of jobs being
processes, by the system. For long processes, throughput may be one process / hour; and for short
processes, throughput may be 100 processes / hour.
2. Turnaround time : From the point of view of an individual user, an important criterion is how long it taken
the system to complete a job submitted by him / her. Turnaround time is the interval from the time of
submission of a job to the system for processing to the time of completion of the job. Although, higher
throughput is desirable from the point of view of overall system performance, individual users are more
interested in better turnaround time for their jobs.
3. Response time : Turnaround time is usually is usually not a suitable measure for interactive systems,
because in an interactive system, a process can produce some output early during its execution and can
continue executing while previous results are being output to the user. Hence, another measure used in
case of interactive systems for processing to the time the first response for the job is produced by the
system.

In any computer system, it is desirable to maximize throughput and minimize turnaround time and response
time.

Process Management
A Process (also called job) is a program in execution. The main objective of the process management module
of an operating system is to manage the processes submitted to the system in a manner to minimize the idle
time of the various processors (CPU, I/O processors, etc.) of the computer system. In this section, we will learn
about some of the mechanisms commonly used in modern operating systems to achieve this objective. We will
also see how these mechanisms have gradually evolved from the early days of computers.

Process Management in Early Systems

In early computers systems, a job was typically executed in the following manner:
1. A programmer would first write the program on paper.
2. It was then punched on cards or paper tape along with its data.
3. The deck of card or the paper tape containing the program and data was then submitted at the reception
counter of the computer centre.
4. An operator would then take the cards deck or paper tape and manually load it into the system from card
reader or paper tape reader. The operator was also responsible for loading any other software resource
(such as a language compiler) or setting hardware devices required for the execution of the job. Before
loading of the job, the operator had to use the front panel switches of the computer system to clear the
main memory to remove any data remaining from the previous job.
5. The operator would then set the appropriate switches in the front panel to run the job.
6. The result of execution counter for the programmer to collect it later.

The same process had to be repeated for every job to be executed by the computer. This method of job
execution was known as the manual loading mechanism because the job had to be manually loaded one
after another by the computer operator in the computer system. Notice that in this method, job-to-job
transition was not automatic. The manual transition from one job to another caused lot of computer time to
be wasted since the computer remained idle while the operator loaded and unloaded jobs and prepared
the system for a new job.
 In case of batch processing systems, job were typically executed in the following manner:
1. Programmers would prepare their programs and data on decks of cards or paper tapes, and submitted
them at the reception counter of the computer centre.
2. The operator would periodically collect all the submitted programs and would batch them together and
then load them all into the input devices of the system at one time.
3. The operator would then give a command to the system to start executing the jobs.
4. The jobs were then automatically loaded from the input device and executed by the system one-by-one
without any operator intervention. That is, the system would read the first job from the input device,
execute it, print out its result on the printer, and then repeat these steps for each subsequent job, until all
the jobs in the submitted batch of jobs were over.
5. When all the jobs in the submitted batch processed, the operator would separate and keep the printed
output of each job at the reception counter for the programmers to collect them later.

Multiprogramming
Main memory
In case of both manual loading and batch
processing of jobs, the jobs are loaded into the Operating system OS area
system and processed one at a time. That is,

Execution in
once loaded, a job will remain in the main

progress
memory until its execution is completed and the User
User job Program
next job will be loaded only after the completion
area
of the previous job. As shown in figure 14.3, in
such a situation, the job, which is currently
loaded and is being executed, will be the sole
occupant of the user’s area of the main memory CPU
(the operating system always resides in a part of Fig. A uniprogramming system model in which only one job
the main memory) and it will have the CPU is processed by the system at a time and all the system
exclusively available for itself. The situation resources are exclusively available for the job until it
shown in figure 14.3 is that of a uniprogramming completes.
system in which only one job is processed at a time and all the system resources are exclusively available for
the job until it completes.

1. CPU-bound jobs. These jobs mostly perform numerical calculations, with little I/O operations. They are
so called because they heavily utilize the CPU during the course of their processing. Programs used for
scientific and engineering computations usually fall in this category of jobs.
2. I/O-bound jobs. These jobs perform very little computation and most of the time they perform I/O
operations. Hence, their CPU utilization is very low. Programs used for commercial data processing
applications usually fall in this category of jobs.

Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of two or more different and independent
programs by the same computer. In figure 14.3, we have been introduced to the notion of having two programs
in the main memory at the same time – the operating system for overall system control and the user program
for performing user’s job. In multiprogramming, this concept is carried one step further by placing two or more
user programs in the main memory and executing them concurrently.

It is important to note here that multiprogramming is not defined to be execution of instructions from several
programs simultaneously. Rather, it does mean that there are a number of programs available to the CPU
(stored in the main memory) and that a portion of one is executed, then a segment of another, and so on.
Although two or more user programs reside in the main memory simultaneously, the CPU is capable of
execution only one instruction at a time. Hence at any given time, only one of the programs has control of the
CPU and is executing instructions. Simultaneous execution of more than one program with a single CPU is
impossible. In some multiprogramming systems, only a fixed number of job can be processed concurrently
(multiprogramming with fixed tasks) (MFT), while in others the number of jobs can very (multi programming with
variable tasks) (MVT).
 Main memory Job is allocated the
Writing
output Operating system New CPU for execution
Ready Running Job

Execution in
data job

progress
Job A processing
completed
Job B
Job C I/O
(waiting for CPU) completed Job must wait for
Secondary I/O completion
disk storage CPU
Blocked
Fig. A typical scenario of jobs in a
multiprogramming system. Fig. The three different states in which jobs
may be after getting loaded in the main
memory in a multiprogramming system.

Requirements of Multiprogramming Systems

Multiprogramming systems have better throughput than uniprogramming system because the CPU idle time is
drastically reduced. However, multiprogramming systems are sophisticated because they require the following
additional hardware and software features:
1. Large memory. For multiprogramming to work satisfactory, large main memory is required to
accommodate a good number of user programs along with the operating system.
2. Memory protection. Computers designed for multiprogramming must provide some type of memory
protection mechanism to prevent a job in one memory partition from changing information or instruction of
a job in another memory partition. For example, in figure 14.4 we would not want job A to inadvertently
destroy something in the completely independent job B or job C. In a multiprogramming system, this is
achieved by the memory protection feature, a combination of hardware and software, which prevents one
job from addressing beyond the limits of its own allocated memory area.
3. Job status preservation. In multiprogramming, when a running job is blocked for I/O processing, the
CPU is taken away from this job and given to another job that is ready for execution. Later the former job
will be allocated the CPU to continue its execution. Notice that this requires preserving of the jobs
complete status information when the CPU is taken away from it and restoring this information back,
before the CPU is given back to it again. To enable this, the operating system maintains a process control
block (PCB) for each loaded process. A typical process control block is shown in figure 14.6 With this
arrangement, before taking away the CPU from a running process, its status is preserved in its PCB, and
before the process resumes execution when the CPU is given back to it later, its status is restored back
from its PCB. Hence, the process can continue execution without any problem
Process identifier

Process state
Program counter
Values of various
CPU registers
Accounting and
scheduling information
I/O status information
Y

Fig. A typical process control block (PCB).

4. Proper job mix. A proper mix of I/O-bound jobs is required to effectively overlap the operations of the
CPU and I/O devices. If all the loaded jobs need I/O at the same time, the CPU will again be idle. Hence,
the main memory should contain some bound and some I/O-bound jobs so that at least one job is always
ready to utilize the CPU.
5. CPU scheduling. In a multiprogramming system, often there will be situations in which two or more jobs
will be in the ready state, waiting for CPU to be allocated for execution. When more than one process is in
 the ready state when the CPU for execution. The part of the operating system concerned with this
decision is called the CPU scheduler, and the algorithm it uses is called the CPU scheduling algorithm

Multitasking
Technically speaking, multitasking is the same as multiprogramming. That is, multitasking is the system’s
capability to concurrently work on more than one task (job or process). This means that whenever a task (job or
process) needs to perform I/O operations, the CPU can be used for executing some other task (job or process)
that is also residing in the system and is ready to use the CPU.

Many authors do not distinguish between multiprogramming and multitasking because both the terms refer to
the same concept. However, some authors prefer to use the term multiprogramming for multi-user system
(systems that are simultaneously used by many users such as mainframe and server class system), and
multitasking for single –user systems (systems that are used by only one user at a time such as a personal
computer or a notebook computer). Note that even in a single-user system, it is not necessary that the system
the system work only on one job at a time. In fact, a user of a single-user system system often has multiple
tasks concurrently processed by the system. For example, while editing a file in the foreground, a sorting job
can be given in the background.

For those who like to differentiate between multiprogramming and multitasking, multiprogramming is the
concurrent execution of multiple job (of same or different users) in a multi-user system, while multitasking is the
concurrent execution of multiple jobs (often referred to as tasks of same user) in a single-user system.

Multiprocessing
Up to this point, we have considered systems with a single CPU. However, we have already seen that the use
of I/O processors improves the efficiency of a computer system by making possible concurrent input,
processing and output operations. The CPU can perform arithmetic and logical operations on parts of one or
more programs, while I/O operations are concurrently carried out by I/O processors on other parts of programs.
Figure 14.7 shows the architecture of a computer with its CPU, memory and I/O processors.

Main memory

I/O Units I/O Processors CPU

Fig. Architecture of a computer system showing its CPU, memory and I/O processors.

The idea to use I/O processors to improve the performance of a computer system was carried one step further
by designing systems that make use of more than one CPU. Such system are called multiprocessing systems.
The term multiprocessing is used to describe interconnected computer configurations or computers with two or
more CPUs, which have the ability to simultaneously execute several programs. In such a system, instructions
from different and independent programs can be processed simultaneously by different CPUs, or the CPUs
may simultaneously execute different instructions from the same program.

CPU-1 Main memory CPU-2

I/O processors I/O processors

I/O units I/O units

Fig. Basic organization of a typical multiprocessing system.

Difference between Multiprogramming and Multiprocessing
Multiprogramming is the interleaved execution of two or more processes by a single-CPU computer system. On
the other hand, multiprocessing is the simultaneous execution of two or more processes by a computer
systemhaving more than one CPU. To be more specific, multiprogramming involves executing a portion of one
programthen a segment of another, etc., in brief consecutive periods. Multiprocessing, however, makes it
possible for the system to simultaneously work on several program segments of one or more programs.

Advantages and Limitations of Multiprocessing

Multiprocessing systems typically have the following advantages:
1. Better Performance. Due to multiplicity of processors, multiprocessor systems have better performance
(shorter response times and higher throughput) than single-processor systems. For example, if there are
two different programs to be run, two processors are evidently more powerful than one because the
programs can be simultaneously run on different processors. Furthermore, if a particular computation can
be partitioned into a number of sub computations that can run concurrently, in a multiprocessor system, all
the sub computations can be simultaneously run, with each one on a different processor (popularly known
as parallel processing).
2. Better Reliability. Due to multiplicity of processors, multiprocessor systems also have better reliability
than single-processor systems. In a properly designed multiprocessor system, if one of the processors
breaks down, the other processor(s) automatically takes over the system workload until repairs are made.
Hence, a complete breakdown of such system can be avoided

Time-sharing
Time-sharing is a mechanism to provide simultaneous interactive use of a computer system by many users in
such a way that each user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own computer. It uses
multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling algorithm to achieve this.

A time-sharing system has many (even hundreds of) user terminals simultaneously connected to the same
computer. Using these terminals, multiple users can simultaneously work on the system. The multiprogramming
feature allows multiple user programs to simultaneously reside in the main memory. The special CPU
scheduling algorithm, used in a time sharing system, allocates a very short period of CPU time one-by-one to
each user process, beginning from the first user process and proceeding through the last one, and then again
beginning from the first one. This short period of time during which a user process gets the attention of the CPU
is known as a time slice, time slot, or quantum and is typically of the order of 10 to 100 milliseconds. That is,
when the CPU is allocated to a user process, the user process will use the CPU until the allotted time slice
expires (the system’s clock sends an interrupt signal to the CPU after every time slice), or until the process
needs to perform some I/O operation, or if the execution of the process is over during this time period. Notice
here that in a time-sharing system, the CPU is taken away from a running process when the allotted time slice
expires, even though the process can continue to run. Hence, the process state diagram of a time-sharing
system is as shown in figure 14.9 (compare this with the process state diagram of figure 14.5)

Job is allocated the

New CPU for execution
Ready Running Job
Job
Allotted time processing
slice is over completed

I/O
completed Job must wait for
I/O completion
Blocked

Fig. The process state diagram for a time-sharing system.

Now let us see how the CPU scheduling algorithm, mentioned above, give an impression to each user that
he/she has his/her own computer. Let us assume that the time slice of a time-sharing system is 10 milliseconds.
That is, the CPU scheduling algorithm of this system allocates 10 millisecond to each user process one-by-one
in a circular fashion (when the last process is over, it comes back to the first process). Let the processing speed
of the system’s CPU be 500 million instructions per second. That is, it can execute 500 X 10 6 X 10-3 X 10 = 5 X
106 = 5 million instructions in 10 milliseconds. This is large enough for substantial progress of a single user
process. Let there be 100 user terminals and 100 simultaneous user using the system. If 10 milliseconds is
allocated to each user process one-by-one, a particular user will get the CPU’s attention once in every 10 X
100milliseconds = 1second. As human reaction time is normally of the order of a few seconds, a particular user
will not notice any delay in executing his/her commands and will normally feel that he/she is the sole user of the
system. In this manner, each user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own computer, whereas
actually a single computer is shared among many users.

Requirement of Time-sharing Systems

Time-sharing systems typically require the following additional hardware and software features;
1. A number of terminals simultaneously connected to the system, so that multiple users can simultaneously
use the system in interactive mode.
2. A relatively large memory to support multiprogramming.
3. Memory protection mechanism to prevent one job’s instructions and data from other jobs in a
multiprogramming environment.
4. Job status preservation mechanism to preserve a job’s complete status information when the CPU is
taken away from it, and restoring this information back before the CPU is given back to it again
5. A special CPU scheduling algorithm, which allocates the CPU for a very short period one-by-one to each
user process in a circular fashion.
6. An alarm clock mechanism to send interrupt signal to the CPU after every time slice.

Advantages of time-sharing System

Although time-sharing system are complex to design, they provide several advantages to their user. The main
advantages of timer-sharing systems are as follows:
1. Reduces CPU idle time. The speed of thinking and typing of a user is much slower than the processing
speed of a computer. Hence, during interactive usage of a system, while a particular user is engaged in
thanking or typing his/her input a time-sharing system can service many other users. In this manner, time-
sharing systems help in reducing the CPU idle time, increasing the system throughput.
2. Provides advantages of quick response time. The special CPU scheduling algorithm used in time-
sharing systems ensures quick response time to all user. This feature can be effectively used for
interactive programming and debugging to improve programmer’s efficiency. Multiple programmers can
simultaneously work for, writing, testing and debugging of portions of their programs, or try out various
approaches to a problem solution.

Offer good computing facility to small user. Small can gain direct access to much more sophisticated
hardware and software than they could otherwise justify or afford. In time-sharing systems, they merely pay a
fee for resources used and are relieved of the hardware, software, and personal problems associated with
acquiring and maintaining their own installation