Journal of Language, Linguistics and Literature

Vol. 1, No. 2, 2015, pp. 30-40

http://www.publicscienceframework.org/journal/j3l

Theories of First Language Acquisition

Saeed Mehrpour1, Ali Forutan2, *

1
Department of Foreign Languages & Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
2
English Department, Farhangian University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

Abstract
Investigating the processes through which individuals acquire language is Language acquisition. In general, acquisition of
language points to native language acquisition, which examines children’s acquisition of their first language, while second
language acquisition concerns acquisition of extra languages in children and adults as well. The history of language learning
theories can be considered as a great pendulum cycled from Skinnerian environmentalism to Piagetian constructivism to
Chomskian innatism. Consequently, much of research in this field has been revolved around the debates about whether
cognitive process and structure are constrained by innately predetermined mechanism or shaped by environmental input.
Linguists Noam Chomsky and Eric Lenneberg, for half a century have argued for the hypothesis that children have inborn,
language-specific capabilities that make possible and restrict language learning. Others, like Catherine Snow, Elizabeth Bates
and Brian MacWhinney have hypothesized that language acquisition is the product of common cognitive capacities and the
interface between children and their surrounding communities. William O'Grady suggests that multifaceted syntactic
phenomena stem from an efficiency-driven, linear computational system. O'Grady refers to his work as "nativism without
Universal Grammar. Nevertheless, these basic theories of language acquisition cannot be absolutely divorced from each other.
The purpose of the present paper is reviewing some of the fundamental theories that describe how children acquire their native
language. Therefore describing the strengths and weaknesses of Behaviorism, Mentalism, Rationalism, Empiricism,
Emergentism, Chunking, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, Piaget’s theory of child language and thought, Statistical Language
Learning, Relational Frame Theory and Activity theories are among the objectives of this study. In general these basic theories
are very much complementary to each other, serving different types of learning and indicating diverse cases of language
learning.

Keywords

Behaviorism, Mentalism, Rationalism, Empiricism, Emergentism, Sociocultural Theory

Received: March 18, 2015 / Accepted: April 9, 2015 / Published online: April 10, 2015
@ 2015 The Authors. Published by American Institute of Science. This Open Access article is under the CC BY-NC license.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

1. The Behaviorist Perspective

In psychology, during the first half of the 20th century
with external observation. Behaviorist theory, founded by J.B.
behaviorism was the dominated philosophy of mind as a
Watson, is in fact a theory of first language acquisition,
reaction to the pitfalls of introspectionism. According to
advanced partly as a reaction to traditional grammar. The
Schultz and Schultz (2012) introspection is the inspection of
main tenet of this theory relates to the analyses of human
one's own conscious thoughts and feelings. It refers
behavior in terms of observable stimulus-response interaction
exclusively to the decisive and rational self-observation of
and the association. On the whole, "the behaviorist theory of
one's mind status and it is directly connected to the
stimulus-response learning, particularly as developed in the
theoretical notion of human self-reflection, and is contrasted
operant conditioning model of Skinner, considers all learning

* Corresponding author
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Mehrpour), [email protected] (A. Forutan)
 Journal of Language, Linguistics and Literature Vol. 1, No. 2, 2015, pp. 30-40 31

to be the establishment of habits as a result of reinforcement formation drills possibly will not naturally promote
and reward" (Wilga Rivers, 1968, 73). Therefore, babies intrinsically oriented language acquisition. Therefore prior to
acquire mother tongue habits by the use of varied babblings achieving the threshold level, the learners are not creative
which are similar to the words uttered by a person around and it is evident that the intrinsic learning will be postponed,
them. Because the babies are rewarded for babblings and due to the delayed acquisition of threshold level as a result of
mutterings, more production of similar type into combination formerly developed set of drills and rules. In this theory
of syllables and words in the same circumstances will be also the rate of social effect on acquisition is not adequately
reinforced. Thus, babies continue producing sounds, clusters clarified and the degree to which the social context enhances
of sounds, and by the passage of time they merge the language acquisition remains unexplained. Moreover the
utterances by analogy and generalizations. Then babblings chief strategies of the theory can only be right for the early
and mutterings develop into socialized speech but gradually stages of language development and the theory is generally
they are internalized as implicit speech, and thus many of fruitful for animal learning and experimentation. Another
their sentences get close to the adults. According to Rivers counterargument on behaviorist theory is that lots of the
(1968) in the process of trial-and-error, in which satisfactory learning processes are by and large too complicated, and
utterances are reinforced by understanding and agreement, there are unobservable intervening variables between
and inaccurate utterances are rejected by the lack of reward, stimulus and response. Thus, language acquisition cannot
children progressively discover to make better occur through stimulus and response chain, since language is
discriminations until their production approximates the too complex to be acquired this way, particularly in a very
speech of the adults. Thus behaviorist theory has the view short period of time. Actually, behaviorism has its pitfalls,
that human learning is the same as animal learning in the although it is a fact that learning process is for the most part
process of habit formation. According to this view, an a behavioristic processing or a verbal behavior. In the domain
extremely complex learning task by being broken down into of language teaching this theory sets up the central
minute habits could be acquired (Hubbard and Thomton, background of drills in considering language as stimulus and
1983). In short, in this view language development is an response and it provides a perspective in the appreciation of
issue of conditioning via practice, imitation, reinforcement, the use of restricted observation to find out the laws of
and habituation, which represent the paces of language behavior. It also has had enormous impacts on many teaching
acquisition. We should consider that all theories of leaning in methods, for instance, Audio-lingual Method, Total Physical
the school of thought of behaviorism are associationistic, like Response, and Silent Way represent the behaviorist view of
Thorndike's, Guthrie's, Hull's, Skinner's, and the theory of the language.
school of functionalism.

3. Neo-Behaviorism
2. Counterargument on
Throughout the expansion of behaviourism, there were some
Behaviorist Theory of
psychologists who understood the nature of some sort of
Language Learning mediating processes involved in between the pure stimulus-
From the perspective of behaviorism, the central strategies of response association. Charles E. Osgood (1916-1994) was
language learning are imitation, reinforcement, and among the neo-behaviorists whose theory of language
rewarding. Nevertheless further investigations on the behavior was less puristic and more interesting in
language acquisition have demonstrated that imitation of comparison to pure stimulus-response theories of language.
utterances demonstrates almost no evidence of innovation; Neo-behaviorists added concepts including thought and
furthermore children differ noticeably in the amount of their mental processes in their analysis of human behavior, and
imitation (Bloom1974). Since kids do not imitate language consequently the issue of meaning was of dominant
elements at the same rate they will naturally learn at different requirement in the clarification of human language
rates. However in terms of vocabulary acquisition it must be performance. Such model definitely considers possible
supported that imitation is exceptionally. In this theory, the intervening processes which may take place internally in the
process of learning depends more on generalization, organism to join such stimulus-response events. This model
rewarding and conditioning which advocate the growth of which relates stimulus-response events through internal
analogical learning. However a process of learning that mediating processes was known as 'meditational’ approach
persuades the learners to build language elements modeled and was greatly attributed to Osgood. As a neo-behaviorist,
on earlier established set of drills and rules seems to frustrate Osgood (1957) rejected the simplistic use of Pavlovian
the instinctive construction of language. Subsequently, habit doctrine by early behaviorists since it recommended that a
stimulus, in consequence of conditioning, would create
similar response as the original stimulus created. However, in which contains a set of common principles underlies all
his explanation of the intermediate processes, he was very languages and he also referred to Language acquisition
wary against any mentalistic notion. Osgood was mostly device as inborn knack to acquire language and to apply it
concerned with the construction of a theory of meaning. His productively Lightbown and Spada (2000).
concern in meaning related to the 'mediational process' not
focused on how meaning was reflected in conditioned
behavior. In a mediational model meanings can be 5. Critical Period Hypothesis
conditioned similar to the procedures of classical
Following the chomsky's view there is a Critical period
conditioning. Therefore meaning is the mediator between the
hypothesis claiming that there is a restricted period during
external stimulus and the external response behavior. Even
which language acquisition can happen. This hypothesis
though there is not a direct relationship between stimulus and
implies that human beings possess biological devices
response, meanings are not originally there. Through
planned particularly for acquiring first language and that
conditioning, meanings are acquired in the same way as other
such mechanisms are accessible at puberty or even prior to
types of learning occur. The response which is called to mind
that. As a result an adult learner should employ the general
by the existence of a sign, or a word, is only an incomplete
learning mechanisms that are not intended for language
fraction of the reaction activated by the original stimulus. In
acquisition. According to Lightbown and Spada (2006)
short, following the debates of the mediational model
finding evidence to confirm or refute existence of the critical
initiated by Osgood, it can be claimed that a third variable
period hypothesis is not simple since from birth, nearly all
has been attached to the S-R model to be able to clarify
children are exposing to language. Though there are
language behavior more accurately. Adding this variable
instances of children who were deprived of language before
presupposes the appearance of definite internal processes,
the puberty and never learn it in a typical way, which more or
called meaning, to take place as responses to some external
less support the hypothesis.
stimuli. This model depends on the links that are there
between the external stimulus and its succeeding internal
response and also the relation between this internal response 6. Creolization
which is not visible and the organism's final output which is
The deaf inhabitants of Nicaragua offer more evidence for
observable. Considering Skinner's functional analysis model,
the innateness of language. In Nicaragua there were no
most of the researchers have supported Osgood's model to
education and official sign language for the deaf until around
clarify language behavior since the second has added some
1986. When the language experts in Nicaragua tried to
internal processes.
resolve the condition, they revealed that children past a
certain age had problem to acquire any language.
4. The Innatist Perspective Furthermore, they noticed that the younger kids were making
use of gestures unfamiliar to them to be in touch with each
Noamm Chomsky as one of the key figures in linguistics
other. To solve this complex issue they asked an American
challenges structural linguistics and introduces
linguist from MIT, Judy Kegl, to offer recommendations. She
transformational grammar. Chomsky pointed out that all
revealed that these deaf kids had expanded their own Sign
languages are essentially innate and they share the same
Language with its own systems of syntax and "sign-
universal principles. He stated that human being biologically
phonology". Kegl moreover came across some 300 adults
endowed with language and children acquire language
who had never acquired language, and they were
exactly similar to the development of other biological
incompetent to acquire language in any meaningful sense,
functions. Chomsky challenged behaviourism view in a way
although they grew up in healthy conditions. These persons
that their theory has no justification for logical problem of
were not capable of learning syntax while it was feasible to
language acquisition. In fact in comparison to the instances
teach words. In Hawaii where first-generation adults
of language expressed around them children confirm to know
communicated through an inaccurate "pidgin English" Derek
more about the construction of their language. Universal
Bickerton's (1990) investigated immigrant inhabitants.
grammar is one passionately debated issue in which the
Bickerton discovered that these parents' children employed a
biological donation includes capacity specific to language
complete language in terms of syntax. Additionally, their
acquisition. Noam Chomsky and the late Eric Lenneberg for
language displayed lots of the fundamental syntactical
fifty years have argued for the hypothesis that children have
characteristics of many other natural languages. The
innate, language-specific knacks that make easy and restrain
language became "creolized", and is known as Hawaii Creole
language learning. As a result Chomsky hypothesized a
English. This process of Creolization could be considered as
universal grammar which is an innate linguistic knowledge
strong support for innate grammar of children.
7. Evolution of Language feasible to efficiently enhance short-term memory for low-
information-content items by mentally recoding them into a
Nowadays the nativist argument is about how language
smaller number of high-information-content items. Two most
developed. According to Derck Bickerton a single mutation,
important problems have remained unsettled regarding
a "big bang", connected together formerly evolved qualities
chunking theory. Regarding the first problem, even half a
into complete language. Other researchers including Steven
century after Miller’s article (1956), the description of a
Pinker supported a milder evolution during longer stages of
chunk is still astonishingly tentative (Mathy & Feldman, in
time differentiates itself from Skinner's work by recognizing
review). Various researchers have defined chunks in different
and explaining a special kind of operant conditioning known
ways. The second problem is that there are many different
as derived relational responding, a learning route that so far
terms used for the same notion of ‘chunks’ in the literature.
comes out to take place merely in humans possessing a
There is not a unanimous term on which all scholars and
capacity for language. Empirical evidences imply that
linguists agree. To refer to ‘chunks’ in language acquisition
children learn language by means of a system of intrinsic
studies, most researchers and linguists have created their own
reinforcements, challenging the idea that language
idiosyncratic terms.
acquisition is based on innate, language-specific cognitive
capacities. Many L1 investigations refer to the reality that chunks are
beneficial to L1 acquisition since they are ready-made
memorized wholes which can be saved and retrieved
8. Criticism of Nativist straightforwardly and effortlessly. Consequently, the
Theories application of chunking decreases processing loads and
improves overall oral fluency (Newell, 1990). Nevertheless,
There are many criticisms of the fundamental suppositions of
some researchers consider chunks as an impediment to
generative theory, with slight reply from its supporters. The
language acquisition (Newport, 1988, 1990). Newport (1988,
evolutionary anthropology unconfirmed the notion of a
1990) pointed out that children are better language learners
Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which demonstrates a
since they possess more imperfect information processing
slow adjustment of the human body to the application of
mechanisms in comparison to adults and they must analyze
language, instead of a rapid emergence of a full set of binary
language in proper components.
parameters describing the entire gamut of potential grammars.
The theory encompasses numerous theoretical constructs that Both first and second language learners utilize chunks;
cannot probably be attained from any quantity of however L2 learners appear to be more prone to using them
input .These theoretical constructs for instance, are strict as communicative strategies. One plausible justification is
binary branching, empty categories, movement and complex that because of greater cognitive maturity, L2 learners not
underlying constitutions. In view of the fact that the theory is, only have a superior capability for learning but they may
quintessentially, unlearnably difficult, subsequently it should possibly have a greater need for them because L2 learners
be necessarily innate. However a different theory of language should perform in real-life conditions that require early use
possibly will offer diverse interpretations. Lexical functional of the target language.
grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, and a According to Peters (1983) both in native and target
variety of construction grammar are cases of alternative language acquisition, children initiate by choosing
theories that do not employ empty categories and movement. unanalyzed chunks to fit diverse conditions. Step by step
Despite the fact that the entire theories of language children develop those patterns via employing syntactic or
acquisition hypothesize some amount of innateness, a less grammatical systems as the connection between lexis and
complicated theory may engage less innate structure and context becomes inadequate to satisfy novel communicative
additional learning. The input, in cooperation to common and requirements. The innovative procedure of producing
language-specific learning capabilities, in the company of sentences by rules would play the sustaining auxiliary role
such a theory of grammar may be satisfactory for acquisition. of regulating previously identified formulas to new
circumstances. The chunking theory literature implies that
9. Chunking Theory prefabricated patterns are as an L2 learner’s main policy in
his L2 acquisition. Additionally, the assessment of their
Chase and Simon (1973) originally put forth the Chunking functions discloses that prefabricated speech can function
theory. The chief principle of this theory is that learning takes in L2 learner’s interlanguage before or after L2 rule
place in consequence of the accumulation of chunks. Miller internalization.
(1956) introduced the term ‘chunking’ and believed that it is
10. Emergentism Theory approximately the same. That is, for example there are rarely
eight people in one line and two in the other. There is no
Because the proponents of nativist theory were incapable of
governmentally or socially articulated rule governing this
offering precise or testable descriptions of the elements of
pattern. Rather, the regularity of this straightforward social
language acquisition many researchers sought to discover
“structure” emerges from other fundamental facts about the
substitutes to genetically-wired modules. The alternatives
objectives and behaviours of customers and chain stores
attempt to clarify the formal structures of language as
directors. The behavior of honeybees, though they are
emerging from the interface of social patterns, patterns
definitely not cleverer than costumers, abides the same
embedded in the input, and demands arising from the biology
emergentistic tenets.
of the cognitive system (MacWhinny, 2005). MacWhinny
(2005, p.7) maintains that "the Emergentist approach to
language acquisition views language as a structure arising 11. Stipulationism
from interacting constraints, much as the shape of the
The majority of researchers throughout the 1950s,
coastline arises from pressures exerted by ocean currents,
hypothesized that language learning is formed by the use of
underlying geology, weather patterns, and human
habit formation and imitation, based on the principles of
construction".
stimulus and response and reinforcement. At the end of the
Although many researchers in the field of language decade the cognitive proponents and generative grammarians
acquisition suppose that Emergentist approaches to language challenged this view. These novel views maintained that the
acquisition stand in straight conflict to theories of the multifaceted behavior of language cannot be expressed via
language faculty which hypothesize an innate Universal links between habit formations but the behavior should be
Grammar, some other researchers believe that the principles expressed by the system of rule formation not habit
of emergentism are not well described and there is no formation. According to MacWhinny (2005, p. 5), "The
common compromise as to how problems of linguistic power achieved by these systems relied on the ability of the
analysis should be dealt with (MacWhinny 2005). A modeler to stipulate the right set of rules in terms of their
promising body of research in the area of linguistic analysis elements, combinations, and patterns of rule orderings.
founded on emergentism accounts implements the MacWhinny (2005:5) goes on and maintains that:
procedures of Connectionism (MacWhinny 2005).
The successes of these stipulative systems can be attributed
Connectionism is an approach to the study of the mind which
to the precision of their formulation and the expressiveness
tries to model language learning and cognition in terms of
of the formal production system language on which they
networks of neuron-like units. (MacWhinny 2005, p. 9)
relied. Through its descriptive successes, stipulationism
maintains that:
ended up sowing the seeds of its own conceptual destruction.
Although connectionist modeling provides a useful way to The development of connectionism In the 1980s presented a
test various predictions about language acquisition, substitute to stipulationism. Neural networks viewed children
processing, change, and evolution, the eliminativist position as learning cues, rather than rules. In the 1990s, investigators
is far from universally accepted within emergentism. started searching other alternatives to rule systems, such as
Therefore, emergentism began as a reaction against optimality theory, biological models of neural plasticity
stipulationism. Nevertheless, following O' Grady (2007a) (Elman, 1999) and dynamics systems theory. Also Formal
words; it is not a real idea to assume that any model of linguistic theory initiated to deviate from stipulationism,
language acquisition which does not explicitly specify trying to draw a minimal set of principles from which wider
particular rules or hard-wired modules is Emergentist. If the syntactic patterns could emerge.
lack of stipulated rules is considered as the criterion, we
would allow ourselves to accept even the most undeveloped,
inarticulate idea to count as an Emergentist resolution. As a 12. Statistical Language
result it can be concluded that for an emergentist account Learning
something more is needed. As MacWhinny (2005, p.15)
Statistical learning can be described as the process of
observes: An emergentist account must provide a specific
extracting the statistical properties of the data input (Kim et
mechanism that works to generate the observed behavioral
al. 2009). It is a process through which an individual can
patterns. In an emergentist account, generativity emerges not
track regularities in the input (Graf Estes et al., 2006).
from stipulated rules, but from the interaction of general
Statistical learning can be described as recognizing patterns
mechanisms.
in the environment. Natural language contains fundamental
Many instances of emergentism are evident in the nature. For statistical information that can be explored by listeners.
example if you happened to watch the checkout lines at a
chain store, you will notice that the number of people in each
line is
children as young as 6 month old can employ computational
strategies to learn the distributional patterns of sounds, 14. The Interactionist /
simple grammatical structures, and the sequential Developmental Perspective
probabilities, as well as the stress patterns, necessary to
The phenomenon of language acquisition was considerd the
perform word segmentation. Statistical learning can be figure
same as other types of skills and knowledge and under the
out as a mixture of structural linguistic and nativist
influence of learning other skills by Cognitive and
perspectives, namely, that the distributional characteristics of
developmental psycholinguists. They believe that language
natural language reflect underlying linguistic structure and
acquisition is an issue that is similar to and mainly free from
that the development of language requires learning (Saffran,
the child’s experience and cognitive development .Language
Aslin, and Newport, 1996). Saffran et al. maintain that
acquisition is one of the most fascinating features of human
“infants possess experience dependant mechanisms that may
development. It is normally believed that it starts after birth
be powerful enough to support not only word segmentation
and continues till school age; however, there is some proof
but also the acquisition of other aspects of language”. They
that acquisition gets under way long before this, even prior to
argue in favour of “innately based statistical learning
birth. Karmiloff and Karmiloff (2002) describe language
mechanisms… rather than innate knowledge” (1996, p.
acquisition as a “journey that begins in the fluid world of the
1928). Proponents of this model believe that “Chomsky and
womb and continues through childhood, adolescence, and
his followers have underestimated the power of learning and
even beyond”. They claim that as early as twenty weeks
thereby overestimated the need to build language-specific
development, the hearing system of the fetus is adequately
knowledge into the organism in advance” (Elman and Bates,
developed to begin processing of the sounds that filter
1997, p. 1274).
through the amniotic liquid. One can imagine its world full
of different sounds including the mother’s heartbeats and
13. Relational Frame Theory conversations as well as other noises from the outside world.
Karmiloff and Karmiloff (2002) state “from the six month of
Taking into account a gamut holding different approaches
gestation on ward, the fetus spends most of its working time
towards learning in general and language learning in
processing the very special linguistic sounds, growing
particular, according to the following figure one can put
familiar with the unique qualities of its mother’s voice and of
Relational Frame Theory (RFT) somewhere between
the language or languages that she speaks.”
Empiricism – which is at one of the extremes - and
Cognitivism – which is located somewhere in the middle of Following interactionists position Children acquire language
the continuum. because of the complex interaction between exclusively
human characteristics and the condition in which the child
grows, namely, children acquire language in the milieu of
interaction particularly with adults.

15. Social Interactionism as an

Figure 1. Relational Frame Theory (RFT)
Opposition to the “Poverty
RFT which has had a remarkable attendance in the of the Stimulus”
psychology literature since its expansion over a decade ago,
is a psychological theory of human language and cognition Chomsky claims that the child is exposed to the input in the
was developed largely by Steven C. Hayes and Dermot context filled with puzzling information including imperfect
Barnes-Holmes. In its version related to language learning, it sentences, false starts, or slips of tongue, thus it cannot offer
focuses on how humans learn language through interactions all the information which the child requires (Lightbown &
with the environment. Consequently it could be declared, that Spada, 2000). They came to the conclusion that children are
it is strongly related to Behaviorism of which B.F Skinner's in no way systematically connected or instructed on language.
approach is one example. It is distinguished from pure They believe that parents are inconsistent in their correction,
behavioristic approaches to learning, however, in that it takes and they do not correct some of the children’s errors as well.
into consideration the role of the mind in the learning process. Furthermore, even if the parents correct errors, children often
This is why it takes a halfway position between Empiricism, overlook their corrections and keep on using their own habits
which stimulates Behaviorism, and Cognitivism. of uttering things. Chomsky (1965 cited in Brown, 2000)
suggests that children have the capacity to acquire language
since they are equipped with a language acquisition device.
Just small language data from the setting serve as a “trigger”
to make active the device. When the device is triggered, the environment is a social environment, that the child is part
child has the ability to notice the structure of the language by of a living environment, that the environment is never
harmonizing the innate knowledge to the structure of the external to the child". In this regard, the child’s
particular language in the environment. environment is changing and dynamic meaning as the child
Alternatively, intertactionists suggest that the child’s changes the environment changes, too.
linguistic progress is chiefly the result of interaction with
others (Brown, 2000). In contrast to the idea of the “poverty
of the stimulus” and slight attention to the function of the
18. Mediated Mind
environment, interactionists attribute more significance to the The most fundamental notion of Vygotsky’s sociocultural
environment (Lightbown & Spada, 2000). They put emphasis theory is that human mind is mediated. Vygotsky expressed
on the role of the child directed speech which is adjusted in a that we use “symbolic tools or signs to mediate and regulate
way that makes it easier for the children to comprehend the our relationship with others and with ourselves and thus
language. It is believed that children develop their language change the nature of these relationships” (Lantolf, 2007).
through interaction and conversation with adults and other Music, art, numbers and arithmetic systems and above all
children. language are components of these signs or symbolic tools.
To set up an indirect or mediated connection between the
world and ourselves the tools are used. Vygotsky proposed
16. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural an ontogenetic domain to concentrate on how children
Theory appropriate and integrate especially language as well as
Vygotsky (1981cited in Foley and Thompson, 2003) other tools into their thinking activities as they mature. As
summarizes his socio-cultural theory as: children grow, they enhance control over the meditational
tools including language for interpersonal (social
Any theory in the child’s cultural development appears twice, interaction) and intrapersonal (thinking) purposes. Lantolf
or on two planes. First, it appears on the social plane, and (2007) describes that children go through phases in which
then on the psychological plane. First it appears between they are controlled first by things in their setting, after that
people as interpsychological category, and then within the by others in this situation and at last they manage their own
child as an intra psychological category. This is uniformly cognitive and social activities. In sociocultural theory such
accurate with regard to voluntary attention, logical memory, stages are usually known as object-, other-, and self-
the formation of concepts, and the development of volition. regulation. Later on the stages were applied to the first
He believes that language grows completely from social language acquisition.
interaction, and children are only able to develop to an
advanced level of knowledge only via employing a helpful
interactive environment. 19. Activity Theory
Activity theory explains the nature and development of
17. Environment in Vygotsky’s human behavior based on Vygotsky’s view that human
behavior is the result of “the integration of socially and
Theory
culturally constructed forms of mediation into human
Vygotsky believes that the environment is "the socially activity” (Lantolf, 2007 p8). Activity In this theory refers to
organized world of culture created by the individual who something which is provoked by a biological desire, like as
developed, in the process, his latent forces and abilities" hunger, or a culturally made need such as the need to be
(Yaroshevsky, 1989 cited in Ghassemzadeh, 2005). The educated in specific cultures. Needs would develop into
environment in this sense is not considered as “an absolute motives to attain specific objectives. When an individual
and immutable concept which is already present when the make a decision to eat or be educated, needs become
child is born, but a factor, or rather a set of factors, which motives. According to Lantolf (2000) an activity has three
vary according to the peculiarities of the organism (e.g. the levels: a) level of motivation, b) level of action (or goal) and
developmental stage of the child) and which possess some c) level of conditions. Activities can only be observed at the
regulations that can be internalized according to a level of conditions while levels of motivation and goal are
transformational and developmental system” not observable. Consequently, the same observable activity
(Ghassemzadeh, 2005). Van Der Veer (1986, cited in can be linked to different goals and motives. For example,
Ghassemzadh, 2005) differentiates between the child’s people may hunt animals either for food or for fun.
environment and the animal environment in that “human
20. Piaget and Vygotsky: from fraction to complete. Taking the meaning into
Piaget’s Theory of Child consideration, the first word of the child is a whole sentence.
Semantically, the children initiate with a whole meaningful
Language and Thought complex and then begin to take control over the meaning of
The first one who looked into child perception and logic words, the disconnected semantic units and to divide their
systematically by focusing on the typical features of the child previously undifferentiated thought into those parts. The
thought was Piaget (Vygotsky, 1986). He believed that the semantic and the external facets of speech grow in reverse
distinction between adult and child thinking was qualitative directions, one from specific to the general and the other
not a quantitative difference. He investigated the child’s use from general to the particular, from sentence to the word.
of language and concluded that all the particular features of The movement direction of External and inner aspects is
the child’s logic are the egocentrism of child’s judgment. He opposite, their progress does not overlap, but it cannot be
placed egocentrism as “occupying an intermediate position, claimed that they are independent. Vygotsky (1986, p.219)
genetically, structurally, and functionally, between autistic explains that it is because the “child’s thought, precisely
and directed thought” (Vygotsky, 1986). because it is born as a dim, amorphous whole, must find
Piaget (1959 cited in Vygotsky, 1986, p.16) explains the expression in a single word. Progress in speech to the
distinction between directed and autistic thought. differentiated whole of a sentence helps the child’s thought to
progress from a homogenous whole to well-defined parts.”
Directed thought is conscious, i.e. it pursues an aim which is
He believes that there is the self-determining syntax of
present to the mind of the thinker; it is intelligent, which
thought behind words which is the grammar of word
means that it is adapted to reality and tries to influence it; it
meanings.
admits of being true or false (empirically and logically true),
and it can be communicated by language. Autistic thought is
subconscious, which means that the aim it pursues and the 22. Internalization and Inner
problem it tries to solve are not present in consciousness; it is
Speech
not adapted to reality, but creates for itself a dream world of
imagination; it tends, not to establish truths, but to satisfy Vygotsky (1986, p.225) rejects the earlier definitions of
desires, and it remains strictly individual and “inner speech” by Mueller and Watson. Mueller defined it as
incommunicable as such by means of language. On the “speech minus sound” and Watson as “subvocal speech”. He
contrary, it works chiefly by images, and in order to express believes these elucidations are in no way adequate since
itself, has recourse to indirect methods, evoking by means of silent “pronouncing” of terms is not the same as the whole
symbols and myths the feeling by which it is led. process of inner speech. He says, “Inner speech is speech for
oneself; external speech is for others”, so difference in
Vygotsky unlike Piaget believes that the development starts
functions will lead to difference in structures.
with social, continues with egocentric and ends with inner
speech. The direction of development in Piaget’s view is Vygotsky believes that egocentric speech transforms into
from individual to social, but according to Vygotsky it is inner speech at the school time. The “declining vocalization”
from social to individual. of egocentric communication demonstrates an emerging
construct from sound and the child’s “new capacity to think
words” as an alternative for pronouncing them; in other
21. Process of Verbal Thinking words, egocentric speech extends in the trend of inner speech.
The relation between thought is said to be a process rather Vygotsky (1986) present a fascinating explanation to make
than a thing, a continual movement from word to thought and difference between egocentric and inner speech. Consider a
from thought to word (Vygotsky, 1986, p.211). According to person who is at the desk and taking to another person
Vygotsky (1986) speech can be investigated in two planes: behind. While he is talking, the listener leaves the room
without the speaker’s awareness. Under the illusion that the
1. External, phonetic aspect of speech
listener is attending to his speech, he continues talking. He is
2. Inner, meaningful and semantic aspect of speech outwardly talking with himself, but psychologically his
The first aspect, Vygotsky says, begins as the child starts speech is social. Vygotsky believes that Piaget's theory is
from one word; then he connects two or three words. Later totally different from the illustration, "the child's egocentric
on, he advances from simple statements to more complex talk is for and with himself; it only has the appearance of
sentences and lastly to coherent speech contains a sequence social speech, just as the person's speech gave the false
of these sentences; to put it another way, the child proceeds impression of being egocentric (p.234).
23. Inner Speech and Gesture in the ZPD” is the cause of human development (Lantolf,
2000, p.18). Therefore imitation is deemed more complicated
David McNeil (1993 cited in Lantolf, 2007) claims that
than pure copying, and it is considered to entail
gesture is both an indivisible part of our communicative
communicative behavior.
activity with others and a very important feature in our
activities with ourselves. He argues that some meaning is According to Vygotsky’s ZPD, Children must learn in order
conveyed by gesture not as a substitute for a verbal sign but to be motivated contrary to the common belief that children
as a complement to it. Therefore, as we interact with must be motivated in order to learn. Newman and Holtzman
someone we read his verbal signals and at the same time his (2005) explain that in ZPD’s framework of learning, children
gestural signals. For example, the movement of hands, their engage in developmental activity “volitionally and with
direction of movements and the speed of movement may conscious awareness rather than merely spontaneously”
convey meaning not expressed verbally. (p.63). In this context motivation is not an internal
prerequisite for learning, but self-consciousness is closely
related to motivation. Vygostsky concludes that children
24. Zone of Proximal must learn to be motivated; then learning results in
Development development.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is considered

Vygotsky’s “most important psychological methodological 25. Conclusion
Discovery” (Newman and Holzman, 2005, p.52). Vygotsky
From the perspective of behaviorism, the central strategies of
(1987 cited in Newman and Holzman, 2005, p.53) defines it
language learning are imitation, reinforcement, and
as:
rewarding. Nevertheless further investigations on the
The state of development is never defined only by what has language acquisition have demonstrated that imitation of
matured. If the gardener decides only to evaluate the mature utterances demonstrates almost no evidence of innovation;
or harvested fruits of the apple tree, he cannot determine the furthermore children differ noticeably in the amount of their
state of his orchard. Maturing trees must also be taken into imitation (Bloom1974). Since kids do not imitate language
consideration. The psychologist must not limit his analysis to elements at the same rate they will naturally learn at different
functions that have matured. He must consider those that are rates. However in terms of vocabulary acquisition it must be
in the process of maturing. If he is to fully evaluate the state supported that imitation is exceptionally. In this theory, the
of the child’s development, the psychologist must consider process of learning depends more on generalization,
not only the actual level of development but the zone of rewarding and conditioning which advocate the growth of
proximal development. analogical learning.
The fundamental topic in the description as Newman and It is nearly about two thousand years that the war between
Holzman (2005) referred is the “relationship between Nativism and empiricism has begun. Some times Nativism
‘matured’ and ‘maturing’ processes. Indeed, it refers to what won the war some other times empiricism. And the war
the child can do independently and in collaboration with continued on till the alternative approaches like emergentism
others. A child can accomplish more with collaboration, help came into existence during one decade ago to reconcile the war
or support than he can alone. However, Vygostsky believes between these two approaches. The proponents of
that the child’s potential is not unlimited even if he is helped Emergentism believe that neither empiricism nor Nativism is
(Newman & Holzman, 2005). They assert that one can right and both of them are wrong. Empiricism is wrong since it
imitate what is in the range of our developmental level (our tries to construct the mind out of nothing and Nativism is
ZPDs). wrong for its attempts to make untestable assumptions about
Lantolf (2007, p.16) states that “the ZPD is not a physical genetics and unreasonable proposals regarding the hard-coding
place situated in time and space; rather it is a metaphor for of complex formal rules in neural tissue (MacWhinny, 2005).
observing and understanding how meditational means are Contrary to the innatists’ view, the proponents of the social
appropriated and internalized.” According to this writer, what interactionism state that children acquire language as the
an individual can attain with support from others and/or result of the complex interaction between uniquely human
cultural artifacts differ from what he/she can get when acting characteristics and the environment. They reject the
alone. Although, it is not the subject of simple repetition of chomsky’s “poverty of stimulus” hypothesis, which states
the behavior but the children “transform what the experts that acquisition of language is impossible without proposing
offer them as they appropriate it”. The key to this an innate mechanism responsible for the computation and
transformation is “imitation, which along with collaboration generation of language.
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