RESEARCH ARTICLE

High intensity, circuit-type integrated

neuromuscular training alters energy balance
and reduces body mass and fat in obese
women: A 10-month training-detraining
randomized controlled trial
Alexios Batrakoulis1, Athanasios Z. Jamurtas1, Kalliopi Georgakouli1,
a1111111111
Dimitrios Draganidis1, Chariklia K. Deli1, Konstantinos Papanikolaou1,
a1111111111
Alexandra Avloniti2, Athanasios Chatzinikolaou2, Diamanda Leontsini2,
a1111111111
Panagiotis Tsimeas1, Nikolaos Comoutos1, Vassilios Bouglas1, Maria Michalopoulou2,
a1111111111 Ioannis G. Fatouros1*
a1111111111
1 School of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karies, Trikala, Greece,
2 School of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini, Greece

* [email protected]

OPEN ACCESS

Citation: Batrakoulis A, Jamurtas AZ, Georgakouli

K, Draganidis D, Deli CK, Papanikolaou K, et al. Abstract
(2018) High intensity, circuit-type integrated
neuromuscular training alters energy balance and This randomized controlled trial examined body mass, body composition, energy balance
reduces body mass and fat in obese women: A 10- and performance responses of previously sedentary overweight/obese women to a circuit-
month training-detraining randomized controlled type integrated neuromuscular training program with alternative modalities. Forty-nine
trial. PLoS ONE 13(8): e0202390. https://doi.org/
healthy overweight or class I obese females (36.4±4.4 yrs) were randomly assigned to either
10.1371/journal.pone.0202390
a control (N = 21), training (N = 14) or training-detraining (N = 14) group. In weeks 1–20, the
Editor: Jacobus P. van Wouwe, TNO,
training groups trained three times/week using 10–12 whole-body exercises of progressively
NETHERLANDS
increased intensity/volume, organized in timed interval circuit form. In weeks 21–40, the
Received: March 21, 2018
training group continued training whereas the training-detraining group not. Heart rate, per-
Accepted: August 2, 2018 ceived exertion, blood lactate, exertion, oxygen consumption and excess post-exercise oxy-
Published: August 23, 2018 gen consumption were measured for one session/phase/person and exercise energy
Copyright: © 2018 Batrakoulis et al. This is an open expenditure was calculated. Energy intake, habitual physical activity, resting metabolic rate,
access article distributed under the terms of the body composition, body mass, strength and maximal oxygen consumption were measured
Creative Commons Attribution License, which at baseline, mid-intervention and post-intervention. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
was used to determine differences between three time points and three groups. In C,
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited. VO2max declined (p<0.013) and body fat (p<0.008), waist (p<0.059) and hip (p<0.012) cir-
cumferences increased after 40 weeks compared to baseline. Training reduced body mass
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are
within the paper and its Supporting Information (6%, p<0.001), body fat (~5.5%, p<0.001) and increased fat-free mass (1.2–3.4%, p<0.05),
files. strength (27.2%, p<0.001) and endurance (26.8%, p<0.001) after a 10-month implementa-
Funding: This study was supported by tion period using a metabolic overload of only 5–12 metabolic equivalents of task-hours per
departmental funding. The funders had no role in week. Training induced a long-term negative energy balance during an exercise and a non-
study design, data collection and analysis, decision exercise day due to an elevation of resting metabolic rate (6%-10%, p<0.05) and exercise-
to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
related energy expenditure. Training had an 8% and 94% attrition and attendance rates,
Competing interests: The authors have declared respectively. Training-induced gains were attenuated but not lost following a 5-month
that no competing interests exist.

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

detraining. A 10-month implementation of a high-intensity interval type training program elic-

ited both endurance and musculoskeletal gains and resulted in a long-term negative energy
balance that induced a progressive and sustained reduction of body and fat mass.
Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03134781

Introduction
Obesity epidemic, a major health issue predisposing to cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes
and other pathologies [1], has doubled worldwide over the last decade and thus represents a
serious threat for the survival of public health care systems [2]. Developing effective strategies
to prevent and/or manage obesity is important. Obesity represents an imbalance between
energy intake and expenditure, in favour of the former, over a given period of time [3]. Anti-
obesity interventions should strive for a 5–10% reduction in body mass [4] by promoting life-
style changes favouring energy expenditure over feeding [5]. Although a decline of this magni-
tude may not normalize body mass of an obese adult, it will improve risk factors associated
with obesity-related diseases [6]. Almost 50% of Caucasian women in developed countries are
classified as overweight, inactive, and demonstrate increased likelihood to become obese ren-
dering them ideal candidates to develop cardiovascular and metabolic disorders [7–10].
Exercise interventions have mainly used systematic physical activity and/or continuous
endurance exercise of moderate-to-high intensity that gradually increases to 250 min/week
may improve body composition, promote weight loss, prevent weight regain and reduce risk
factors for obesity-related disorders even without a weight loss [6]. This type of exercise train-
ing induces significant weight loss only when applied systematically at a high weekly volume
(>13 MET-hours/week) [11–13]. The inclusion of resistance exercise training to such pro-
grams may further increase performance, skeletal muscle mass, resting metabolic rate and
energy expenditure and thus improve body composition and overall health [14]. Resistance
exercise protocols incorporating whole-body movements that target the activation of the entire
neuromuscular system may also improve the functional capacity to perform activities of daily
living of people demonstrating neuromuscular limitations and reduced mobility such as the
obese [15,16]. However, when continuous endurance and resistance exercise training pro-
grams are applied as discrete exercise modes within the same training regimen are time-con-
suming and may have high attrition and low compliance rates [17]. On the other hand, high-
intensity exercise protocols (HIIT) incorporating mainly cardiovascular activities performed
in interval and/or circuit fashion have been proposed [18–20] because they are time-efficient
[21] and they also improve aerobic capacity [22], body composition [23], resting metabolic
rate[24] and skeletal muscle mitochondrial metabolism [25] in healthy, sedentary overweight
and obese adults. HIIT-induced changes in mitochondrial function may explain its greater
effectiveness in inducing positive metabolic adaptations compared to traditional endurance
and/or resistance exercise training protocols even when no diet intervention is applied in
weight loss trials [26].
The present study applied a high-intensity exercise protocol performed in interval fashion
that utilized integrated neuromuscular resistance exercises with whole-body movements, i.e. a
high-intensity circuit-type neuromuscular exercise training protocol (CINT) of limited dura-
tion to combine the metabolic and performance adaptations of HIIT and resistance exercise in
a time-efficient manner. CINT incorporated primal full-body movements using alternative
modes and nontraditional implements [27] performed in a progressive manner and using a
small-group setting. We hypothesized that CINT may be effective to create an energy deficit

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

and promote health and overall well-being with a limited attrition rate due to its interval
nature and reduced weekly volume in otherwise healthy overweight/obese Caucasian women.
Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to determine the effects of a CINT protocol
with whole-body exercises using alternative modalities [28] on (i) body mass, (ii) body compo-
sition, (iii) resting metabolic rate, (iv) overall energy balance and (v) performance of previously
inactive, overweight/obese women.

Materials and methods

Ethics statement
Participants signed a consent form after they were informed of all risks, discomforts and bene-
fits involved in the study. Procedures were in agreement with the 1975 Declaration of Helsinki,
as revised in 2000, and approval was granted by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the
Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences of the University of Thessaly (protocol
ID 1025/15-7-2015).

Participants and research design

Fig 1 shows the CONSORT diagram of the study and Fig 2 illustrates the experimental flow-
chart of the study. The main goal of this investigation was to evaluate the efficacy of a circuit
integrated neuromuscular training protocol with whole-body exercises using alternative
modalities on energy balance of obese women and not to compare it with other exercise
approaches used for weight management. A controlled, randomized, three-group, repeated-
measures design was employed at the facilities of the University of Thessaly (recruitment
period: July/August 2015) and the follow-up period was from February 2016 to July 2016. The
study (DoIT trial) was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov [URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/
ct2/show/NCT03134781?term=NCT03134781&rank=1] (ID: NCT03134781). Due to misin-
terpretation of the relevant policy the registration of this study as a clinical trial was delayed.
The authors confirm that all ongoing and related trials for this intervention are registered.
Based on previous training studies with overweight individuals (e.g., [15,20,22,23]), a pre-
liminary power analysis (effect size >0.55, probability error of 0.05, two-tailed alpha level,
power of 0.9) using the G⇤ Power 3.0.10 program for three groups and three measurements
points suggested that a sample of 36–40 participants was necessary to identify statistically
meaningful trial effects. Participants were recruited using fliers (posted in the local commu-
nity), social media and by word of mouth. Women participated in the study if they: (a) were
inactive (<7,500 steps day-1; VO2max <30 ml kg-1 min-1; accelerometry-based moderate-to-
vigorous physical activity <30 min day-1), b) were healthy, premenopausal and aged 30–45
years, c) were overweight or obese class 1 [Body Mass Index (BMI) 25.1–34.9 kg/m2], d) had
medical clearance for strenuous physical training, e) were non-smokers for 6 months before
the study, f) were not following a diet intervention or using nutritional supplements/medica-
tions before ( 6 months) and during the study, g) had no weight loss greater >10% of body
mass before (6 months) the study and h) had no symptoms of depression. Participants were
excluded from the study if: a) participated in 80% of total exercise sessions, and b) adhered
to a nutritional intervention during the study. Ninety-six females were interviewed, 60 were
recruited (12 were not interested in participating, 12 did not meet the inclusion/exclusion cri-
teria and 12 were excluded due to personal issues) and 49 completed it [data from 11 women
were not used because of altered energy intake during the study (5 women), poor attendance
(3 women), drop out (2 women), and failure to participate in all measurements (1 woman)]
(Fig 2). Table 1 shows participants’ baseline characteristics.

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Fig 1. CONSORT diagram of the study.

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Fig 2. Experimental flowchart. C, control group; TR, training group (40 weeks); TRD, training (20 weeks)—detraining (20 weeks) group; CINT, circuit integrated
neuromuscular training; RMR, resting metabolic rate; 1for all groups (4-week adaptation period); 2only for TR and TRD; 3for all groups; 4acute metabolic
measurements for TR and TRD (1 session per participant in each training phase: perceived exertion and heart rate measurement during the exercise session, oxygen
consumption and blood lactate concentration before, during and after a session and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption after a session).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202390.g002

Participants were randomly assigned to either (i) a control group (C, N = 21; participated
only in measurements), (ii) a training group (TR, N = 14), or (iii) a training-detraining group
(TRD, N = 14). Randomization was achieved by a random-numbers table (allocation sequence
conducted by an independent researcher and was concealed until interventions were
assigned). The first author (AB) enrolled and assigned participants to interventions. Initially,
participants followed an isocaloric diet adaptation period and they were familiarized with the
CINT protocol (4 weeks). During the first 20 weeks, TR and TRD followed the CINT exercise
protocol. In weeks 21–40, TR continued the CINT protocol whereas TRD abstained from
training (detraining). Anthropometric, metabolic, performance, daily energy intake, and
habitual physical activity assessments were performed at baseline and at 20 and 40 weeks of
intervention (five days after the last training session). Blood lactate concentration, exercise

Table 1. Participants’ baseline characteristics.

C (N = 21) TR (N = 14) TRD (N = 14)
Age (years) 36.0 ± 4.2 36.4 ± 5.0 36.9 ± 4.3
Body mass (kg) 80.2 ± 8.9 78.0 ± 9.9 78.7 ± 7.9
Body height (m) 1.65 ± 0.5 1.66 ± 0.5 1.64 ± 0.6
BMI (kg m-2) 29.6 ± 3.0 28.2 ± 2.8 29.1 ± 3.0
PA (steps day-1) 6,399.7 ± 1,851.3 6,330.7 ± 1,041.5 6,870.0 ± 2,030.6
Body fat (%) 46.7 ± 6.5 47.5 ± 3.2 46.2 ± 3.9
VO2max (ml kg-1 min-1) 26.1 ± 3.2 26.1 ± 4.4 27.4 ± 3.2
1RM Leg press (kg) 133.8 ± 29.7 124.6 ± 22.4 131.4 ± 18.5

C, control group; TR, trained group; TRD, trained-detrained group; BMI, body mass index; PA, physical activity; VO2max, maximal oxygen uptake; 1RM, one repetition
maximum.

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Table 2. The characteristics of the training protocol across all training phases.
Training Parameters Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
(Week 1–7) (Week 8–14) (Week 15–20) (Week 21–40)
Session duration (min) 23.0 38.0 41.0 41.0
Effort time (min)a 6.66 16.5 24.0 24.0
Recovery time (min)b 16.34 21.5 17.0 17.0
Work-to-rest ratio 1:2 1:1 2:1 2:1
Work interval (sec) 20.0 30.0 40.0 40.0
Rest interval (sec) 40.0 30.0 20.0 20.0
Exercises amount 10 11 12 12
Rounds 2 3 3 3
Rest time/round (min) 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0
Movement numberc Maximal Maximal Maximal Maximal
a
Effort time = session duration–recovery time.
b
Recovery time = session duration–effort time.
c
Maximal number of movements during efforts time.

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oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion were measured
before, during and after a training session in each training phase (one session/person/phase).
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption was assessed after a training session in each training
phase (one session/person/phase).

Exercise intervention
Tables 2 and 3 illustrate the configuration of the training protocol across all phases. A super-
vised, small-group (5–10 women/session) training protocol was performed three times/week
(with a 48-hour recovery between sessions), with the use of asynchronous music, for 40 weeks.
Exercises incorporated fundamental movement patterns using bodyweight as resistance
[19,20] or adjunct portable modalities [28]. Each session was preceded by a 10-min warm-up
(low-intensity endurance exercise, stretching exercises and mobility exercises) and followed by
a 5-min cool-down period (walking/stretching exercises). Exercises (~10-12/session) were per-
formed in circuit fashion using prescribed time (20–40 sec) of effort and recovery intervals.

Table 3. The exercises of the training protocol across all training phases.
Exercises
Adjunct Modalities Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
1. Balance Ball Over dome ankle touch Straddle jump Split jack Over dome hand touch
2. Suspension Exercise Device Neutral grip row Wide grip row Y deltoid raise Chest press
3. Kettlebell Sumo deadlift Sumo deadlift high pull Two-arm swing Two-arm snatch
4. Bodyweight Straight-arm plank Forearm plank Straight-arm reverse plank Side plank rotation
5. Speed Ladder Low knee skip Lateral shuffle Heel flick High knee skip
6. Battling Rope Bilateral wave Alternating wave Side-to-side wave Slam
7. Medicine Ball Alternating static lunge Forward lunge with press Lunge to chest pass Twisting chop
8. Foam Roller Forearm plank Forearm plank with leg lift Shifting Plank Forearm plank with leg lift
9. Bodyweight Jumping jack Split jack Ice skater Burpee
10. Resistance Band with Stick Squat to overhead press Lateral shuffle press Hockey slap shot Axe chop
11. Resistance Band Squat row Reverse fly with lunge Squat to overhead press
12. Medicine Ball Squat throw Swing
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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Participants performed as many repetitions as possible at each station with proper form at a
controlled, moderate speed. Each session consisted of alternate stations emphasizing cardio-
vascular, resistance and neuromotor exercises. For resistance-type multi-joint exercises, partic-
ipants were encouraged to use a comfortable resistance at the beginning of the study and
progressed to heavier loads that allowed them to complete the desired exercise duration at
each station.
During the first 20 weeks, training was divided in three phases characterized by a progres-
sive increase in exercise intensity and volume. During the second 20 weeks (phase 4), training
maintained the intensity and volume of phase 3 but the work-to-rest ratio was varied bi-
weekly. Heart rate was monitored (Polar Team Solution, Polar Electro-Oy, Kempele, Finland)
throughout each session and mean and maximal heart rates were recorded. Verbal encourage-
ment was given by the investigators and participants were guided to keep an intensity 65% of
heart rate reserve throughout the session. Rates of perceived exertion were recorded for each
round and mean exertion was calculated. Exercise intensity was calculated as mean heart rate
(percentage of maximal heart rate obtained during VO2max testing), percentage (%) of heart
rate reserve, RPE, % of VO2peak, metabolic equivalents of task (METs), and blood lactate accu-
mulation for all participants.

Measurements
Height and body mass were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and 0.1 kg, respectively, using a
beam scale (SECA 220, Hamburg, Germany) and BMI was calculated. Waist and hip circum-
ferences were measured using a Gullick II tape and the waist-to-hip ratio was calculated. The
fat and fat-free mass were measured using the 12.2 enCORE software package of a whole-body
dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scanner (Lunar Prodigy Advance, GE Lunar Healthcare
Corp., Madison, WI, USA) as described [29].
Strength (one repetition maximal, 1RM) was measured bilaterally on a horizontal leg press
machine (Panatta Sport, Apiro, Italy) using standard procedures [14] with an intra-class corre-
lation coefficient for test-retest trials of 0.88. VO2peak was assessed during a graded maximal
exercise testing using the modified Balke protocol [30] on a treadmill (Precor 954i, Woodin-
ville, WA, USA). During testing, expired O2 and CO2 concentrations were analyzed by a porta-
ble open-circuit spirometry system (Fitmate Pro, Cosmed, Chicago, IL, USA) in 15-second
intervals and heart rate, blood pressure and rates of perceived exertion were recorded. Attain-
ment of VO2peak was verified if standard criteria were met [31]. For resting metabolic rate
assessment, resting VO2/CO2 were measured in the morning (07.00–09.00) after an overnight
fast using an open-circuit indirect calorimeter with a ventilated hood system (Fitmate Pro,
Cosmed, Chicago, IL, USA) as described [32] and the 24-hour resting metabolic rate was cal-
culated using the Weir equation [33].
Exercise energy cost and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption was measured using
portable indirect calorimetry (VmaxST, Sensormedics, Yorba Linda, CA) as described [32].
Total energy expenditure of an exercise session was estimated by summing a) the aerobic
energy expenditure during exercise which was estimated using a constant value of 21.14 kJ
(5.05 kcal/)/liter oxygen [34], b) the anaerobic energy expenditure using resting and post-exer-
cise blood lactate concentration measurements [35], and c) excess post-exercise oxygen con-
sumption. For lactate measurement, blood samples were collected pre-, mid- and post-exercise
session (3 min post-exercise). Investigators collected the blood sample after they had thor-
oughly cleaned, disinfected and dried subjects’ whole hands and the single finger (to avoid any
potential contamination due to interference with sweat) used for blood sampling. Thereafter, a
lancet was used to puncture participants’ skin at the finger, the first blood drop was directed

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

on the measurement strip and the blood lactate concentration was analyzed using a hand-por-
table analyzer (Accutrend Plus, Roche Diagnostics, Switzerland) within a few seconds follow-
ing collection.
Seven-day habitual physical activity level was determined via accelerometry (GT3X-BT,
ActiGraph, FL, USA) as described [36]. Accelerometers were placed into adjustable belts and
were over the right hip during the measurement (throughout the day except during bathing
and sleeping). Participants’ data were included in the analysis, if they had 4 days and 10
wear hours/day [37]. Non-wear time was estimated using algorithms for vector magnitude
data as described [38]. Daily activity and sedentary time were calculated based on four vector
magnitude data and expressed as steps/day and time in sedentary (<199 cpm), light (200–
2,689 cpm), moderate (2,690–6,166 cpm), vigorous (6,167–9,642 cpm) and moderate-to-vigor-
ous ( 2,690 cpm) physical activity [39]. The ActiLife 6 software was used to start the acceler-
ometers and access data (60-s epoch length). Participants were encouraged to maintain their
usual daily physical activity throughout the study.
All participants were asked to follow an isocaloric diet (based on resting metabolic rate mea-
surements and habitual physical activity). A dietitian provided instructions on how to adapt to a
weight maintenance diet (55–60% carbohydrate, 15–20% protein, 20%-25% fat), in the form of
nutritional equivalents during an initial adaptation period when body mass was monitored to
verify the accuracy of the assigned energy approach (it was re-adjusted at 20 weeks). To measure
caloric intake, participants submitted 7-day diet recalls following training on how to record
food/fluid consumption by a registered dietitian. Participants were instructed to maintain the
same feeding pattern and to avoid any dietary interventions during the entire study. Diet recalls
were analysed for energy and macronutrient (carbohydrate, fat, and protein) intake using the
nutritional analysis software “Science Fit Diet 200A” (Science Technologies, Athens, Greece).
Energy balance during an exercise and a non-exercise day was estimated as calories con-
sumed through daily diet minus calories expended as resting metabolic rate, exercise energy
cost and habitual physical activity.

Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed using SPSS 22.0. Assumptions of sphericity were tested using Mauchley’s
test and if violated degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of
sphericity. A two-way (treatment×time) repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine
differences between three time points (baseline, 20 weeks, 40 weeks) and three groups (control,
training, training-detraining). When a significant interaction was detected, data were subse-
quently analyzed using a Bonferroni post-hoc test. Significance was accepted at p0.05. Analy-
sis of Covariance (ANCOVA, all time points in the three groups) was used to adjust body mass
by daily caloric consumption and daily physical activity. Effect sizes (ES) and confidence inter-
vals (CI) were calculated for all dependent variables using the Hedge’s g method corrected for
bias. ES was interpreted as none, small, medium-sized and large for values 0.00–0.19, 0.20–
0.49, 0.50–0.79 and 0.8, respectively. Data are presented as means±standard deviation.

Results
A 94% compliance and an 8% drop-out rate were recorded for the training protocol during
implementation. No differences were detected among groups for all dependent variables at
baseline and as such analysis of covariance was not necessary. No injuries or other exercise-
induced health problems were recorded.
Table 4 presents the overload, physiological, and metabolic characteristics of the exercise
protocol across all training phases. The mean training heart rate was similar in TR and TRD

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Table 4. Overload, physiological, and metabolic characteristics of the training protocol across all training phases.
Variables Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Comparison between phases
(Week 1–7) (Week 8–14) (Week 15–20) (Week 21–40)
Mean HR (beats min-1) 118.5 ± 9.2 130.8 ± 12.6a 143.2 ± 12.1b,d 151.1 ± 11.3c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.05; CI: -1.94, -0.34; ES = -1.14
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.80, -1.01; ES = -1.91
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3.99, -1.86; ES = -2.93
Phases 2 vs 3: p = 0.011; CI: -1.73, -0.16; ES = -0.94
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.67, -0.91; ES = -1.79
Mean HR as % maxHR 72.5 ± 7.9 79.7 ± 6.4 87.0 ± 6.3b,d 87.5 ± 4.7c,e Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.89, -1.08; ES = -1.98
(as % HR reserve) (57.9 ± 7.4) (69.1 ± 5.9) (79.1 ± 4.3) (79.5± 4.7) Phases 1 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.88, -1.07; ES = -1.98
Phases 2 vs 3: p = 0.01; CI: -2.42, -0.73; ES = -1.58
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.013; CI: -2.39, -0.70; ES = -1.54
maxHR (beats min-1) 150.7 ± 12.2 157.6 ± 11.8 164.9 ± 11.6b,d 172.5 ± 9.9c,e Phases 1 vs 3: p = 0.001; CI: -1.76, -0.20; ES = -0.98
Phases 1 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.48, -0.77; ES = -1.63
Phases 2 vs 3: p = 0.007; CI: -1.33, 0.18; ES = -0.57
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.007; CI: -2.11, -0.48; ES = -1.30
Blood lactate concentration (mM)
Pre-exercise 1.61 ± 0.41 1.54 ± 0.25 1.36 ± 0.33 1.53 ± 0.40
Mid-exercise 8.02 ± 0.90 11.57 ± 0.72a 12.31 ± 1.63b 12.42 ± 1.40c Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -5.92, -3.12; ES = -4.52
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -4.31, -2.08; ES = -3.20
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -4.65, -2.30; ES = -3.48
Post-exercise 8.99 ± 1.09 11.31 ± 0.77a 11.78 ± 1.94b 11.99 ± 1.40c Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -3.44, -1.48; ES = -2.46
Phases 1 vs 3: p = 0.001; CI: -2.55, -0.82; ES = -1.69
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3.38, -1.43; ES = -2.41
VE (L min-1) 55.71 ± 6.9 62.00 ± 7.0a 68.71 ± 5.9b,d 73.50 ± 5.5c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -1.58, -0.04; ES = -0.81
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.68, -0.92; ES = -1.80
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3.66, -1.63; ES = -2.65
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -1.69, -0.13; ES = -0.91
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.53, -0.81; ES = -1.67
VO2 (mL kg-1 min-1) 18.05 ± 1.9 19.26 ± 1.9a 23.64 ± 2.b,d 23.84 ± 2.4c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -1,38, 0,14; ES = -0,62
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -3,48, -1,50; ES = -2,49
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3,66, -1,63; ES = -2,65
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2,77, -0,99; ES = -1,88
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2,92, -1,10; ES = -2,01
RER 1.04 ± 0.06 1.08 ± 0.05a 1.10 ± 0.06b,d 1.11 ± 0.07c Phases 1 vs 2: p = 0.001; CI: -1.35, 0.16; ES = -0.60
Phases 1 vs 3: p = 0.001; CI: -1.67, -0.12; ES = -0.89
Phases 1 vs 4: p = 0.008; CI: -1.75, -0.19; ES = -0.97
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.05; CI: -1.07, 0.42; ES = -0.32
METs (MET hours) 5.16(1.55)±0.6 5.50(2.75)±0.5a 6.75(4.05)±0.7b,d 6.78(4.07)±0.7c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -1.35, 0.16; ES = -0.60
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -3.53, -1.54; ES = -2.54
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3.59, -1.58; ES = -2.59
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.75, -0.97; ES = -1.86
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.80, -1.01; ES = -1.91
MET hours week-1 4.65 8.25 12.15 12.21
RPE 13.71 ± 1.0 14.86 ± 0.9a 16.00 ± 0.9b,d 16.14 ± 0.5c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -1.67, -0.12; ES = -0.89
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.89, -1.08; ES = -1.99
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3.37, -1.42; ES = -2.40
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -1.83, -0.25; ES = -1.04
Phases 2 vs 4: p<0.05; CI: -2.17, -0.53; ES = -2.56
TEE (kcal) 164.9 ± 17.6 326.8 ± 26.9a 411.2 ± 45.9b,d 385.1 ± 36.2c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -6.46, -3.47; ES = -4.96
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -8.96, -5.01; ES = -6.98
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -9.58, -5.39; ES = -7.49
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -3.53, -1.54; ES = -2.53
Phases 2 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -3.09, -1.22; ES = -2.15
AEE 133.2 ± 17.0 273.7 ± 26.1a 348.3 ± 44.3b,d 322.9 ± 34.1c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -6.84, -3.71; ES = -5.28
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -8.18, -4.53; ES = -6.35
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -8.73, -4.87; ES = -6.80
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.68, -0.93; ES = -1.80
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.017; CI: -2.15, -0.51; ES = -1.33
(Continued)

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Table 4. (Continued)

Variables Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Comparison between phases

(Week 1–7) (Week 8–14) (Week 15–20) (Week 21–40)
ANEE 20.7 ± 3.0 27.0 ± 3.9a 28.3 ± 3.3b 26.9 ± 3.8c Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.05; CI: -2.58, -0.85; ES = -1.71
Phases 1 vs 3: p = 0.001; CI: -3.34, -1.40; ES = -2.37
Phases 1 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.68, -0.92; ES = -1.80
EPOC 11.0 ± 2.8 26.1 ± 4.6a 34.7 ± 3.4b,d 35.3 ± 3.8c,e Phases 1 vs 2: p<0.001; CI: -4.23, -2.02; ES = -3.12
Phases 1 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -8.57, -4.77; ES = -6.67
Phases 1 vs 4: p<0.001; CI: -8.41, -4.68; ES = -6.54
Phases 2 vs 3: p<0.001; CI: -2.64, -0.89; ES = -1.77
Phases 2 vs 4: p = 0.001; CI: -2.73, -0.96; ES = -1.84
EE (kcal/min) 9.2 ± 1.1 10.9 ± 1.5 11.4 ± 1.3 10.7 ± 1.0

HR, heart rate; maxHR, maximal heart rate; VE, mean minute ventilation; VO2, mean oxygen consumption; RER, respiratory exchange ration; METs, metabolic
equivalent of task; RPE, rates of perceived exertion; TEE, total energy expenditure; AEE, aerobic energy expenditure; ANEE, anaerobic energy expenditure; EPOC,
excess post-exercise oxygen consumption; EE, energy expenditure; CI, confidence intervals; ES, effect size;
a
denotes a difference between phases 1 and 2 at p<0.05 or at p<0.01;
b
denotes a difference between phases 1 and 3 at p<0.05 or at p<0.01;
c
denotes a difference between phases 1 and 4 at p<0.05 or at p<0.01;
d
denotes a difference between phases 2 and 3 at p<0.05 or at p<0.01;
e
denotes a difference between phases 2 and 4 at p<0.05 or at p<0.01.

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throughout training. Mean training heart rate increased progressively from phase 1 through
phase 3 and stabilized thereafter in TR. Blood lactate concentration during a training session
exhibited a progressive rise in all phases. Blood lactate concentration measured at mid- and
post-exercise was of lower magnitude in phase 1 compared to the other phases but there were
no differences between phases 2, 3 and 4. Mean minute ventilation, VO2, RER, METs, rates of

Fig 3. VO2max changes during the experimental period. VO2max, maximal oxygen intake; ⇤ significant difference with
baseline (p<0.05); ‡significant difference with the control group (p<0.05); #significant difference with previous time point
(p<0.05); †significant difference between training and training-detraining groups (p<0.05).
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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Fig 4. 1RM changes during the experimental period. 1RM, one repetition maximum; ⇤ significant difference with baseline
(p<0.05); #significant difference with previous time point (p<0.05).
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perceived exertion, total energy expenditure during an exercise session increased progressively
from phase 1 to 4.
Performance results are shown in Figs 3 and 4. In C, VOmax declined (p<0.013; CI = -0.43,
0.79; ES = 0.18) at 40 weeks (25.6 ± 3.1 ml kg-1 min-1, -2%) compared to baseline (26.1 ± 3.2
ml kg-1 min-1). In TR, VO2max increased progressively from baseline (26.1 ± 4.4 ml kg-1 min-
1) to mid-training (31.8 ± 4.8 ml kg-1 min-1; p<0.001; CI = -2.01, -0.40; ES = -1.20; +21.8%)
and post-training (33.1 ± 4.8 ml kg-1 min-1; p<0.001; CI = -1.00, -0.49; ES = -0.26; +26.8%).
In TRD, VO2max increased from baseline (27.4 ± 3.2 ml kg-1 min-1) to mid-training (31.6 ±
3.6 ml kg-1 min-1; p<0.001; CI = -2.01, -0.40; ES = -1.20; +15.3%) and decreased thereafter
(29.5 ± 3.3 ml kg-1 min-1; p<0.001; CI = -0.15, -1.37; ES = 0.61; -6.6%) but remained above
pre-training levels (p<0.001; CI = -1.37, - 0.15; ES = -0.61; +7.7%). At mid-training, VO2max
demonstrated similar values in TR and TRD and they were both higher than C (C vs. TR:
+23.3%, p<0.001; CI = -2.26, -0.74; ES = -1.50; C vs. TRD: +22.5%, p<0.001; CI = -2.50, -0.93;
ES = -1.71). At 40 weeks, TR demonstrated higher VO2max values than C and TRD (TR vs. C:
+29.3%, p<0.001; CI = 1.08, 2.70; ES = 1.89; TR vs. TRD: +12.2%, p<0.05; CI = 0.08, 1.62;
ES = 0.85) and TRD than C (p<0.012; CI = 0.46, 1.92; ES = 1.19; +15.2%). These VO2max
results were not affected by training-induced weight loss since similar differences were
detected when VO2max was expressed in both relative (mL/kg/min) and absolute (L/min)
terms. Strength (1RM) in C remained unchanged throughout the study. In TR, 1RM increased
progressively from baseline (124.6 ± 22.4 kg) to mid-training (143.7 ± 26.0 kg; p<0.001;
CI = 1.53, 0.00; ES = -0.77; +15.3%) and post-training (158.5 ± 32.3 kg; p<0.001; CI = -1.24,
0.26; ES = -0.49; +27.2%) and from mid-training to post-training (p<0.05, +10.3%). In TRD,
1RM increased from baseline (131.4 ± 18.6 kg) to mid-training (148.2 ± 25.6 kg; p<0.001;
CI = -1.52, 0.07; ES = -0.73; +12.8%) and decreased thereafter but remained above pre-training
levels (146.9 ± 24.6 kg; p<0.001; CI = -0.10, 1.48; ES = 0.69; +11.8%).
Table 5 demonstrates changes in anthropometric variables, resting metabolic rate, physical
activity, and energy intake. Body mass and BMI remained constant in C, decreased in TR at

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Table 5. Changes of anthropometric and performance variables, resting metabolic rate, habitual physical activity, and energy intake during the experimental
period.
Baseline 20 weeks 40 weeks
Variables C TR TRD C TR TRD C TR TRD
Sedentary PA (min) 1205.5±88.4 1230.3±75.2 1203.8±80.1 1206.3±108.8 1230.7±70.9 1190.5±80.1 1200.8±232.1 1216.6±74.5 1202.4±83.1
Light PA (min) 198.5±78.1 179.1±74.9 191.8±66.5 196.9±102.0 175.9±71.3 204.6±69.4 156.0±101.6 186.0±72.2 193.6±63.5
Moderate PA (min) 34.9±13.1 29.6±8.8 42.4±20.7 35.8±12.1 31.4±9.1 42.7±18.7 34.9±12.5 35.1±7.8 38.5±19.5
Vigorous PA (min) 1.05±0.8 0.98±1.8 0.91±1.5 0.94±0.7 1.29±1.9 1.21±1.5 1.02±0.8 1.51±1.7 1.19±1.3
MVPA (min) 36.0±13.6 30.5±9.6 43.3±21.2 36.8±12.6 32.7±9.9 43.9±19.2 35.9±13.2 36.6±8.5 39.7±19.8
Steps day-1 6399.7 6330.7 6870.0 6370.4 6363.9 6933.7 6351.0 6536.8±1319.3 6748.5
±1851.3 ±1279.0 ±2030.6 ±1827.0 ±1384.0 ±1998.7 ±1900.1 ±1939.6
Kcal day-1 182.2±73.6 158.9±60.0 214.1±88.6 182.3±70.6 164.9±58.3 215.4±84.8 183.5±71.3 181.4±60.0 183.1±67.5
METs day-1 1.40±0.16 1.09±0.03 1.12±0.05 1.41±0.13 1.30±0.18 1.32±0.14 1.42±0.14 1.28±0.18 1.34±0.16
EI (kcal day-1) 1829.9±193.9 1840.5±151.8 1839.6±230.8 1835.4±178.0 1807.4±163.3 1812.4±231.5 1834.1±158.0 1782.9±150.2 1807.2±201.3
Protein (%) 16.5±0.05 17.4±0.04 16.8±0.03 17.1±0.03 16.6±0.02 17.3±0.03 17.7±0.03 18.3±0.03 17.5±0.04
Carbohydrate (%) 58.8±0.05 57.5±0.04 57.7±0.03 56.8±0.03 58.7±0.04 58.1±0.03 57.9±0.03 56.0±0.03 58.8±0.03
Fat (%) 24.7±0.04 25.0±0.03 25.5±0.04 26.1±0.03 24.7±0.04 24.6±0.03 24.4±0.03 25.7±0.03 23.7±0.04
-1
RMR (kcal day ) 1501.1±162.8 1451.6±145.4 1504.1±220.3 1507.6±150.9 1536.4 1637.9 1523.7±141.8 1597.9 1524.9
±158.1a ±163.6a ±160.9b,c ±170.7b
Body mass (kg) 80.2±8.9 78.0±9.9 78.2±7.8 80.4±7.7 74.2±10.3a 75.5±8.2a 80.9±7.7 73.4±10.0c 76.7±9.0b
Body height (m) 1.65±0.05 1.66±0.05 1.64±0.06 1.65±0.05 1.66±0.05 1.64±0.06 1.65±0.05 1.66±0.05 1.64±0.06
BMI (kg m-2) 29.6±3.0 28.4±2.8 29.1±3.0 29.5±2.7 26.8±2.9a 28.1±3.4a 29.9±2.7 26.5±2.7c 28.6±3.5b
Body fat (%) 46.7±6.5 47.5±3.2 46.2±3.9 47.1±6.5 43.4±4.2a 43.8±5.5a 47.7±6.5b,c 42.0±4.5b,c 44.8±5.1b,c
a a b,c b,c
Fat mass (kg) 37.4±6.5 37.3±6.7 36.3±6.0 37.8±6.2 32.5±7.1 33.4±7.1 38.6±6.5 31.1±6.9 34.6±7.3b,c
a a b,c
Fat-free mass (kg) 42.8±7.2 40.8±4.1 41.9±3.2 42.6±6.7 41.7±4.1 42.1±3.3 42.3±6.6 42.3±4.5 42.1±3.6b,c
a a b c
WCR (cm) 95.9±5.3 96.7±8.8 96.4±8.9 96.1±4.8 90.8±8.1 89.3±9.0 97.6±5.1 90.1±8.7 94.0±9.9b,c
a a b,c c
HCR (cm) 110.3±6.5 110.9±6.5 110.9±7.2 111.0±6.1 108.0±7.6 108.8±7.9 112.2±5.6 107.9±7.1 110.0±7.1b
a a c
WHR 0.87±0.04 0.87±0.04 0.87±0.06 0.87±0.04 0.84±0.04 0.82±0.07 0.87±0.04 0.83±0.05 0.85±0.07b
a a a a,b,c
VO2max (ml kg-1 min- 26.1±3.2 26.1±4.4 27.4±3.2 25.8±3.2 31.8±4.8 31.6±3.6 25.6±3.1 33.1±4.8 29.5±3.3a,b,c
1)
1RM Leg press (kg) 133.8±29.7 124.6±22.4 131.4±18.6 133.3±26.1 143.7±26.0a 148.2±25.6a 135.5±27.5 158.5±32.3a,b 146.9±24.6a

C, control group; TR, trained group; TRD, trained-detrained group; PA, physical activity; MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; METs, metabolic equivalent of
task; EI, energy intake; RMR, resting metabolic rate; BMI, body mass index; WCR, waist circumference; HCR, hip circumference; WHR, waist-to-hip ratio; VO2max,
maximal oxygen intake; 1RM, one repetition maximum;
a
denotes a difference between baseline and mid-training at p<0.05 or at p<0.01;
b
denotes a difference between mid-training and post-training or detraining at p<0.05 or at p<0.01;
c
denotes a difference between baseline and post-training or detraining at p<0.05 or at p<0.01.

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mid-training (body mass: p<0.001; CI: -0.38, 1.12, ES = 0.37; BMI: p<0.001; CI: -0.28, 1.23,
ES = 0.48) and demonstrated a trend for further reduction at post-training (body mass:
p = 0.092; CI: -0.67, 0.82; ES = 0.08; BMI: p<0.086; CI: -0.64, 0.84; ES = 0.10). In TRD, body
mass and BMI decreased at mid-training (body mass: p<0.001; CI: -0.42, 1.08; ES = 0.33; BMI:
p<0.001; CI: -0.44, 1.05; ES = 0.30) but increased following detraining (body mass: p<0.003;
CI: -0.88, 0.60, ES = -0.14; BMI: p<0.004; CI: -0.87, 0.62; ES = -0.12) without reaching pre-
training levels. When body mass changes were adjusted across intervention by daily caloric
consumption and daily physical activity using an ANCOVA, it was revealed that body mass
was reduced at mid-training (p<0.001; CI = -0.38, -1.12; ES = 0.37) and further decreased at
post-training (p<0.04; CI = -0.67, -0.82; ES = 0.08) whereas in C and TRD results remained
similar to those produced by the ANOVA. Body fat increased in C at 40 weeks (post- vs. pre-

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Fig 5. Changes in daily energy balance in the control and experimental groups at pre- and mid-training. RMR, resting metabolic rate; 1mean values for all
groups; 2mean values for training and training-detraining groups.
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training: p<0.008; CI: -0.76, 0.45, ES = -0.15) but in TR and TRD it declined both at mid- (TR:
p<0.001; CI: 0.28, 1.87, ES = 1.08; TRD: p<0.001; CI: -0.27, 1.24, ES = 0.49) and post-training
(TR: p<0.001; CI: -0.44, 1.05, ES = 0.30; TRD: p<0.001; CI: -0.92, 0.57, ES = -0.17). Fat-free
mass remained unchanged in C but increased at mid- (TR: p<0.001; CI: -1.07, 0.42, ES =
-0.32; TRD: p<0.015; CI: -1.06, 0.43, ES = -0.32) and post-intervention (TR: p<0.001; CI:
-1.20, 0.30, ES = -0.45; TRD: p<0.001; CI: -1.04, 0.45, ES = -0.29) in the other two groups. In
C, waist circumference (p<0.059; CI: -0.93, 0.29; ES = -0.32) and hip circumference (p<0.012;
CI: -0.92, 0.30; ES = -0.31), but not WHR, tended to increase at 40 weeks. Waist circumference,
hip circumference and WHR decreased in TR at mid-training (waist circumference: p<0.001;
CI: -0.09, 1.44; ES = 0.68; hip circumference: p<0.002; CI: -0.35, 1.15; ES = 0.40; WHR:
p<0.059; CI: -0.93, 0.29; ES = -0.32) and remained above baseline at post-training (waist cir-
cumference: p<0.001; CI: -0.03, 1.50; ES = 0.74; hip circumference: p<0.001; CI: -0.31, 1.19;
ES = 0.44; WHR: p<0.001; CI: 0.08, 1.63; ES = 0.86). In TRD, waist circumference, hip circum-
ference and WHR decreased at mid-training (waist circumference: p<0.001; CI: 0.000, 1.53;
ES = 0.77; hip circumference: p<0.031; CI: -0.47, 1.01; ES = 0.27; WHR: p<0.001; CI: -0.02,
1.51; ES = 0.74) and increased (waist circumference: p<0.001; CI: -1.23, 0.27; ES = -0.48; hip
circumference: p<0.015; CI: -0.90, 0.59; ES = -0.16; WHR: p<0.001; CI: -1.16, 0.33; ES =
-0.42) at 40 weeks without reaching pre-training values. Resting metabolic rate remained unaf-
fected in C, increased progressively throughout the study in TR (mid training: p<0.05; CI:
-1.30, 0.21; ES = -0.54; post-training: p<0.012; CI: -1.12, 0.37; ES = -0.37) whereas in TRD it
increased at mid-training (p<0.001; CI: -1.43, 0,09; ES = -0.67) and decreased at post-training
without reaching baseline values (p<0.001; CI: -0.10, 1.42; ES = 0.66). Daily physical activity
and energy intake were similar in all groups and no changes were observed throughout the
study.

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Figs 5 and 6 provide a schematic representation of energy balance at baseline, at mid-train-

ing and at post-training (or detraining) for an exercise and a non-exercise day (values are
based on food kcal for energy intake and on the sum of kcal for resting metabolic rate, habitual
physical activity and exercise for energy expenditure). Training augmented energy expenditure
thus contributing to an increased overall energy deficit on a weekly basis.

Discussion
A 10-month implementation of a circuit-type integrated neuromuscular small-group training
program resulted in i) enhanced daily energy expenditure over energy intake thereby reducing
body and fat mass; ii) increased strength and cardiovascular performance; and iii) a high
adherence rate. Training-induced gains were attenuated but not lost following a 5-month
detraining period.
In developed countries, 42–51% of Caucasian women aged 20–40 years are classified as
overweight or obese [7], may gain 6–12 kg more than any other population group [8], and
exhibit increased inactivity levels [9]. CINT alone reduced women’s body mass by ~6% after
10 months. This magnitude of weight loss is in line with AHA guidelines and coincides with
reports of studies that utilized high-intensity, interval-type exercise protocols in overweight/
obese adults [6,18]. These findings confirm that weight is only modestly reduced when exercise
is the sole weight management intervention [40]. Continuous endurance training induces a
weight loss of smaller magnitude [11] and only when applied at higher dosages (13–26 MET-
hours/week) it elicits a more pronounced loss [12,13]. Losses of >5% are seen in response to
protocols of combined diet and exercise or to continuous endurance training of very high vol-
ume ( 26 MET-hours/week) [6,12]. CINT induced a ~6% weight loss with a metabolic over-
load of only 5–12 MET-hours/week. A wright loss of similar magnitude is associated with
clinically meaningful health benefits [6]. Although overweight adults usually equilibrate after 6
months of weight loss intervention demonstrating a plateau and a gradual weight regain over
time [6], CINT maintained weight loss over a 10-month period.
CINT decreased body fat by ~5.5%, a reduction usually seen with tri-weekly continuous
endurance training protocols of similar duration [11]. HIIT-type protocols are effective in
reducing visceral and subcutaneous fat in overweight women [13,41,42,43]. Similar rates of fat
loss have been seen in response to exercise dosages of ~10 MET-hours/week [42,44], as in
CINT. The increase in fat-free mass (1.2–3.4%) is attributed to the protocol’s resistance exer-
cise component [11]. The decline in waist-to-hip ratio indicates body fat redistribution which
is usually observed following a 5-month high-volume endurance training [45]. CINT pre-
vented inactivity-induced weight (0.7 kg) and fat (1%) gain seen in controls over a 10-month
period.
Weight loss represents a deficit between total daily energy intake and expenditure [46].
Energy expenditure is related to energy cost for resting metabolic rate, movement, digestion/
metabolism and thermogenesis [47]. Exercise training increases energy expenditure and
reduces body fat by upregulating intracellular signaling cascades in adipose tissue that promote
thermogenesis and lipolysis [3,48,49,50]. Although energy expenditure associated with ther-
mogenesis/digestion/metabolism (10%) was not measured, participant’s daily energy balance
was estimated by subtracting the energy expenditure associated with resting metabolic rate
and movement from the energy intake through diet (Figs 5 and 6).
Daily energy intake remained unaltered during the study since participants were asked to
follow an isocaloric diet. On a non-exercise day, energy expenditure is the energy cost of habit-
ual physical activity and resting metabolic rate. The former remained unchanged throughout
the study while the latter increased by 6%-10% (Figs 5 and 6). Usually, weight loss following a

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

Fig 6. Changes in daily energy balance in the experimental groups at post-training and detraining. RMR, resting metabolic rate.
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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

period of endurance exercise and isocaloric feeding results in reduced resting metabolic rate
by ~7% which may compromise exercise-induced energy deficit [46]. However, CINT-
induced elevation of fat-free mass probably prevented such a response and contributed to the
elevation of resting metabolic rate [32,48], a response also seen with resistance training [42].
The rise in fat-free mass is also evidenced by the marked strength increase (~27%), a response
typically seen with HIIT-type programs due to increased activation of muscle fibers, mito-
chondrial biogenesis and glucose transport [25]. The substantial increase (~25%) of VO2max
provides further supports that CINT induced favorable mitochondrial adaptations similarly to
other HIIT protocols [18]. The rise in excess post-exercise oxygen consumption seen here and
in previous studies may further explain the augmented resting metabolic rate during the post-
exercise period [18,48,51].
On an exercise day, energy expenditure is primarily associated with the intensity and/or
volume of the exercise session [32,52]. The exercise energy cost/session ranged from ~165 kcal
(phase 1) to >400 kcal (phases 3 and 4), which is well over that reported for HIIT-type pro-
grams utilizing 30-s sprints (175 kcal/session) or circuit resistance training (250 kcal/session)
and almost equal with that induced by traditional moderate, 30-min continuous endurance
training in obese adults [32,48,53]. Interval-type protocols upregulate adipose tissue lipolysis
and elevate post-exercise oxygen consumption that may further increase daily energy expendi-
ture [18,48,51].
After 5 months of training (Fig 5), CINT induced a deficit of ~380 kcal/day on an exercise
day (three days/week) and a small caloric deficit of ~30 kcal/day on a non-exercise day (four
days/week). Daily this is translated to a deficit of ~140 kcal which by far exceeds the energy
surplus estimated at baseline (+160 kcal/day). This is further translated to a deficit of ~1,000
kcal/week for the training groups at mid-training whereas the controls had a surplus of ~1,150
kcal/week. Over a 40-week training period (Fig 6), the overall energy deficit is estimated at
~42,700 or roughly a loss of ~5.7 kg of fat (i.e. ~0.14 kg/week) which is close to the measured
loss of fat mass (~6 kg). Similar rates of fat loss have been reported in response to long-term
implementation of HIIT-type programs in obese women [54] probably due to enhanced cate-
cholamine-mediated lipolysis and fat oxidation, especially in visceral fat [18,48].
Cessation or frequent interruptions of training are common in anti-obesity exercise inter-
ventions causing metabolic decompensation that leads to weight regain [55]. Detraining
resulted in a regain of body and fat mass (1.7% and 3.7%, respectively), a decline of fat-free
mass (2.4%) and consequently in reduced energy deficit without reaching pre-training values.
During the same period, VO2max decreased by ~7% indicating a metabolic decompensation.
Similar results were seen with older adults who were subjected to a 6-month detraining follow-
ing training with high-intensity resistance exercise [32]. High-intensity exercise may prevent a
significant drop of resting metabolic rate during detraining resulting in only a modest regain
of body and fat mass [32]. Fat regain during detraining is associated with decreased lipolysis
and increased triacylglycerol synthesis due to elevated glucose uptake by adipose tissue [56].
CINT maintained a relatively high intensity as evidenced by the gradual rise of mean heart
rate (72–87%), blood lactate (8–12 mM), RPE (13–16), METs (5–7) and VO2 (18–24 mL/kg/
min) over a 10-month implementation. The intensity reached levels relatively higher than
those usually seen during intense interval running (79%) that resulted in reduced body fat
[18]. CINT’s total duration/session was 18–36 min (net exercise time of 6–24 min) and work-
to-rest ratio ranging from 1:2 to 2:1 as most HIIT protocols that effectively reduced body mass
[41,43]. Continuous endurance training elicit modest (~2–3 kg), large (~5–7.5 kg) or even
larger (> 8 kg) weight losses when they exceed 150, 250 and 400 min/week, respectively
[11,13]. In contrast, CINT and other HIIT-type protocols elicit similar or even larger weight
loss spending 100 min/week [41,43]. This is important because high weekly exercise volumes

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

are associated with greater attrition and lower compliance rates [12]. Results corroborate pre-
vious reports suggesting that prolonged interventions induce a greater fat mass reduction in
obese adults when compared to short-lived protocols [6,11]. Although a higher frequency (5
vs. 3 days/week) may be more effective in reducing fat mass [57], CINT and other HIIT proto-
cols produce are effective using a lower frequency [41,43]. The small-group training model
using bodyweight exercises represents a promising trend in the fitness industry worldwide
[58] because it is appealing to clients and time- and cost-effective, although not evidence-
based yet.
Anti-obesity programs employing lifestyle interventions (i.e., exercise and/or nutrition) in
overweight/obese adults usually exhibit limited success rates mainly due to low adherence/
attendance (20–80%), especially in women [17,59]. For reasons not currently known, CINT
had a 6% attrition, as defined by Miller et al. [55], and 94% attendance.
This study included only previously inactive overweight/obese premenopausal Caucasian
females which limits the ability to extrapolate the findings to males, other age groups or diverse
types of populations. Males, compared to females, tend to lose more body fat and increase at a
greater extent their maximal oxygen consumption in response to exercise interventions
whereas in females the rate of fat loss seem to depend on weekly duration of exercise protocols
[59]. Although the duration of CINT was 10 months, participants in lifestyle-based anti-obe-
sity interventions reach a peak weight loss within 6 months of treatment and tend to regain
weight thereafter with 50% of them returning to their pre-intervention body mass after ~5
years [60]. According to Wing and Hill, intentional weight loss should be maintained for at
least one year [61]. As such, future studies should investigate the effectiveness of CINT-type
protocols on weight loss for more prolonged periods. Cessation or interruption of training is a
widespread problem in weight loss programs [55]. Most studies that examined the effects of
training cessation on anthropometric, physiological and biochemical markers in overweight/
obese adults applied a 4-week detraining period producing different results [62–64]. In this
study, a 5-month detraining period was applied to investigate the maintenance rates of train-
ing gains. It is possible that a more prolonged detraining period would have caused a greater
rate of deterioration of training-induced adaptations.

Conclusions
An injury-free, high-intensity, interval exercise training program using whole-body resistance
exercises and cardiovascular-type activity, of limited time commitment, organized in a small-
group setting, induced favorable adaptations in body and fat mass of overweight/obese
women. CINT-type protocols utilize only bodyweight exercises that promote body mass and
fat loss and improve both strength and endurance performance. These changes are attributed
to an increase in resting metabolic rate and fat-free mass that resulted in increased energy
expenditure. Detraining-induced weight/fat regain was limited suggesting that this type of
exercise training may promote long-term maintenance of weight loss in overweight adults.

Supporting information
S1 Protocol. Study protocol.
(PDF)
S2 Protocol. Study protocol in Greek.
(PDF)
S1 CONSORT Checklist. CONSORT 2010 checklist.
(PDF)

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 Circuit training, energy balance and obesity

S1 Data. Study data.

(XLSX)

Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all participants for their commitment to the study. This study was supported
by departmental funding. The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Alexios Batrakoulis, Athanasios Z. Jamurtas, Chariklia K. Deli, Alexandra
Avloniti, Panagiotis Tsimeas, Ioannis G. Fatouros.
Data curation: Alexios Batrakoulis, Kalliopi Georgakouli, Dimitrios Draganidis.
Formal analysis: Alexios Batrakoulis.
Investigation: Kalliopi Georgakouli, Dimitrios Draganidis, Chariklia K. Deli, Konstantinos
Papanikolaou, Athanasios Chatzinikolaou, Ioannis G. Fatouros.
Methodology: Alexios Batrakoulis, Athanasios Z. Jamurtas, Chariklia K. Deli, Konstantinos
Papanikolaou, Alexandra Avloniti, Athanasios Chatzinikolaou, Diamanda Leontsini, Pana-
giotis Tsimeas, Nikolaos Comoutos, Ioannis G. Fatouros.
Project administration: Alexios Batrakoulis, Dimitrios Draganidis, Konstantinos Papaniko-
laou, Alexandra Avloniti, Athanasios Chatzinikolaou, Diamanda Leontsini, Panagiotis Tsi-
meas, Nikolaos Comoutos, Vassilios Bouglas, Maria Michalopoulou, Ioannis G. Fatouros.
Resources: Chariklia K. Deli, Alexandra Avloniti, Athanasios Chatzinikolaou, Diamanda
Leontsini, Panagiotis Tsimeas, Maria Michalopoulou, Ioannis G. Fatouros.
Software: Kalliopi Georgakouli, Vassilios Bouglas.
Supervision: Alexios Batrakoulis, Athanasios Z. Jamurtas.
Writing – original draft: Alexios Batrakoulis, Athanasios Z. Jamurtas, Ioannis G. Fatouros.
Writing – review & editing: Alexios Batrakoulis, Athanasios Z. Jamurtas, Kalliopi Georga-
kouli, Dimitrios Draganidis, Chariklia K. Deli, Konstantinos Papanikolaou, Alexandra
Avloniti, Athanasios Chatzinikolaou, Panagiotis Tsimeas, Nikolaos Comoutos, Vassilios
Bouglas, Ioannis G. Fatouros.

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