2/4/2018 Git - Wikipedia

Git
Git (/ɡɪt/[7]) is a version control system for tracking changes in
Git
computer files and coordinating work on those files among
multiple people. It is primarily used for source code
management in software development,[8] but it can be used to
keep track of changes in any set of files. As a distributed
revision control system it is aimed at speed,[9] data
integrity,[10] and support for distributed, non-linear
workflows.[11]

Git was created by Linus Torvalds in 2005 for development of

the Linux kernel, with other kernel developers contributing to
its initial development.[12] Its current maintainer since 2005 is
Junio Hamano.
A command-line session showing repository
As with most other distributed version control systems, and creation, addition of a file, and remote
unlike most client–server systems, every Git directory on every synchronization
computer is a full-fledged repository with complete history and
Original author(s) Linus Torvalds[1]
full version tracking abilities, independent of network access
or a central server.[13] Developer(s) Junio Hamano and
others[2]
Git is free software distributed under the terms of the GNU
Initial release 7 April 2005
General Public License version 2.
Stable release 2.16.1 / 22 January
2018[3]
Repository github.com/git/git (http
Contents s://github.com/git/git)
Development status Active
History
Releases Written in C, Shell, Perl, Tcl,
Design Python[4]
Characteristics Operating system POSIX: Linux, Windows,
Data structures macOS
References
Platform IA-32, x86-64
Implementations
Available in English
Web interfaces
Git server Type Version control

Adoption License GNU GPL v2[5] and

Security GNU LGPL v2.1[6]
See also Website git-scm.com (https://git-s
References cm.com)
External links

History

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Git development began in April 2005, after many developers of the Linux kernel gave up access to BitKeeper, a
proprietary source control management (SCM) system that they had formerly used to maintain the project.[14] The
copyright holder of BitKeeper, Larry McVoy, had withdrawn free use of the product after claiming that Andrew
Tridgell had reverse-engineered the BitKeeper protocols.[15] (The same incident would also spur the creation of
another version control system, Mercurial.)

Linus Torvalds wanted a distributed system that he could use like BitKeeper, but none of the available free systems
met his needs, especially for performance. Torvalds cited an example of a source-control management system needing
30 seconds to apply a patch and update all associated metadata, and noted that this would not scale to the needs of
Linux kernel development, where syncing with fellow maintainers could require 250 such actions at once. For his
design criteria, he specified that patching should take no more than three seconds,[9] and added three more points:

Take Concurrent Versions System (CVS) as an example of what not to do; if in doubt, make the exact opposite
decision[11]
Support a distributed, BitKeeper-like workflow[11]
Include very strong safeguards against corruption, either accidental or malicious[10]
These criteria eliminated every then-extant version control system except Monotone. Performance considerations
excluded it, too.[11] So immediately after the 2.6.12-rc2 Linux kernel development release, Torvalds set out to write his
own system.[11]

Torvalds quipped about the name git (which means unpleasant person in British English slang): "I'm an egotistical
bastard, and I name all my projects after myself. First 'Linux', now 'git'."[16][17] The man page describes Git as "the
stupid content tracker".[18] The readme file of the source code elaborates further:[19]

The name "git" was given by Linus Torvalds when he wrote the very
first version. He described the tool as "the stupid content tracker"
and the name as (depending on your way):

- random three-letter combination that is pronounceable, and not actually used by any common UNIX command. The fact th
- stupid. contemptible and despicable. simple. Take your pick from the dictionary of slang.
- "global information tracker": you're in a good mood, and it actually works for you. Angels sing, and a light suddenl
- "goddamn idiotic truckload of shit": when it breaks

The development of Git began on 3 April 2005.[20] Torvalds announced the project on 6 April;[21] it became self-
hosting as of 7 April.[20] The first merge of multiple branches took place on 18 April.[22] Torvalds achieved his
performance goals; on 29 April, the nascent Git was benchmarked recording patches to the Linux kernel tree at the
rate of 6.7 patches per second.[23] On 16 June Git managed the kernel 2.6.12 release.[24]

Torvalds turned over maintenance on 26 July 2005 to Junio Hamano, a major contributor to the project.[25] Hamano
was responsible for the 1.0 release on 21 December 2005, and remains the project's maintainer.[26]

Releases

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Version Original release date Latest (patch) version Release date (of patch)
0.99 2005-07-11 0.99.9n 2005-12-15
1.0 2005-12-21 1.0.13 2006-01-27
1.1 2006-01-08 1.1.6 2006-01-30
1.2 2006-02-12 1.2.6 2006-04-08
1.3 2006-04-18 1.3.3 2006-05-16
1.4 2006-06-10 1.4.4.5 2008-07-16
1.5 2007-02-14 1.5.6.6 2008-12-17
1.6 2008-08-17 1.6.6.3 2010-12-15
1.7 2010-02-13 1.7.12.4 2012-10-17
1.8 2012-10-21 1.8.5.6 2014-12-17
1.9 2014-02-14 1.9.5 2014-12-17
2.0 2014-05-28 2.0.5 2014-12-17
2.1 2014-08-16 2.1.4 2014-12-17
2.2 2014-11-26 2.2.3 2015-09-04
2.3 2015-02-05 2.3.10 2015-09-29
2.4 2015-04-30 2.4.12 2017-05-05
2.5 2015-07-27 2.5.6 2017-05-05
2.6 2015-09-28 2.6.7 2017-05-05
2.7 2015-10-04 2.7.5 2017-05-05
2.8 2016-03-28 2.8.5 2017-05-05
2.9 2016-06-13 2.9.4 2017-05-05
2.10 2016-09-02 2.10.3 2017-05-05
2.11 2016-11-29 2.11.2 2017-05-05
2.12 2017-02-24 2.12.3 2017-05-05
2.13 2017-05-10 2.13.4 2017-08-01
2.14 2017-08-04 2.14.3 2017-10-24
2.15 2017-10-30 2.15.1 2017-11-28
2.16 2018-01-17 2.16.1 2018-01-22
Legend: Old version Older version, still supported Latest version Latest preview version

Design
Git's design was inspired by BitKeeper and Monotone.[27][28] Git was originally designed as a low-level version control
system engine on top of which others could write front ends, such as Cogito or StGIT.[28] The core Git project has since
become a complete version control system that is usable directly.[29] While strongly influenced by BitKeeper, Torvalds
deliberately avoided conventional approaches, leading to a unique design.[30]

Characteristics

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Git's design is a synthesis of Torvalds's experience with Linux in maintaining a large distributed development project,
along with his intimate knowledge of file system performance gained from the same project and the urgent need to
produce a working system in short order. These influences led to the following implementation choices:

Strong support for non-linear development

Git supports rapid branching and merging, and includes specific tools for visualizing and
navigating a non-linear development history. In Git, a core assumption is that a change will
be merged more often than it is written, as it is passed around to various reviewers. In Git,
branches are very lightweight: a branch is only a reference to one commit. With its parental
commits, the full branch structure can be constructed.
Distributed development
Like Darcs, BitKeeper, Mercurial, SVK, Bazaar, and Monotone, Git gives each developer a
local copy of the full development history and changes are copied from one such repository
to another. These changes are imported as added development branches, and can be
merged in the same way as a locally developed branch.
Compatibility with existent systems and protocols
Repositories can be published via Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), rsync (removed in Git 2.8.0[31]), or a Git protocol over either a plain socket, or Secure
Shell (ssh). Git also has a CVS server emulation, which enables the use of extant CVS
clients and IDE plugins to access Git repositories. Subversion and svk repositories can be
used directly with git-svn.
Efficient handling of large projects
Torvalds has described Git as being very fast and scalable,[32] and performance tests done
by Mozilla[33] showed it was an order of magnitude faster than some version control
systems, and fetching version history from a locally stored repository can be one hundred
times faster than fetching it from the remote server.[34]
Cryptographic authentication of history
The Git history is stored in such a way that the ID of a particular version (a commit in Git
terms) depends upon the complete development history leading up to that commit. Once it is
published, it is not possible to change the old versions without it being noticed. The structure
is similar to a Merkle tree, but with added data at the nodes and leaves.[35] (Mercurial and
Monotone also have this property.)
Toolkit-based design
Git was designed as a set of programs written in C, and several shell scripts that provide
wrappers around those programs.[36] Although most of those scripts have since been
rewritten in C for speed and portability, the design remains, and it is easy to chain the
components together.[37]
Pluggable merge strategies
As part of its toolkit design, Git has a well-defined model of an incomplete merge, and it has
multiple algorithms for completing it, culminating in telling the user that it is unable to
complete the merge automatically and that manual editing is needed.
Garbage accumulates until collected
Aborting operations or backing out changes will leave useless dangling objects in the
database. These are generally a small fraction of the continuously growing history of wanted
objects. Git will automatically perform garbage collection when enough loose objects have
been created in the repository. Garbage collection can be called explicitly using git gc --
prune.[38]
Periodic explicit object packing
Git stores each newly created object as a separate file. Although individually compressed,
this takes a great deal of space and is inefficient. This is solved by the use of packs that
store a large number of objects delta-compressed among themselves in one file (or network
byte stream) called a packfile. Packs are compressed using the heuristic that files with the
same name are probably similar, but do not depend on it for correctness. A corresponding
index file is created for each packfile, telling the offset of each object in the packfile. Newly
created objects (with newly added history) are still stored as single objects and periodic
repacking is needed to maintain space efficiency. The process of packing the repository can

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be very computationally costly. By allowing objects to exist in the repository in a loose but
quickly generated format, Git allows the costly pack operation to be deferred until later, when
time matters less, e.g., the end of a work day. Git does periodic repacking automatically but
manual repacking is also possible with the git gc command. For data integrity, both the
packfile and its index have an SHA-1 checksum inside and the file name of the packfile also
contains an SHA-1 checksum. To check the integrity of a repository, run the git fsck
command.

Another property of Git is that it snapshots directory trees of files. The earliest systems for tracking versions of source
code, Source Code Control System (SCCS) and Revision Control System (RCS), worked on individual files and
emphasized the space savings to be gained from interleaved deltas (SCCS) or delta encoding (RCS) the (mostly
similar) versions. Later revision control systems maintained this notion of a file having an identity across multiple
revisions of a project. However, Torvalds rejected this concept.[39] Consequently, Git does not explicitly record file
revision relationships at any level below the source code tree.

These implicit revision relationships have some significant consequences:

It is slightly more costly to examine the change history of one file than the whole project.[40] To obtain a history of
changes affecting a given file, Git must walk the global history and then determine whether each change modified
that file. This method of examining history does, however, let Git produce with equal efficiency a single history
showing the changes to an arbitrary set of files. For example, a subdirectory of the source tree plus an associated
global header file is a very common case.
Renames are handled implicitly rather than explicitly. A common complaint with CVS is that it uses the name of a
file to identify its revision history, so moving or renaming a file is not possible without either interrupting its history,
or renaming the history and thereby making the history inaccurate. Most post-CVS revision control systems solve
this by giving a file a unique long-lived name (analogous to an inode number) that survives renaming. Git does not
record such an identifier, and this is claimed as an advantage.[41][42] Source code files are sometimes split or
merged, or simply renamed,[43] and recording this as a simple rename would freeze an inaccurate description of
what happened in the (immutable) history. Git addresses the issue by detecting renames while browsing the
history of snapshots rather than recording it when making the snapshot.[44] (Briefly, given a file in revision N, a file
of the same name in revision N−1 is its default ancestor. However, when there is no like-named file in revision
N−1, Git searches for a file that existed only in revision N−1 and is very similar to the new file.) However, it does
require more CPU-intensive work every time the history is reviewed, and several options to adjust the heuristics
are available. This mechanism does not always work; sometimes a file that is renamed with changes in the same
commit is read as a deletion of the old file and the creation of a new file. Developers can work around this
limitation by committing the rename and the changes separately.
Git implements several merging strategies; a non-default strategy can be selected at merge time:[45]

resolve: the traditional three-way merge algorithm.

recursive: This is the default when pulling or merging one branch, and is a variant of the three-way merge
algorithm.

When there are more than one common ancestors that can be used for three-way merge, it creates
a merged tree of the common ancestors and uses that as the reference tree for the three-way
merge. This has been reported to result in fewer merge conflicts without causing mis-merges by
tests done on prior merge commits taken from Linux 2.6 kernel development history. Also, this can
detect and handle merges involving renames.

— Linus Torvalds[46]

octopus: This is the default when merging more than two heads.

Data structures
Git's primitives are not inherently a source-code management system. Torvalds explains,[47]

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In many ways you can just see git as a filesystem – it's content-addressable, and it has a notion of
versioning, but I really really designed it coming at the problem from the viewpoint of a filesystem
person (hey, kernels is what I do), and I actually have absolutely zero interest in creating a traditional
SCM system.

From this initial design approach, Git has developed the full set of features expected of a traditional SCM,[29] with
features mostly being created as needed, then refined and extended over time.

Git has two data structures: a mutable index (also called stage or cache)
that caches information about the working directory and the next revision
to be committed; and an immutable, append-only object database.

The index serves as connection point between the object database and the
working tree.

The object database contains four types of objects:

A blob (binary large object) is the content of a file. Blobs have no

proper file name, time stamps, or other metadata. (A blob's name
internally is a hash of its content.) Some data flows and storage levels
A tree object is the equivalent of a directory. It contains a list of file in the Git revision control system.
names, each with some type bits and a reference to a blob or tree
object that is that file, symbolic link, or directory's contents. These
objects are a snapshot of the source tree. (In whole, this comprises a Merkle Tree, meaning that only a single
hash for the root tree is sufficient and actually used in commits to exactly pinpoint to the exact state of whole tree
structures of any number of sub-directories and files.)
A commit object links tree objects together into a history. It contains the name of a tree object (of the top-level
source directory), a time stamp, a log message, and the names of zero or more parent commit objects.
A tag object is a container that contains a reference to another object and can hold added meta-data related to
another object. Most commonly, it is used to store a digital signature of a commit object corresponding to a
particular release of the data being tracked by Git.
Each object is identified by a SHA-1 hash of its contents. Git computes the hash, and uses this value for the object's
name. The object is put into a directory matching the first two characters of its hash. The rest of the hash is used as the
file name for that object.

Git stores each revision of a file as a unique blob. The relationships between the blobs can be found through examining
the tree and commit objects. Newly added objects are stored in their entirety using zlib compression. This can
consume a large amount of disk space quickly, so objects can be combined into packs, which use delta compression to
save space, storing blobs as their changes relative to other blobs.

Git servers typically listen on TCP port 9418.[48]

References
Every object in the Git database which is not referred to may be cleaned up by using a garbage collection command, or
automatically. An object may be referenced by another object, or an explicit reference. Git knows different types of
references. The commands to create, move, and delete references vary. "git show-ref" lists all references. Some types
are:

heads: refers to an object locally

remotes: refers to an object which exists in a remote repository
stash: refers to an object not yet committed
meta: e.g. a configuration in a bare repository, user rights; the refs/meta/config namespace was introduced resp
gets used by Gerrit[49]
tags: see above

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Implementations
Git is primarily developed on Linux, although it also supports most major
operating systems including BSD, Solaris, macOS, and Windows.[50]

The first Microsoft Windows port of Git was primarily a Linux emulation
framework that hosts the Linux version. Installing Git under Windows
creates a similarly named Program Files directory containing the MinGW
port of the GNU Compiler Collection, Perl 5, msys2.0 (itself a fork of
Cygwin, a Unix-like emulation environment for Windows) and various
other Windows ports or emulations of Linux utilities and libraries.
gitg is a graphical front-end using
Currently native Windows builds of Git are distributed as 32 and 64-bit GTK+
installers.[51]

The JGit implementation of Git is a pure Java software library, designed to be embedded in any Java application. JGit
is used in the Gerrit code review tool and in EGit, a Git client for the Eclipse IDE.[52]

The Dulwich implementation of Git is a pure Python software component for Python 2.7, 3.4 and 3.5[53]

The libgit2 implementation of Git is an ANSI C software library with no other dependencies, which can be built on
multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, macOS, and BSD.[54] It has bindings for many programming languages,
including Ruby, Python, and Haskell.[55][56][57]

JS-Git is a JavaScript implementation of a subset of Git.[58]

Web interfaces
There are various web interfaces available for Git.

Cgit (https://git.zx2c4.com/cgit/): A web frontend for Git repositories

written in C.
Gitweb (https://git.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Gitweb): A Git frontend
written in Perl.
Gogs (https://gogs.io/): A Git frontend with built-in authentication, issue
handling, fork and a lot of features, written in Go.
Gitea (https://gitea.io): A fork of Gogs.
Gitlist (https://github.com/klaussilveira/gitlist): A Git repository viewer Screenshot of Gitweb interface
using Bootstrap Framework written in PHP. showing a commit diff.

Git server
As Git is a distributed version control system, it can be used as a server out of the box. Dedicated Git server software
helps, amongst other features, to add access control, display the contents of a Git repository via the web, and help
managing multiple repositories. Remote file store and shell access: A Git repository can be cloned to a shared file
system, and accessed by other persons. It can also be accessed via remote shell just by having the Git software installed
and allowing a user to log in.[59]

Adoption
The Eclipse Foundation reported in its annual community survey that as of May 2014, Git is now the most widely used
source-code management tool, with 42.9% of professional software developers reporting that they use Git as their
primary source control system[60] compared with 36.3% in 2013, 32% in 2012; or for Git responses excluding use of

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GitHub: 33.3% in 2014, 30.3% in 2013, 27.6% in 2012 and 12.8% in 2011.[61] Open source directory Black Duck Open
Hub reports a similar uptake among open source projects.[62] The Stack Overflow developer survey reported in 2015
that 69.3% of developers use Git; 36.9% use Subversion; 12.2% use TFS; and 7.9% use Mercurial.[63]

The UK IT jobs website itjobswatch.co.uk reports that as of late September 2016, 29.27% of UK permanent software
development job openings have cited Git,[64] ahead of 12.17% for Microsoft Team Foundation Server,[65] 10.60% for
Subversion,[66] 1.30% for Mercurial,[67] and 0.48% for Visual SourceSafe.[68]

Since February 2017, Microsoft has been in the process of migrating Microsoft Windows development to Git,
migrating from Perforce. In order to handle the size of the Windows source code tree, Microsoft was required to
develop customizations to the software, including Git Virtual File System (GVFS), a system which allows cloned
repositories to use placeholders whose contents are downloaded only once a file is accessed.[69]

Security
Git does not provide access control mechanisms, but was designed for operation with other tools that specialize in
access control.[70]

On 17 December 2014, an exploit was found affecting the Windows and Mac versions of the Git client. An attacker
could perform arbitrary code execution on a target computer with Git installed by creating a malicious Git tree
(directory) named .git (a directory in Git repositories that stores all the data of the repository) in a different case (such
as .GIT or .Git, needed because Git doesn't allow the all-lowercase version of .git to be created manually) with
malicious files in the .git/hooks subdirectory (a folder with executable files that Git runs) on a repository that the
attacker made or on a repository that the attacker can modify. If a Windows or Mac user pulls (downloads) a version of
the repository with the malicious directory, then switches to that directory, the .git directory will be overwritten (due
to the case-insensitive trait of the Windows and Mac filesystems) and the malicious executable files in .git/hooks may
be run, which results in the attacker's commands being executed. An attacker could also modify the .git/config
configuration file, which allows the attacker to create malicious Git aliases (aliases for Git commands or external
commands) or modify extant aliases to execute malicious commands when run. The vulnerability was patched in
version 2.2.1 of Git, released on 17 December 2014, and announced on the next day.[71][72]

Git version 2.6.1, released on 29 September 2015, contained a patch for a security vulnerability (CVE-2015-7545)[73]
which allowed arbitrary code execution.[74] The vulnerability was exploitable if an attacker could convince a victim to
clone a specific URL, as the arbitrary commands were embedded in the URL itself.[75] An attacker could use the exploit
via a man-in-the-middle attack if the connection was unencrypted,[75] as they could redirect the user to a URL of their
choice. Recursive clones were also vulnerable, since they allowed the controller of a repository to specify arbitrary
URLs via the gitmodules file.[75]

Git uses SHA-1 hashes internally. Linus Torvalds has responded that the hash was mostly to guard against accidental
corruption, and the security a cryptographically secure hash gives was just an accidental side effect, with the main
security being signing elsewhere.[76][77]

See also
GitHub
Comparison of version control software
Comparison of source code hosting facilities
List of revision control software

References
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thub.com/git/git/commit/e83c5163316f89bfbde7d9ab23ca2e25604af290) from the original on 16 November 2015.
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2. "Commit Graph" (https://github.com/git/git/graphs/contributors). Github. 8 June 2016. Archived (https://web.archiv
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External links
Official website (https://git-scm.com)
Git (https://www.openhub.net/p/git) at Open Hub

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Git&oldid=822437873"

This page was last edited on 26 January 2018, at 11:00.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Git 13/13