Reading Material on Unit-III

Electrical Transients: Sources of Transient Over voltages- Atmospheric and switching transients-
motor starting transients, pf correction capacitor switching transients, ups switching transients, neutral
voltage swing etc; devices for over voltage protection.

3.1 Transient Over voltages

Transients are undesirable disturbances, momentary in nature, that occur for a very short duration
(less than a cycle) in a system having energy storage elements. In such systems the change in energy
is not possible instantaneously. In electrical circuits the inductances and capacitances are the energy
storage devices. The inertia of rotating machines in power system added with the presence of
aforesaid energy storage elements do not allow changes in the operating quantities instantly
following a disturbance or a fault.
It is important to study the transient over voltages as their occurrence may damage the devices due to
resulting excessive voltage stresses. The time constant of a system is the indicator of how quickly the
system responds to a disturbance. A system with higher time constant allows longer transient
condition causing larger loss and greater risk for damage to the stressed devices. A system having
damping elements (e.g. a resistance in an electrical circuit) reduce the time constant and dissipate
energy in them (in the form of loss) thereby reducing the damage to the system.
Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into two categories:
1. Ultra Fast Transients: Caused by lightning (an external cause) or by abrupt large amplitude
changes in the operating condition of a network (internal cause). They are electrical in nature
and last only for a few milliseconds and can cause greater damage in the system.
2. Medium Fast Transients: Caused by short circuits due to which the protection system operates
and changes the structure of the system. They are also electrical in nature and result in
excessive currents in the system lasting over a period of about 200 milliseconds (i.e. for about
10 cycles in a 50 Hz system).
3. Slow Transients: Caused by mechanical oscillations in rotor of alternator. They are
electromechanical in nature. Such oscillations cause instability in an interconnected power
system by bringing some or all the synchronous machine out of synchronism. Such faults are
highly undesirable. They may persist from a fraction of second to a second or more.

Transients can be either Impulsive or Oscillatory in nature.

Impulsive Transient
An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage, current, or both, that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or negative).
Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times which can also be
revealed by their spectral content. For example, a 1.2 x 50-µsec 2000-V impulsive transient nominally
rises from zero to its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 µsec, and then decays to half its peak value in 50
µsec.
The most common cause of impulsive transients is lightning. Figure illustrates a typical current
impulsive transient caused by lightning.
Due to the high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients can be changed quickly by
circuit components and may have significantly different characteristics when viewed from different
parts of the power system. They generally do not conduct (penetrate) far from the source of where
they enter the power system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite some distance
along utility lines. Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and
produce oscillatory transients.
Oscillatory Transient
An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity values.
An oscillatory transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value changes polarity
rapidly. It is described by its spectral content (predominate frequency), duration, and magnitude. The
spectral content subclasses defined in the table are high, medium, and low frequency. The frequency
ranges for these classifications are chosen to coincide with common types of power system oscillatory
transient phenomena.
Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a typical
duration measured in microseconds (or several cycles of the principal frequency) are considered high
frequency oscillatory transients. These transients are often the result of a local system response to an
impulsive transient.
A transient with a primary frequency component between 5 kHz and 500 kHz with duration measured
in the tens of microseconds (or several cycles of the principal frequency) is termed a medium
frequency transient.
Back-to-back capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the tens of kilohertz as
illustrated in the following figure.
Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage transients in the same frequency range. Medium
frequency transients can also be the result of a system response to an impulsive transient.
A transient with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz, and duration from 0.3 ms to 50 ms,
is considered a low frequency transient.
This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on utility sub-transmission and distribution
systems and is caused by many types of events. The most frequent is capacitor bank energization,
which typically results in an oscillatory voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 and
900 Hz. The peak magnitude can approach 2.0 pu, but is typically 1.3 - 1.5 pu with a duration of
between 0.5 and 3 cycles depending on the system damping. The following figure shows low
frequency oscillatory transient caused by capacitor-bank energization.
Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz can also be found on the distribution
system. These are generally associated with ferroresonance and transformer energization.

Transients involving series capacitors could also fall into this category. They occur when the system
responds by resonating with low frequency components in the transformer inrush current (2nd, 3rd
harmonic) or when unusual conditions result in ferroresonance.
MODES: It is also possible to categorize transients (and other disturbances) according to their mode.
Basically, a transient in a three-phase system with a separate neutral conductor can be either common
mode or normal mode, depending on whether it appears between line or neutral and ground, or
between line and neutral.

3.2 Atmospheric Sources of Transient Over voltages

Over potential surge due to lightning discharge is the most common natural cause of electrical
equipment failure. The phenomenon of lighting strike can be described as follows. A negative
charge builds up on a cloud, as indicated in Figure. A corresponding positive charge can build up
on the surface of the earth. A voltage difference of hundreds of millions of volts can exist between
the cloud and the earth due to the opposing charges. When the voltage exceeds the breakdown
potential of air (about 3 x 106 V/m or 75 kV/inch), a lightning flash occurs. The exact physics of
the lightning phenomenon will not be discussed here, as it is sufficient to know that a lightning
strike can typically produce a voltage rise in about 1 or 2 micro second that can decline to a value
of 50% of the peak voltage in approximately 50 to 100 micro second. A typical lightning impulse
wave might appear as shown in Figure. A common misconception is that a direct lightning strike
is needed to produce destructive over voltages. In fact, it is rare that a failure in an electrical
system is due to a direct lightning strike. More often, the electrical and magnetic fields caused by
indirect lightning discharge induce voltages in the power lines that result in device failures. Also,
lightning discharge current flowing through the earth creates a potential difference between the
power lines and ground and in extreme cases causes equipment failure.
 CHARGED CLOUD

FLOW OF
NEGATIVE CHARGES

EARTH SURFACE
Fig: Lightning discharge due to charge buildup in the clouds.

TYPICAL 1.2/50 microsec

LIGHTNING IMPULSE WAVE

V0.9V
V
0.5 V

1.2 uS
TIME
50 uS
FIG: Lightning impulse waveform characterized by a rise to 90%
value in 1.2 micro sec and a fall to 50% value in 50 micro sec.
3.3 Switching Transients Sources of Transient Over voltages

a. Motor Starting Transients:

Figure below shows a transient produced when a 50-hp
induction motor with integral power factor correction was
started across the line. The notch in the voltage wave- form at
the instant of starting was produced by the presence of the
capacitor. The quick voltage recovery was followed by ringing
(oscillatory) characteristics. The transient lasted less than half
of a cycle, but it was sufficient to affect the operation of large
chillers located nearby which contained solid-state starters
with sensitive voltage-sensing circuitry. Because of the
severity of the motor-starting transient, the chillers started to
shut down. In a situation such as this, it is often prudent to
apply correction to the sensitive circuitry rather than try to
eliminate the problem itself or apply correction to the power
system as a whole.

b. Power Factor Correction Capacitor Switching Transients:

Utility Capacitor Switching Transients (CAPACITOR

BANK SWITCHING)

One of the more common causes of electrical transients is

switching of capacitor banks in power systems. Electrical
utilities switch capacitor banks during peak load hours to
 offset the lagging kVAR demand of the load. The leading
kVARs drawn by the capacitor banks offset the lagging
kVAR demand of the load, reducing the net kVA load on the
circuit. Switching of capacitor banks is accompanied by a surge
of current which is initially limited by the characteristic
impedance of the power system and resistance of the line. A
sharp reduction in the voltage is followed by a voltage rise,
which decays by oscillation at a frequency determined by the
inductance and capacitance of the circuit.
Typically, the voltage rise due to capacitor switching
operation can attain values 1.5 to 2 times the nominal
voltage. Power equipment can withstand only a limited
number of exposures to such rises in voltage magnitude.
With time, the insulation systems of such devices weaken, and
a point is reached when the devices can fail. In one particular
instance, two power distribution transformers failed at the
same time; the cause was traced to large capacitor bank
switching operations by the utility at a substation located
adjacent to the affected facility.
Very high voltages are experienced by the system when an
underground cable or a capacitor bank or long open circuited line
or overcompensated line is disconnected from the circuit.
Breaking of such capacitive currents is very difficult. Fig 3(a)
represents single phase equivalent circuit diagram of a faulted
three phase line that carried a capacitive current. Fig 3(b) shows
the current and voltage waveforms during capacitive current
breaking.

SOURCE

FAULT
C
Fig (a) Single phase equivalent of a faulted three phase line carrying
capacitive current.
 Vmax

OVERVOLTAGE TRANSIENT

DUE TO FAULT CURRENT INTERRUPTION ACCOMPANIED BY

OSCILLATIONS AT THE NATURAL FREQUENCY FORMED BY L AND C

INTERRUPTION OF FAULT

Figure b Overvoltage transient due to fault current interruption shown in Figure a

c. UPS Switching Transients:

Transient Surge Risks

A power line disturbance engineering study revealed that a mere 0.5% of the power
disturbances during the test period was due to outages, only an additional 11% was attributed
to over and under voltages. The majority, 88.5% of occurring disturbances, was caused by
transient voltage (dv/dt) conditions.

How Transients Get Through UPS & Stand-by Systems?

With this high percentage of power disturbances attributed to transient voltages, it is
important to note there are several instances when these transients can bypass a UPS or
Stand-by system, or pass directly through them to potentially damage the attached equipment.

How a Transient Gets Past a UPS or Stand-by System Under Failure, Power Disturbance or
Maintenance Circumstances?
When a UPS systems fails, it is under service, it must protect itself from problems caused by
the critical load or utility power. A transfer occurs, allowing utility AC voltage through the
static transfer switch, or manual maintenance by-pass switch. The equipment load becomes
vulnerable to transients through either of these two switches, which are typically unprotected.
How a Transient Gets Past a Static Transfer Switch?
The static transfer circuits of a UPS are semiconductors, typically thyristors (back-to-back
silicon controlled rectifiers). Because of the conductivity of these thyristors, transient
conditions (dv/dt) can pass directly through the transfer switch to the critical load, even when
the UPS is online and functioning properly.
How a Transient Gets Past an Inverter?
Both UPS and Stand-by systems are similar to an L/C filter, a form of a frequency-dependent
noise attenuator. All frequency-dependent L/C filters have the same basic shortcoming in
attempting to suppress transient voltages they are a tuned circuit and only attenuate certain
frequency bands within their design limitations. Therefore, UPS and Stand-by systems can
pass transients that fall outside these frequency bands through the rectifier and inverter with
sufficient voltage and current to damage the equipment load. This problem is magnified
further if the batteries are located some distance from the UPS electronic circuits.
How a Transient Gets Past Ferroresonant Transformers in Stand-by Systems?
Frequently, Stand-by systems have a ferroresonant transformer to provide some noise
filtering and voltage regulation, but these transformers can pass transients directly through to
the equipment load due to capacitive coupling, and the fact that the ringing frequency of the
transient is near the fundamental frequency of domestic AC power. This is typical of
inductive and capacitive induced transients. When UPS systems operate in the battery backup
mode, the same transient problem exists.
Lower frequency transients do not attenuate naturally along AC power lines and DC systems
like high frequency transients do. Most UPS systems only filter in one frequency range
though, and it is currently not possible to build a filter that can mitigate all high and low
frequency transients.
Built-in MOV TVSS Is Not Adequate Protection.
Transient over voltage suppression in UPS and Stand-by systems varies widely from no
protection at all to Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) suppressors. While the inexpensive 130 volt
RMS rated MOV commonly used for UPS systems can keep the final clamp voltage
somewhat low, under high current surge events their clamp point is not low enough to
adequately protect computers and other electronic loads. Higher voltage rated MOVs produce
worse results because of their higher clamping voltages.
In addition to the high clamping disadvantage of MOV technology, the 130 volt MOV units
are extremely vulnerable to thermal runaway conditions on 120 VAC service. An MOV
suppressor unit is in thermal runaway when it degrades to the point that its turn-on voltage is
near the peak of the sine wave, causing more current to flow through the MOV. When this
happens, the unit will overheat and fail. With MOV units, degradation into failure mode is
generally quite rapid in any event, but thermal runaway greatly accelerates the process.
UPS Systems Are Electronic & Vulnerable to Transients.
In many of today’s UPS and Stand-by systems, the solid-state electronics (the rectifier/battery
charger, inverter controls and electronic transfer switches) are made up of a large number of
semiconductors and integrated circuits. This makes the electronics of the UPS system itself
vulnerable to failure or errors, caused by transient voltage conditions, and requires a higher
degree of protection than MOVs can provide.

3.4 Neutral Voltage Swing

Neutral-to-Ground voltage is inherent in a facility’s electrical distribution system, and

equipment manufacturers sometimes specify acceptable limits for neutral-to-ground voltage.
A frequent cause of neutral-to-ground voltage is an illegal neutral-to-ground bond in a panel
board or other location, which represents a safety hazard and diverts part of the return current
flow through the grounding conductor. Neutral-to-ground voltage is any voltage measurable
between the neutral conductor and the grounding conductor, usually reflecting voltage losses
in the neutral conductor due to neutral return current. Neutral-to-ground voltage can affect
electronic equipment if the amplitude of the voltage exceeds the withstand capability of the
load.
Typical symptoms of neutral-to-ground voltage events include parity errors, poor resolution,
erratic equipment operation, the need to reset/reboot equipment and, for telecommunications
systems, dropped calls.
There are numerous causes of neutral-to-ground voltage events. Common causes are large-
equipment startup, loose neutral wiring and grounding wires, loose or missing neutral-to-
ground bond, excessive ground and neutral current.
Solutions to neutral-to-ground voltage problems are straightforward: correct faults to ground,
repair wiring problems, add larger neutral wires, or add transformer isolation.

Neutral to ground voltage is a commonly discussed subject anytime power quality issues are
the topic. What are neutral to ground voltages? Why do they occur? Why do they receive so
much attention, and how can they be mitigated? These questions are all important in the
operating environment of today’s sophisticated electronic systems. Understanding neutral to
ground voltages is a first step in assuring that modern technology operates reliably and
economically.

Common mode (CM) voltage is another term popularly applied to the neutral to ground
phenomena. Neutral to ground voltage is any potential measured between the neutral (white)
conductor and the safety ground (green or conduit) conductor of a building electrical system.
This somewhat broad definition means that neutral to ground voltages can occur over a wide
range of both frequencies and voltage amplitudes – a fact that is quickly substantiated after
only a few observations.

The characteristics of neutral to ground voltage in any given environment are often
unpredictable and as dynamic as the electrical environment itself. Neutral to ground voltages
occur for several reasons. This discussion will examine three explanations.

Shared Neutral Conductors

Electrical codes as well as accepted electrical practice permit the “sharing” of neutral
conductors in a three-phase wye distribution. This practice allows
  
Figure - Shared Neutral in 3 Phase Wye Distribution

one neutral conductor to serve three individual circuits as in Figure. Sharing of neutrals in a
three-phase distribution is possible because of the unique vector relationship of the currents
flowing in the three individual transformer phases.

In a wye distribution, each phase voltage is 120 degrees behind (lagging) the phase before it.
Each phase current lags the preceding current by 120 degrees as well. If each phase carries an
equal amount of current, a condition known as a “balanced distribution”, the equivalent
currents will all cancel each other out as they combine at the common neutral for return from
the source. The result can be mathematically and algebraically shown to result in no (0 amps)
of return current flow. 

Based on this situation, one neutral instead of three will suffice for all three circuits. And
since return currents are theoretically non-existent, most wiring codes permit the downsizing
of the neutral conductor to a smaller gauge as well.

Theory and Reality Collide

As is often the case, reality doesn’t quite agree with theory. The previous example assumes
the electrical system is powering loads that are linear in nature, that the system is resistive in
nature, that the system is operating at unity power factor, and further, that the system
operates in a state of complete equilibrium. In the real world, three phase systems are not as
tidy. While electricians do their best to assure that currents in each leg are equal, it is not
realistically possible to perfectly balance any three-phase system. 

Elevators, compressors, and air handlers cycle in their operation. Computers, lights, copy
machines, etc. are constantly being turned on and off. These changing conditions create
imbalances in the system. The electrical environment is very dynamic and guaranteed to
make a balanced three-phase system an electrician’s “Holy Grail”. 

As soon as currents become unbalanced in the example of Figure, phase currents no longer
cancel and neutral current begins to flow. At this point, the laws of physics take over. As
return current flows through the impedance of the neutral conductor, a voltage occurs. Since
no return current occurs in the safety ground, a comparable voltage drop does not occur in
safety ground. The result is neutral to ground voltage flow and the impedance of the neutral
conductor.
Load Balancing Difficulties

While changing load conditions make load balancing difficult, the proliferation of modern
computer power supplies is an even larger factor. Switch mode power supplies consume
current in non- linear “gulps” from the power line. In effect, they operate as though they are
being rapidly turned on and off. In such installations, the electrician who perfectly balances
all three RMS phase currents will find that current still flows in the neutral conductor. In
some instances, instead of canceling, individual phase currents may even become additive. 

Where there is current flow in the neutral, there will be neutral to ground voltage. This
circumstance is to be expected in the modern facility even when good wiring practice and
load balancing techniques have been observed.

Branch Circuit Length

In the preceding example, neutral to ground voltage can be easily observed in a sub-
panelboard. Many instances occur in which neutral to ground voltage can be measured at the
point of use – the electrical load. 

When neutral to ground voltage is measured at a long branch receptacle, the cause is most
likely not a shared neutral but the circuit length itself. The mathematical principals are the
same. Consider the example of Figure.

Figure - Voltage Drop at Long Branch Receptacle

This example shows a long branch receptacle at sufficient length from the source to cause a
voltage drop of 4 volts AC. The voltage drop is a result of circuit impedance (inductive and
capacitive reactance combined with conductor resistance). It’s important to note that this
voltage drop is due to the total circuit impedance of both the phase and the neutral.

Assuming that both the phase and the neutral are the same length and wire gauge, each
conductor accounts for half the circuit impedance and, therefore, half of the observed voltage
drop.

Since no return current flows in the safety grounding conductor, it exhibits no comparable
voltage drop. The result is a measured neutral to ground voltage differential of 2 volts AC.
Neutral to ground voltages at branch receptacles are directly proportional to circuit length
and circuit current and inversely proportional to conductor size or cross-sectional area. In
other words, making the circuit longer or increasing the circuit current will increase the
neutral to ground voltage. Increasing the conductor gauge will reduce the neutral to ground
voltage that occurs for any given length circuit at any given load. In fact, it is a common
practice for electricians to increase the conductor size on longer or more heavily loaded
circuits to reduce the observable voltage drop at the receptacle. When this is done, neutral to
ground voltages are reduced as well.
Induced/Conducted Voltages

The two previous examples explain neutral to ground voltages that occur at 60 Hz. Close
examination of numerous circuits with appropriate instrumentation will show that neutral to
ground voltages also exist at higher frequencies. Often referred to as common mode “noise”,
these disturbances have a different source altogether. 

High frequency events may be continuous or sporadic, and they are either induced into the
electrical conductor or they are conducted into it. The difference may be subtle but the results
the same. 

Induced disturbances couple into electrical conductors via electro-magnetic fields. Such
disturbances can be the result of lightning, close physical proximity to motors or other
devices with electrical windings, and the familiar static discharge associated with the dry air
of winter. 

Figure illustrates what occurs when disturbances are induced into a current carrying
conductor. Magnetic lines of force pass through the

Figure - Current Flow Resulting From Induced Voltage

conductor resulting in disturbance current flow. Once again, the current flowing through the
impedance of the conductor results in a measurable voltage drop.

Induced neutral to ground voltages are quite common since all conductors look like an
antenna at some frequency. RFI and EMI from a variety of sources readily couple into not
only the neutral and ground, but the phase conductor as well. 

Conducted disturbances are virtually indistinguishable from the induced ones. The primary
difference is in the disturbance source. Conducted disturbances are generated and inserted
directly (conducted) into the electrical system by every device that uses electrical power.
Conducted disturbances are the by-product of the distribution and use of electricity. 

It is an irony that many of the common mode voltage disturbances that affect systems are
produced by the very systems themselves. Personal computers, copy machines, fax
machines, laser printers, medical instrumentation, telephone switches, point of sale systems,
etc. all are significant contributors to the problem of conducted neutral to ground voltages.

Having defined neutral to ground events and the source, why are they of interest and how can
their negative effects be eliminated?

Disruptive Impact

Neutral to ground or common mode events can cause significant disruption to the operation
of microprocessor based equipment. Modern logic circuits do not enjoy the electrical
isolation that was part of the linear power supply that powered their predecessors. These
circuits are constantly measuring logic voltages against the “zero voltage reference” of safety
ground. Since all of a computer’s decisions are the result of discriminating one rapid
changing voltage from another, ultra-clean and quiet electrical safety grounds are essential.
The microprocessor expects to see very low (less than .5 volts) of neutral to ground voltage. 

Neutral to ground voltages can quickly destroy system productivity and have been observed
to cause system lockups, communication errors, reduced operating throughput, unreliable test
data, fragmented hard drives, and operational problems that cannot be explained or
duplicated.

Finding Solutions

As mentioned earlier, neutral to ground voltages are the result of current flow through the
impedance of wiring conductors. If either current flow or conductor impedance increases, the
resulting voltage drop will increase, too. In addition, impedance is a characteristic that is
determined by the frequency of the disturbance current. As the frequency increases, the
impedance of the conductor also increases. 

The implication here is plain. At some frequency, every conductor, regardless of how large,
will exhibit undesirable impedance and a resultant voltage drop. This is particularly
important in light of increasing microprocessor sophistication. 

Common methods of reducing neutral to ground voltage include oversizing conductors in an

attempt to lower impedance. Running individual neutrals instead of sharing them effectively
accomplishes the same goal. But exercising total control over neutral to ground voltage
means having effective control over the issue of impedance.

Off the Shelf Technology

The most effective tool for control of neutral to ground and common mode disturbances
remains the isolation transformer (Figure). Isolation transformers allow the bonding of
neutral to ground on the transformer secondary. Disturbance current flow now occurs across
the impedance of the bonding strap.

Figure - Output Neutral to Ground Bond

Since this impedance is very low (almost zero), it is not possible to cause a voltage drop. 

Full isolation of the load from the building electrical system is also provided by this
technology. When used in conjunction with surge diverters and noise filters, isolation
transformers eliminate the problems associated with these devices dumping disruptive
disturbances to ground. For these reasons, isolation transformers are the central component
of every POWERVAR Solution for Power Quality.

3.5 Devices for Over Voltage Protection

Principles of Overvoltage Protection

The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of load equipment are

1. Limit the voltage across sensitive insulation.
2. Divert the surge current away from the load.
3. Block the surge current from entering the load.
4. Bond grounds together at the equipment.
5. Reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing between grounds.
6. Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking principles.

The main function of surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs) is to
limit the voltage that can appear between two points in the circuit. This is an important
concept to understand. One of the common misconceptions about varistors, and similar
devices, is that they somehow are able to absorb the surge or divert it to ground
independently of the rest of the system. That may be a beneficial side effect of the arrester
application if there is a suitable path for the surge current to flow into, but the foremost
concern in arrester application is to place the arresters directly across the sensitive insulation
that is to be protected so that the voltage seen by the insulation is limited to a safe value.
Surge currents, just like power currents, must obey Kirchoff’s laws. They must flow in a
complete circuit, and they cause a voltage drop in every conductor through which they flow.
One of the points to which arresters, or surge suppressors, are connected is frequently the
local ground, but this need not be the case.
Keep in mind that the local ground may not remain at zero potential during transient impulse
vents. Surge suppression devices should be located as closely as possible to the critical
insulation with a minimum of lead length on all terminals.
While it is common to find arresters located at the main panels and subpanels, arresters
applied at the point where the power line enters the load equipment are generally the most
effective in protecting that particular load. In some cases, the best location is actually inside
the load device. For example, many electronic controls made for service in the power system
environment have protectors [metal-oxide varistor (MOV) arresters, gaps, zener diodes, or
surge capacitors] on every line that leaves the cabinet.
The first arrester is connected from the line to the neutral- ground bond at the service
entrance. It limits the line voltage V1 from rising too high relative to the neutral and ground
voltage at the panel. When it performs its voltage-limiting action, it provides a low
impedance path for the surge current to travel onto the ground lead.
Note that the ground lead and the ground connection itself have significant impedance.
Therefore, the potential of the whole power system is raised with respect to that of the remote
ground by the voltage drop across the ground impedance. For common values of surge
currents and ground impedances, this can be several kilovolts.
One hopes, in this situation, that most of the surge energy will be discharged through the first
arrester directly into ground. In that sense, the arrester becomes a surge “diverter.” This is
another important function related to surge arrester application. In fact, some prefer to call a
surge arrester a surge diverter because its voltage-limiting action offers a low-impedance path
around the load being protected. However, it can only be a diverter if there is a suitable path
into which the current can be diverted. That is not always easy to achieve, and the surge
current is sometimes diverted toward another critical load where it is not wanted.
There is another possible path for the surge current— the signal cable indicated by the dotted
line and bonded to the safety ground. If this is connected to another device that is referenced
to ground elsewhere, there will be some amount of surge current flowing down the safety
ground conductor. Damaging voltages can be impressed across the load as a result. The first
arrester at the service entrance is electrically too remote to provide adequate load protection.
Therefore, a second arrester is applied at the load—again, directly across the insulation to be
protected. It is connected “line to neutral” so that it only protects against normal mode
transients. This illustrates the principles without complicating the diagram but should be
considered as the minimum protection one would apply to protect the load.
Frequently, surge suppressors will have suppression on all lines to ground, all lines to neutral,
and neutral to ground. While lightning surge currents are seeking a remote ground reference,
many transient overvoltages generated by switching will be those of a normal mode and will
not seek ground. In cases where surge currents are diverted into other load circuits, arresters
must be applied at each load along the path to ensure protection.
Note that the signal cable is bonded to the local ground reference at the load just before the
cable enters the cabinet. It might seem that this creates an unwanted ground loop. However, it
is essential to achieving protection of the load and the low-voltage signal circuits. Otherwise,
the power components can rise in potential with respect to the signal circuit reference by
several kilovolts. Many loads have multiple power and signal cables connected to them. Also,
a load may be in an environment where it is close to another load and operators or sensitive
equipment are routinely in contact with both loads. This raises the possibility that a lightning
strike may raise the potential of one ground much higher than the others. This can cause a
flashover across the insulation that is between the two ground references or cause physical
harm to operators. Thus, all ground reference conductors (safety grounds, cable shields,
cabinets, etc.) should be bonded together at the load equipment. The principle is not to
prevent the local ground reference from rising in potential with the surge; with lightning, that
is impossible. Rather, the principle is to tie the references together so that all power and
signal cable references in the vicinity rise together.
This phenomenon is a common reason for failure of electronic devices. The situation occurs
in TV receivers connected to cables, computers connected to modems, computers with
widespread peripherals powered from various sources, and in manufacturing facilities with
networked machines. Since a few feet of conductor make a significant difference at lightning
surge frequencies, it is sometimes necessary to create a special low-inductance, ground
reference plane for sensitive electronic equipment such as mainframe computers that occupy
large spaces. Efforts to block the surge current are most effective for high-frequency surge
currents such as those originating with lightning strokes and capacitor-switching events.
Since power frequency currents must pass through the surge suppressor with minimal
additional impedance, it is difficult and expensive to build filters that are capable of
discriminating between low-frequency surges and power frequency currents.
Blocking can be done relatively easily for high-frequency transients by placing an inductor,
or choke, in series with the load. The high surge voltage will drop across the inductor. One
must carefully consider that high voltage could damage the insulation of both the inductor
and the loads. However, a line choke alone is frequently an effective means to block such
high-frequency transients as line-notching transients from adjustable-speed drives.
The blocking function is frequently combined with the voltage-limiting function to form a
low-pass filter in which there is a shunt-connected voltage-limiting device on either side of
the series choke. Such a circuit naturally occurs when there are arresters on both ends of the
line feeding the load. The line provides the blocking function in proportion to its length. Such
a circuit has very beneficial overvoltage protection characteristics. The inductance forces the
bulk of fast-rising surges into the first arrester. The second arrester then simply has to
accommodate what little surge energy gets through.
Such circuits are commonly built into outlet strips for computer protection. Many surge-
protection problems occur because the surge current travels between two, or more, separate
connections to ground. This is a particular problem with lightning protection because
lightning currents are seeking ground and basically divide according to the ratios of the
impedances of the ground paths. The surge current does not even have to enter the power, or
phase, conductors to cause problems. There will be a significant voltage drop along the
ground conductors that will frequently appear across critical insulation. The grounds involved
may be entirely within the load facility, or some of the grounds may be on the utility system.

Ideally, there would be only one ground path for lightning within a facility, but many
facilities have multiple paths. For example, there may be a driven ground at the service
entrance or substation transformer and a second ground at a water well that actually creates a
better ground. Thus, when lightning strikes, the bulk of the surge current will tend to flow
toward the well. This can impress an excessively high voltage across the pump insulation,
even if the electrical system is not intentionally bonded to a second ground. When lightning
strikes, the potentials can become so great that the power system insulation will flash over
somewhere. The amount of current flowing between the grounds may be reduced by
improving all the intentional grounds at the service entrance and nearby on the utility system.
This will normally reduce, but not eliminate entirely, the incidence of equipment failure
within the facility due to lightning. However, some structures also have significant lightning
exposure, and the damaging surge currents can flow back into the utility grounds. It doesn’t
matter which direction the currents flow; they cause the same problems. Again, the same
principle applies, which is to improve the grounds for the structure to minimize the amount of
current that might seek another path to ground.
When it is impractical to keep the currents from flowing between two grounds, both ends of
any power or signal cables running between the two grounds must be protected with voltage-
limiting devices to ensure adequate protection. This is common practice for both utility and
enduser systems where a control cabinet is located quite some distance from the switch, or
other device, being controlled.

Devices for Overvoltage Protection

Crowbar ages.
A pair of crowbars is used at places/devices which are to be protected against overvoltages.
On occurrence of over voltages, the air between the crowbars breaks down first thus
protecting the device.

Crowbar (circuit)

A crowbar circuit is an electrical circuit used to prevent an overvoltage condition of a power

supply unit from damaging the circuits attached to the power supply. It operates by putting
a short circuit or low resistance path across the voltage source, much as if one dropped a tool
of the same name across the output terminals of the power supply. Crowbar circuits are
frequently implemented using athyristor, TRIAC, trisil or thyratron as the shorting device.
Once triggered, they depend on the current-limiting circuitry of the power supply or, if that
fails, the blowing of the line fuse or tripping the circuit breaker.
A crowbar circuit is distinct from a clamp in that, once triggered, it pulls the voltage below
the trigger level, usually close to ground. A clamp prevents the voltage from exceeding a
preset level. Thus, a crowbar will not automatically return to normal operation when the
overvoltage condition is removed; power must be removed entirely to stop its conduction.
An active crowbar is a crowbar that can remove the short circuit when the transient is over
thus allowing the device to resume normal operation. Active crowbars use a transistor, gate
turn off (GTO) thyristor or forced commutated thyristor instead of a thyristor to short the
circuit. Active crowbars are commonly used to protect the frequency converter in the rotor
circuit of doubly fed generators against high voltage and current transients caused by the
voltage dips in the power network. Thus the generator can ride through the fault and quickly
continue the operation even during the voltage dip.
The advantage of a crowbar over a clamp is that the low holding voltage of the crowbar lets it
carry higher fault current without dissipating much power (which could otherwise cause
overheating). Also, a crowbar is more likely than a clamp to deactivate a device (by blowing
a fuse or tripping a breaker), bringing attention to the faulty equipment.
The term is also used as a verb to describe the act of short-circuiting the output of a power
supply.

Surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors

Arresters and TVSS devices protect equipment from transient overvoltages by limiting the
maximum voltage, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, TVSSs are
generally associated with devices used at the load equipment. A TVSS will sometimes have
more surge-limiting elements than an arrester, which most commonly consists solely of MOV
blocks. An arrester may have more energy-handling capability; however, the distinction
between the two is blurred by common language usage.
The elements that make up these devices can be classified by two different modes of
operation, crowbar and clamping. Crowbar devices are normally open devices that conduct
current during overvoltage transients. Once the device conducts, the line voltage will drop to
nearly zero due to the short circuit imposed across the line. These devices are usually
manufactured with a gap filled with air or a special gas. The gap arcs over when a sufficiently
high overvoltage transient appears. Once the gap arcs over, usually power frequency current,
or “follow current,” will continue to flow in the gap until the next current zero. Thus, these
devices have the disadvantage that the power frequency voltage drops to zero or to a very low
value for at least one-half cycle. This will cause some loads to drop offline unnecessarily.
Clamping devices for ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors (varistors) that conduct
very low amounts of current until an overvoltage occurs. Then they start to conduct heavily,
and their impedance drops rapidly with increasing voltage. These devices effectively conduct
increasing amounts of current (and energy) to limit the voltage rise of a surge. They have an
advantage over gap-type devices in that the voltage is not reduced below the conduction level
when they begin to conduct the surge current. Zener diodes are also used in this application.

Isolation transformers
An isolation transformer is used to attenuate high-frequency noise and transients as they
attempt to pass from one side to the other. However, some common-mode and normal-mode
noise can still reach the load. An electrostatic shield is effective in eliminating common-mode
noise. However, some normal-mode noise can still reach the load due to magnetic and
capacitive coupling.
The chief characteristic of isolation transformers for electrically isolating the load from the
system for transients is their leakage inductance. Therefore, high-frequency noise and
transients are kept from reaching the load, and any load-generated noise and transients are
kept from reaching the rest of the power system. Voltage notching due to power electronic
switching is one example of a problem that can be limited to the load side by an isolation
transformer. Capacitor-switching and lightning transients coming from the utility system can
be attenuated, thereby preventing nuisance tripping of adjustable-speed drives and other
equipment.
An additional use of isolation transformers is that they allow the user to define a new ground
reference, or separately derived system. This new neutral-to-ground bond limits neutral-to-
ground voltages at sensitive equipment.

Low-pass filters
Low-pass filters use the pi-circuit principle to achieve even better protection for high-
frequency transients. For general usage in electric circuits, low-pass filters are composed of
series inductors and parallel capacitors. This LC combination provides a low impedance path
to ground for selected resonant frequencies. In surge protection usage, voltage clamping
devices are added in parallel to the capacitors. In some designs, there are no capacitors.
A common hybrid protector combines two surge suppressors and a low-pass filter to provide
maximum protection. It uses a gap-type protector on the front end to handle high-energy
transients. The low-pass filter limits transfer of high-frequency transients. The inductor helps
block high-frequency transients and forces them into the first suppressor. The capacitor limits
the rate of rise, while the nonlinear resistor (MOV) clamps the voltage magnitude at the
protected equipment.
Other variations on this design will employ MOVs on both sides of the filters and may have
capacitors on the front end as well.

Low-impedance power conditioners

Low-impedance power conditioners (LIPCs) are used primarily to interface with the switch-
mode power supplies found in electronic equipment. LIPCs differ from isolation transformers
in that these conditioners have a much power impedance and have a filter as part of their
design. The filter is on the output side and protects against high-frequency, source-side,
common-mode, and normal-mode disturbances (i.e., noise and impulses). Note the new
neutral-to-ground connection that can be made on the load side because of the existence of an
isolation transformer. However, low- to medium-frequency transients (capacitor switching)
can cause problems for LIPCs: The transient can be magnified by the output filter capacitor.

Utility surge arresters

Three most common surge arrester technologies are employed by utilities. Most arresters
manufactured today use a MOV as the main voltage-limiting element. The chief ingredient of
a MOV is zinc oxide (ZnO), which is combined with several proprietary ingredients to
achieve the necessary characteristics and durability. MOV arresters have two important
ratings. The first is maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV), which must be higher
than the line voltage and will often be at least 125 percent of the system nominal voltage. The
second rating is the energy dissipation rating (in joules). MOVs are available in a wide range
of energy ratings.
Older-technology arresters, of which there are still many installed on the power system, used
silicon carbide (SiC) as the energy-dissipating nonlinear resistive element.
Originally, arresters were little more than spark gaps, which would result in a fault each time
the gap sparked over. Also, the sparkover transient injected a very steep fronted voltage wave
into the apparatus being protected, which was blamed for many insulation failures. The
addition of an SiC nonlinear resistance in series with a spark gap corrected some of these
difficulties. It allowed the spark gap to clear and reseal without causing a fault and reduced
the sparkover transient to perhaps 50 percent of the total sparkover voltage. However,
insulation failures were still blamed on this front-of-wave transient. Also, there is substantial
power-follow current after sparkover, which heats the SiC material and erodes the gap
structures, eventually leading to arrester failures or loss of protection.
Gaps are necessary with the SiC because an economical SiC element giving the required
discharge voltage is unable to withstand continuous system operating voltage. The
development of MOV technology enabled the elimination of the gaps. This technology could
withstand continuous system voltage without gaps and still provide a discharge voltage
comparable to the SiC arresters. By the late 1980s, SiC arrester technology was being phased
out in favour of the gapless MOV technology. The gapless MOV provided a somewhat better
discharge characteristic without the objectionable sparkover transient. The majority of utility
distribution arresters manufactured today are of this design. The gapped MOV technology
was introduced commercially about 1990 and has gained acceptance in some applications
where there is need for increased protective margins. By combining resistance-graded gaps
(with SiC grading rings) and MOV blocks, this arrester technology has some very interesting,
and counterintuitive, characteristics. It has a lower lightning-discharge voltage, but has a
higher transient overvoltage (TOV) withstand characteristic than a gapless MOV arrester. To
achieve the required protective level for lightning, gapless MOV arresters typically begin to
conduct heavily for low-frequency transients at about 1.7 pu. There are some system
conditions where the switching transients will exceed this value for several cycles and cause
failures. Also, applications such as aging underground cable systems demand lower
lightning-discharge characteristics.
The gapped MOV technology removes about one-third of the MOV blocks and replaces them
with a gap structure having a lightning sparkover approximately one-half of the old SiC
technology. The smaller number of MOV blocks yields a lightning-discharge voltage
typically 20 to 30 percent less than a gapless MOV arrester. Because of the capacitive and
resistive interaction of the grading rings and MOV blocks, most of the front-of-wave impulse
voltage of lightning transients appears across the gaps. They spark over very early into the
MOV blocks, yielding a minor sparkover transient on the front.5 For switching transients, the
voltage divides by resistance ratios and most of it appears first across the MOV blocks, which
hold off conduction until the gaps spark over. This enables this technology to achieve a TOV
withstand of approximately 2.0 pu in typical designs. Additionally, the energy dissipated in
the arrester is less than dissipated by gapless designs for the same lightning current because
of the lower voltage discharge of the MOV blocks. There is no power-follow current because
there is sufficient MOV capability to block the flow. This minimizes the erosion of the gaps.
In several ways, this technology holds the promise of yielding a more capable and durable
utility surge arrester.
Utility surge arresters are manufactured in various sizes and ratings. The three basic rating
classes are designated distribution, intermediate, and station in increasing order of their
energy-handling capability. Most of the arresters applied on primary distribution feeders are
distribution class. Within this class, there are both small-block and heavy-duty designs. One
common exception to this is that sometimes intermediate- or station-class arresters are
applied at riser poles to obtain a better protective characteristic (lower discharge voltage) for
the cable.