1.

GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
- A fundamental purpose is to be able to read literature written in it
- An important goal is for students to be able to translate each
language into the other
- The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing. Little
attention is given to speaking and listening, and almost none to
pronunciation
- The teacher is the authority in the classroom
- Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between the
target language and the native language
- Students study grammar deductively: they are given the grammar
rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and then apply to
other examples
- Students memorize native language equivalents for target language
vocabulary words.
- Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the
students. There is little student initiation and little student-student
interaction
- Evaluation is accomplished through written tests in which students
are asked to translate from their native language into the target
language or vice versa
- Some techniques from the Grammar-Translation Method:
 Translation of a literary passage
 Reading comprehension questions
 Antonyms / Synonyms
 Cognates
 Deductive application of rules
 Fill-in-the-blanks exercise
 Memorization
 Use words in sentences
 Composition
2. THE DIRECT METHOD
- No translation is allowed
- Meaning is conveyed directly in the target language through the
use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the
students' native language
- Students learn how to communicate in the target language -> they
learn to think in the target language
 - The reading skill is developed through practice with speaking.
Language is primarily speech
- When introducing a new target language word or phrase, the
teacher demonstrate its meaning through pictures or pantomine, not
explain or translate
- Grammar is taught inductively -> the students are presented with
examples and they figure out the rule or generalization from the
examples
- An explicit grammar may never be given
- Students practice vocabulary by using new words in complete
sentences
- Pronunciation is worked on right from the beginning of language
instruction
- Self-correction facilitates language learning
- Lessons contain conversational activities -> Students are
encouraged speak as much as possible
- The teacher and the students are more like partners in the teaching-
learning process
- The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from the teacher to
students and from students to teacher
- There is no formal evaluation -> students are asked to use the
language, not to demonstrate their knowledge about the language
- Techniques of the Direct Method:
 Reading aloud
 Question and answer exercise
 Getting students to self-correct
 Conversation practice
 Fill-in-the-blanks exercise
 Dictation
 Map drawing
 Paragraph writing
3. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
- It is an oral-based approach which drills students in the use of
grammatical sentence patterns
- Language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur most
naturally within a context
- The students overlearn the target language, learn to use it
automatically without stopping to think -> forming new habits in
 the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native
language
- The teacher's role is the model of the target language -> students
learn to mimic the model
- When errors do occur, they should be immediately be corrected by
the teacher.
- New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through
dialogues -> they are learned through imitation and repetition
- Drills are conducted based upon the patterns present in the
dialogue.
- Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar
rules are not provided
- Reading and writing is based upon the oral work they did earlier
- Pronunciation is taught from the beginning
- There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when
students take different roles in dialogues, but it is teacher-directed
- Most of the interaction is teacher-student
- There is no obvious evaluation -> students might be asked to
distinguish between words in a minimal pair
- Techniques:
 Dialogue memorization
 Backward build-up (expansion) drill
 Repetition drill
 Chain drill
 Single-slot substitution drill
 Multiple-slot substitution drill
 Transformation drill
 Question-and-answer drill
 Use of minimal pairs
 Complete the dialogue
 Grammar game
4. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
- The goal is to enable students to communicate in the target
language -> everything is done with a communicative intent
- Being able to figure out the speaker's or writer's intentions is part
of being communicatively competent
- A variety of linguistic forms are presented together -> the emphasis
is on the process of communication rather than just mastery of
language forms
 - Students use the language through communicative activities such
as games, role-plays and problem-solving tasks
- Communicative activities have three features in common:
information gap, choice and feedback
- Use authentic materials: give students an oppotunity to develop
strategies for understanding language as it is actually used
- Activities are often carried out by students in small groups ->
maximize the time allotted to each student for communicating
- The teacher is the facilitator of the activities or a co-communicator
- Students interact a great deal with one another (in various
configurations: pairs, triads, small groups, and whole groups)
- Students work on all 4 skills from the beginning
- The teacher evaluates not only his students' accuracy, but also their
fluency -> likely to use an integrative test which has a real
communicative function
- Techniques:
 Authentic materials
 Scrambled sentences
 Language games
 Picture strip story
 Role-play
5. TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
- The goal is to facilitate students' language learning by engaging
them in a variety of tasks that have a clear outcome
- A pre-task phase typically begins a task sequence -> a teacher can
introduce the students to the language they need to complete the
task
- The tasks are meaningful and relevant, related to possible
situations outside the classroom
- Students are actively engaged with the task, with the teacher
monitoring their performance and intervening when necessary
- The task has clear outcomes
- A post-task phase takes place to reinforce students' learning or to
address any problems that may have risen
- The teacher is the input provider during the initial phase, sets the
task, pays attention during the task and makes note, provides
feedback
- Students work closely together to help each other accomplish the
task and to problem-solve
 - The meaning dimension of language is emphasized
- The teacher constantly evaluates students in light of task outcomes
and the language they use
- Techniques:
 Information-gap task
 Opinion-gap task
 Reasoning-gap task
 Unfocused tasks
 Focused tasks
 Input-providing tasks
 Output-prompting tasks
6. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
- The goal is to reduce the stress people feel when they are studying
other languages and thereby encourage students to persist in their
study beyond a beginning level of proficiency
- The first phase is modeling: the teacher issues commands to few
students, then performs the actions with them
- The second phase: same students perform the commands alone
- The teacher recombines elements of the commands to have
students develop flexibility in understanding unfamiliar utterances
- The students learn to read and write the oral commands ->
activities expand to include skits and games
- The teacher interacts with the whole group of students and with
individuals students
- Students perform the actions together
- Vocabulary and grammatical structures are emphasized over other
language areas
- The spoken language is emphasized over written language
- Formal evaluations can be conducted simply by commanding
individual students to perform a series of actions
- Techniques:
 Using commands to direct behaviour
 Role reversal
 Action sequence
7. THE SILENT WAY
- The goal is to help students develop independence from the
teacher, develop their own inner criteria for correctness
- Students begin their study of the language through its basic
building blocks, its sounds
 - Teacher lead their students to associate the sounds of the target
language with particular colors
- Students use these same colors to learn the spellings that
correspond to the sounds and how to read and pronounce words
properly
- For much of the student-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent ->
they give clues, not to model the language
- The teacher constantly observes the students -> when their feelings
interfere, the teacher tries to find ways for the students to overcome
them
- Student-student verbal interaction is desirable and encouraged
- Pronunciation is worked on from the beginning
- Explicit grammar rules may never be supplied
- Vocabary is somewhat restricted at first
- All four skills are worked on from the beginning of the course
- There is no formal test, but the teacher assesses student learning all
the time
- Techniques:
 Sound-color chart
 Teacher's silence
 Peer correction
 Rods
 Self-correction gestures
 Word chart
 Fidel charts
 Structured feedback
8. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
- The goal is to learn how to use the target language
communicatively, take increasing responsibility for it, and to learn
how to learn from one another
- The teacher's initial role is a counselor
- In a beginning class, the teacher helps students express what they
want to say by giving them the target language translation in
chunks
- A transcript is made of the conversation, and native language
equivalents are written beneath the target language words
- Various activities are conducted that allow students to further
explore the language they have generated
- Students are invited to say how they feel, and in turn the teacher
understands them
- The nature of student-teacher interaction changes within the lesson
and over time -> initially, the teacher structures the class -> later,
the students assume more responsibility for this
- Particular grammar points, pronunciation patterns, and vocabulary
are worked with, based on the language the students have
generated
- The most important skills are understanding and speaking at the
beginning, with reinforcement through reading and writting
- Teachers encourage students to self-evaluate
- Techniques:
 Recording student conversation
 Transcription