UNIT-V

HANDOFFS, DROPED CALLS AND CELL SPLITTING

Introduction:
Once a call is established, the setup channel is not used again, during the call
period, Therefore handoffs is always implemented on the voice channel. The
implementation of handoffs is dependent on the size of the cell. For a 32km radius cell,
after a call is initiated in this cell, there is a little chance of dropping it before the call is
terminated as a result of weak signal at cell boundary. If a call is dropped in a fringe area,
the customer redials and reconnects the call.
Handoff is needed in two situations where the cell site receives weak signals form
the mobile unit.

1. At the cell boundary, where the signal level of -100 dbm for requesting handoff in a
noise - limited environment.

2. When the mobile unit is reaching the signal strength holes (gaps) within the cell site
as shown in figure.1.
Types of Handoffs:

There are two types of handoffs.

(1) Based on signal strength in which the signal strength threshold level for handoff is –
100dlm in noise limited systems and – 95 dbm interference limited system.

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 (2) Based on carrier to interference ratio: The value of C/I at the cell boundary for
handoff should be 18db to have good voice quality.
HANDOFF INVITTATION/INITIATION:
The location receiver at each cell site measures all the signal strengths of all the mobile
receivers at cell site the received signal strength (RSS) includes interference.
RSS = C + I
Where C is the carrier signal power and I is the interference.
Handoff can be controlled by using carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I).

A level of (C/I) can be setup and level of C is function of distance and I is

dependent on location. When increase in propagation distance or increase in interference,
(C/I) reduces bellow threshold and handoff takes place in both cases. In today’s cellular
system it is difficult to measure (C/I) ratio when a call is in progress and analog modulation
is used.
Suppose a mobile unit in a cell is moving randomly in speed (5 to 60 km/h) and
direction (00 to 3600), the probability of reaching the boundary for handoff is dependent on
the call holding time. If the call holding time. If the call holding time is 1.76minute, the
handoff probability is 11.3%, for 6minutes 42.6% and for 9 minutes is 59.3%.
The number of handoffs per call is dependent on cell size. 0.2handoffs per call for
16 to 24km cell, 1 to 2 handoffs for 3 to 8km cell and 3 to 4 handoffs per call in a 1 to
3km cell.

Delaying a Handoff:
A handoff could be delayed when the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary if no
available cell could take the call. When a signal strength drops below the first handoff
level, a handoff request is initiated and when the second handoff level is reached the call is
handed over with no condition. If the mobile unit is in a hole or neighboring cell is busy,
the handoff will be requested periodically every 5 seconds. Thus two-level handoffs are
present.
The MTSO always handles the handoff call first and the originating call second because
call drops upset the customers.
Forced Handoff:
A handoff will not occur but is forced to happen. The MTSO can control and can
make handoff earlier or later after receiving a handoff request from a cell site.
Queuing of Handoffs:
The MTSO will queue the requests of handoff calls instead of rejecting them if the
new cell sites are busy. This scheme is effective only when the requests for handoffs arrive
at the MTSO in batches or bundles and when the requests arrive uniformly. This scheme is
not effective.
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 Power difference () Handoffs:
This handoff is based on the power difference () of a mobile signal received by
two cell sites. The handoff depends on a preset value of .
 > 3db, request a handoff
1db <  < 3db prepare a handoff
-3db <  < 0 monitoring the signal strength
 < -3db no handoff. But dropped call

The value of  can be changed to the processor capacity.

Normally, the request for handoff is based on the signal strength or the supervisory
audio tone (SAT) range of a mobile signal received at the cell site from the reverse link. In
the digital cellular system, the mobile receiver is capable of monitoring the signal strength
of the setup channels of the neighboring cells while serving a call. In TDMA system, one
time slot is used for serving a call and the rest of the time slots to monitor the signal
strengths of the setup channels.

Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

In a normal handoff procedure, the request for a handoff is based on the signal
strength of a mobile signal received at the cell site from the reverse link. In the digital
cellular system, the mobile receiver is capable of monitoring the signal strength of the setup
channels of the neighboring cells while serving a call. This is called Mobile Assisted
Handoff.
Intersystem handoff
Occasionally a call may be initiated in one cellular system (controlled by one
MTSO) and enter another system (Controlled by another MTSO) before terminating. In
some instances, intersystem handoff can take place; this means that a call handoff can be
transferred from one system to a second system so that the call be continued while the
mobile unit enters the second system.

Cell Splitting
When the traffic increase, the cell has to be split for frequency reuse. The splitting
involves reducing the radius of a cell by half and splitting an old cell into four new small
cells.
Transmitting power after splitting:
Pt1 transmitted power of the old cell and Pt2 of the new cell.
Received power Pr at the cell boundary (R)

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 Where  is a constant – for old cell received power
For new old cell received power

The new transmitted power must be 12db less than the old transmitted power. The co
channel interference reduction factor after splitting is same as both D and R are split to half.
The General formula, for a new cell which is split repeatedly n-times and every time the
new radius is half of the old then,

The traffic load increases to four times in the old same cell area after splitting
original cell into four sub-cells. As the cell splitting continues, New traffic load = (4)n x
Traffic load of cell before splitting. Where n is the number of splitting. For n = 4 means
the startup cell split four times, the traffic load increases to 256 times traffic load of start-up
cell.
(ii)Cell-Splitting technique:
The two techniques used for cell splitting are as follows;
a). Permanent Splitting :
Cut over from large cells to small cells takes place during a low traffic period. Frequency
assignment should be based on frequency - reuse distance ratio, q.
b) Real-time splitting (dynamic splitting):
During traffic jams, the idle small cell sites (inactive ones) will be made operative
to increase traffic capacity. Cell splitting has to be carried out gradually to prevent dropped
calls.

As shown in fig. the traffic increased capacity is required between two old 2A
sectors. Then take the midpoint between two old 2a sectors and name it “new 2A”. The
new 1A sector can be found by rotating the old 1A - 2A line by 1200 clockwise shown in
fig. 8.2. Then the orientation of the new set of seven split cells is determined. Then the
channels in the old 2A sector divided into two groups.
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 Where 2A= (2A)’ = (2A)”
Where (2A)’ is the frequency channels used both new and old cells but in the small sectors
(2A)” is frequency channels in the old cell only.

Splitting size limitations and Traffic handling:

Splitting depends on two factors.
The Radio Aspect
The size of small cell is dependent on the control of the coverage pattern and
accuracy of location of the mobile unit.

The capacity of the switching processor. –

The smaller the cell size of the cells more handoffs will occur. The switching
processor require larger factor than handling of coverage of small cells.

(d)Effect on splitting:
Cell splitting effects the neighboring cells and unbalance in power and freq reuse
distance and create ripple effect - Certain channels should be used as barriers. The small
and large cells are isolated by selecting proper group of frequencies between them. This
will eliminate interference transmitted from large cells to the small cells.

Microcells (small cells)

The limitations of small cells are coverage aspects and location of mobile vehicle
actuality. The means of radiation power has to be controlled.
(i)Installation of mast less antenna:
(a) Use of Existing building structures:
The cell antennas are mounted on the flat roof top and to avoid blockage of beam
pattern from the edge of the roof.

(b) Use of antenna structures

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 Four panel type of antennas are mounted on the four sides of the building for omni
directional configuration. For a sectorized, each antenna occupies one sector. For a 3-
sector, two panel antennas mounted to the two corners of the building and the other panel
mounted on the flat wall of the building.

Tailoring a uniform - coverage cell:

The fold-up, portable directional antenna with adjustable beam width wihich is in
the form of a corner reflector, can be mounted on the outer walls of the building to cover
different directions. The transmitted power of the antenna in each direction can be adjusted
for uniform coverage even at the cell boundary. Thus antennas are called Coverage
sectored antennas.
Portable cell sites:
For rapid addition of new cell sites to the existing system, or to serve the
temporarily the traffic till the site constructed or till determination of appropriate site,
portable cell sites can be used for short period of time. The portable cell site consists of
buildings, equipment and antennas which are transportable.
Different Antenna mountings of the mobile unit:
Glass mounted antennas are used in cars in cellular system. With roof mounted
antenna, the mobile unit can travel deep into the neighboring cell as the signal strength
available is still strong at the boundary of the cell and delay handoffs take place. This will
happen if the system is tuned to power for coverage of glass mounted antennas. Thus the
roof mounted antenna will have interference.

Dropped call rates and their evaluation:

Definition:
The dropped call is after the call is established but before it is properly terminated.
“The call is established” means that the call is setup completely by the setup channel. If
there is no availability of voice channels, the call is then blocked call but not dropped call.
The dropped call rate by the subscribers are higher due to:
- The subscriber unit not functioning properly
- The user operating the portable unit in a vehicle
- The user not knowing to get good reception from a portable unit.
(i) Consideration of dropped calls:
The dropped call rate can be low if the voice quality is not considered. The dropped call
rate and the specified voice quality are inversely proportional. For a certain voice quality,
the dropped call rate can be calculated by considering the following factors.

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 (1) The received signal level in the signal coverage area (90% percent of the area) is
above a given signal level.
(2) Maintain the co channel and adjacent channel interference levels in a busy hour.
(3) When the cell becomes small, the response time for handoff has to be shorter, to
reduce the call dropped a rate.
(4) The relationship among the voice quality, system capacity and call dropped rate can
be expressed by C/I parameter.

Relationship among capacity, voice quality, dropped call rate:

Radio capacity

Where BT/BC is the total number of voice channels and (C/I) s is the required (C/I) for
designing a system. This equation is obtained for a six co-channel interferers in a busy
traffic. In an interference limited system, the adjacent channel interference has only a
secondary effect.
The number of frequency-reuse cells in a cellular configuration is derived from the
following equations:

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 Adjusting the parameters of the system

1. Increasing the Coverage for A Noise – Limited System:

In noise limited system, there is not co-channel or adjacent channel interference. To
increase the coverage at cell site, the following approaches are used.
Increasing the transmitter Power:
By increasing the transmitter power of each channel, the coverage area is larger. When the
power level is doubled, the gain increases by 3-db. The received power Pr and Pt the
transmitted power.

Area covered where alpha is a constant.

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 (b) Increasing cell site antenna height:
Doubling the antenna height causes gain increase of 6-db for a flat terrain. If it is
hilly, effective antenna height is to be used depending on the location of the mobile unit.
(c) Using a high gain or a directional antenna at the cell site:
The gain and directivity increases with the received level and the same effect with an
increase in transmitted power.
(d) Lowering the threshold level of received signal:
When the threshold level is lowered, the acceptable received power is lower and the
radius of the cell increases

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 (e)A Low-Noise Receiver:
A low noise receiver can receive a signal from a longer distance than that of a high noise
receiver.
(f) Diversity Receiver:
This type of receiver is used in reducing the multi path fading, which in turn increase the
reception level.
(g) Selecting cell site locations:
With a given actual antenna height and transmitted power, coverage area can be increased
by selecting a high site.
(h) Using repeater and enhancers to increase the coverage area or to fill in holes.
(i) Engineering the antenna pattern to cover a derived service area.

(2)Reducing the Interference:

Increasing coverage area cause interference if co channels and adjacent channels are used
in the system. The Interference can be reduced as follows:

(a)A good frequency Management chart

(b)An intelligent frequency assignment.
(c)Design of an antenna pattern on basis of direction.
(d)Tilting antenna patterns.
(e)Reducing the antenna height.
(f)Reducing the transmitted power.
(g) Choosing the cell site location.

Increase The Traffic Capacity:

Traffic capacity can be increased by
(a) Small cell size
(b)Increasing the number of radio channels in each cell
(c)Queuing
(d)Enhanced frequency spectrum.
(e)Dynamic channel assignment.

Coverage-Hole Filler
As the ground is not flat, many holes (weak signal spots) are created in the cell area
during antenna radiation. The methods for filling these holes are as follows.

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 Enhancers or repeaters
There are two types of enhancers - wide band and channelized enhancers. The
wideband enhancer is a repeater. The signal transmitted by the cell site is received by a
high directional antenna mounted at high altitude at the enhancer site as shown in fig

The signal received in the forward channel will be radiated by a lower omni directional
or directional antenna at the enhancer. The mobile units in the enhancer site will receive the
signal. The mobile unit uses reverse channel to respond to calls (or originate calls) through the
enhancer to the cell site.

The gain of the enhancer can be adjusted from 10 to 70db and range is from 0.5 to
3.0kms. The undesired signal received by antenna at height hE2 is transmitted back to the cell
site and may result co-channel or adjacent channel interference. The channelized enhancer
should amplify only the channels that it selected.

Passive Reflectors:
To redirect the incident energy, the reflector should be located far from both the
transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna with a separation such that

AT and AR are the apertures of both transmitting and receiving antennas, d1 and d2 are
distances of reflector form antennas. The dimensions of the reflector should be many
wavelengths. The excessive loss from a reflector is greater in a mobile environment.

Diversity: The diversity receiver can be used to fill the holes.

(4) Cophase technique:
The cophase technique is used to bring all signal phases from different branches to a
common phase point. The two kinds of cophase techniques are feed forward and feedback.
The feedforward is used for satellite communications. The feedback is also called
GRANLUND COMBINER is better than feed forward.

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 Narrow beam concept
For increasing the traffic capacity, the narrow beam – sector concept is very much used.

For a K = 7 freq reuse pattern with 1200 sectors, each sector can cover 15 voice channels
and for k = 4 with 600 sectors, each sector can cover 13 channels

In the k = 7 pattern there are 21 sectors with 15 channels in each sector and in k
= 4 pattern. The antennas erected in each site with a k = 4 pattern, is higher than those with
k = 7 pattern to avoid channel interference. The number of channels can then be increased
from 15 to 26 as shown in fig.8.5. This scheme is suitable for small-cell systems. The
antenna height for 600 sector is higher than 1200 sector.

This sector-mixed system for a k = 7 freq reuse pattern, the traffic capacity is increased
very much and the 24 sub group channels (each subgroup containing 13 channels) can be
distributed according to the traffic need in the cell.

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 As shown in fig. (b), the 1200 and 600 sectors can be mixed. Some 1200 sectors can be
replace by two 600 sectors in K = 7 pattern.
Vehicle-locating methods
By locating the vehicle and calculating the distance to it, we can obtain information
useful for assigning proper frequency channels.
There are many vehicle-locating methods. In general, we can divide these into two
categories: Installation of equipment (1) in the vehicles and (2) at the cell site
Installing equipment in the vehicles
Triangulation
Three or more transmitting antennas are used at different cell sites. Since the locations of
the sites are known, the vehicle’s location can be based on identification of three or more
sites. However, the accuracy is limited by the multipath phenomenon.
Fifth-wheel and gyroscope equipment
A gyroscope and a fifth wheel are used for determining the direction and distance a vehicle
has traveled from a predetermined point at any given time.
The Global-position satellite (GPS)
There are seven active GPSs, each of them circling the earth roughly twice a day at an
altitude of 1840 Km (11,500 mi) and transmitting at a frequency of approximately
1.7.GHz.Atleast three or more GPS satellites should be seen in space at any time, so that a
GPS receiver can locate its locate its position according to the known positions of the GPS
satellite.
Installing equipment at the cell site.
In general, either of the following three methods alone cannot provide sufficient accuracy
for locating vehicles; a combination of two or all three methods is recommended.
Triangulation based on signal strength
Record the signal strength received from the mobile unit at each cell site and then apply the
triangulation method to find the location of the mobile unit. The degree of accuracy is very
poor because of the multipath phenomenon
Triangulation based on angular arrival
Record the direction of signal arrival at each cell site and then apply the triangulation
method to find the location of the mobile unit
Present cellular locating receiver
Each cell site is equipped with a locating receiver which can both scan and measure the
signal strength of all channels. This receiver can be used to continuously scan the
frequencies, or to scan on request.

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