C H A PT E R 6

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

6.0 I N T R ODUCT ION

In this chapter, we will discuss one-dimensional flow of water through soils. Two-dimensional flow of
water is presented in Chapter 14.
When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:

• Determine the rate of flow of water through soils.

• Determine the hydraulic conductivity of soils.
• Appreciate the importance of flow of water through soils.

Importance
We have discussed particle sizes and index properties, and used these to classify soils. You know that
water changes the soil states in fine-grained soils; the greater the water content in a soil, the weaker it is.
Soils are porous materials, much like sponges. Water can flow between the interconnected voids. Particle
sizes and the structural arrangement of the particles influence the rate of flow.
The flow of water has caused instability and failure of many geotechnical structures (e.g., roads,
bridges, dams, and excavations). The key physical property that governs the flow of water in soils is
hydraulic conductivity (also called permeability). A sample practical application is as follows. An exca-
vation is required to construct the basement of a building. During construction, the base of the excavation
needs to be free of water. The engineer decides to use a retaining wall around the excavation to keep
it dry. Water from outside the excavation will flow under the wall. This can lead to instability as well as
flooding of the excavation. To determine the length of the wall to keep the excavation dry, the soil’s
hydraulic conductivity must be known.

6.1 D E F I N IT IONS OF K E Y TERMS

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Groundwater is water under gravity that fills the soil pores.

Head (H) is the mechanical energy per unit weight.
Hydraulic conductivity, sometimes called the coefficient of permeability, (k) is a proportionality
constant used to determine the flow velocity of water through soils.
Porewater pressure (u) is the pressure of water within the soil pores.

6.2 Q U E ST IONS TO GUIDE YO U R REA D I N G

1. What causes the flow of water through soils?

2. What law describes the flow of water through soils?
3. What is hydraulic conductivity and how is it determined?
4. What are the typical values of hydraulic conductivities for coarse-grained and fine-grained soils? 105
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 106 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

6.3 H E AD AND P R E S S U RE
VA R I ATION IN A F L UID AT REST

We will be discussing gravitational flow of water under a steady-state condition. You may ask:
“What is a steady-state condition?” Gravitational flow can only occur if there is a gradient. Flow
takes place downhill. The steady-state condition occurs if neither the flow nor the porewater
pressure changes with time. Recall from Chapter 4 that porewater pressure is the water pressure
within the voids.
Darcy’s law governs the flow of water through soils. But before we delve into Darcy’s law, we
will discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics—Bernoulli’s principle—that is essential in under-
standing flow through soils.
If you cap one end of a tube, fill the tube with water, and then rest it on your table (Figure 6.1), the
height of water with reference to your table is called the pressure head (hp). Head refers to the mechani-
cal energy per unit weight. If you raise the tube above the table, the mechanical energy or total head
increases.
You now have two components of total head—the pressure head (hp) and the elevation head (hz).
If water were to flow through the tube with a velocity v under a steady-state condition, then we would
have an additional head due to the velocity, given as v 2/2g. The total head, H, according to Bernoulli’s
principle, is

v2
H 5 h z 1 hp 1 (6.1)
2g

The flow is assumed to be steady, inviscid (no change in viscosity), incompressible (no change in
volume), and irrotational (fluid particles do not spin).
The elevation or potential head is referenced to an arbitrary datum, and the total head will change
depending on the choice of the datum position. Therefore, it is essential that you identify your datum
position in solutions to flow problems. Pressures are defined relative to atmospheric pressure (atmo-
spheric pressure is 101.3 kPa at a temperature of 158C). This is called gage pressure. The gage pressure at
the groundwater level (free surface) is zero. The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (,1 cm/s)
and we usually neglect the velocity head. The total head in soils is then
u
H 5 h z 1 hp 5 hz 1 (6.2)
gw
where u 5 hpgw is the porewater pressure.
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hp = u/gw

Pressure head

hp

Pressure head hz
Datum–top of table Elevation head

FIGURE 6.1
Illustration of elevation and pressure heads. Table

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 6.3 HEAD AND PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST 107

Tube A Tube B
X
ΔH
(hp)A
Z
(hp)B
Datum

Soil Outflow
FIGURE 6.2
Head loss due to flow of water through soil. L

Consider a cylinder containing a soil mass with water flowing through it at a constant rate, as depicted
in Figure 6.2. If we connect two tubes, A and B, called piezometers, at a distance L apart, the water will
rise to different heights in each of the tubes. The height of water in tube B near the exit is lower than
that in tube A. Why? As the water flows through the soil, energy is dissipated through friction with the
soil particles, resulting in a loss of head. The head loss between A and B, assuming decrease in head, is
positive and our datum arbitrarily selected at the top of the cylinder is DH 5 (hp)A 2 (hp)B. In general,
the head loss is the total head at A minus the total head at B.
The ordinary differential equation to describe one-dimensional pressure variation of a fluid at rest
(acceleration equal to zero) is

dp
5 gw (6.3)
dz

The fluid pressure difference between two vertical points, z1 and z2, below the free surface (Figure 6.3) is
p2 z2

3 dp 5 gw3 z
p1 z1

Performing the integration gives

p2 2 p1 5 gw 1 z2 2 z1 2 (6.4)

At the free surface (z1 5 0), the (gage) pressure is zero ( p1 5 0) and z2 5 zw, so the fluid pressure variation
(called the hydrostatic pressure distribution) is
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p 5 u 5 gwzw (6.5)

where zw is the depth from the groundwater level.

Groundwater level (Free surface)

z1
z p1 = gwz1

z2

p2 = gwz2

FIGURE 6.3
Hydrostatic or porewater pressure variation
below the groundwater level.
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 108 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Diaphragm
Porous element
FIGURE 6.4
Schematic of a porewater Flow
pressure transducer.

FIGURE 6.5
Piezometers.

Porewater pressures are measured by porewater pressure transducers (Figure 6.4) or by piezometers
(Figure 6.5). In a porewater pressure transducer, water passes through a porous material and pushes
against a metal diaphragm to which a strain gauge is attached. The strain gauge is usually wired into a
Wheatstone bridge. The porewater pressure transducer is calibrated by applying known pressures and
measuring the electrical voltage output from the Wheatstone bridge. Piezometers are porous tubes
that allow the passage of water. In a simple piezometer, you can measure the height of water in the
tube from a fixed elevation and then calculate the porewater pressure by multiplying the height of
water by the unit weight of water. A borehole cased to a certain depth acts like a piezometer. Mod-
ern piezometers are equipped with porewater pressure transducers for electronic reading and data
acquisition.

EXAMPLE 6.1 Determination of Hydraulic Heads

Determine (a) the variations of the elevation, pressure, and total heads through the soil when the pressure gage in
the experimental setup shown in Figure E6.1a has a pressure of 19.6 kPa, and (b) the elevation, pressure, and total
heads in the middle of the soil.
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Pressure gage

100 cm

Water
B

50 cm
Soil
FIGURE E6.1a C Outflow

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 6.4 DARCY’S LAW 109

Pressure gage

A Head (cm)
0 100 200 300 400
50 B
45
Elevation Pressure
100 cm 40
35 Total

Soil height (cm)

30
Center of soil
Water 25
B 20
15
50 cm 10
Soil 5
C Datum
0
C
FIGURE E6.1b

Strategy The first thing you need to do is to define your datum. Outflows or exits are good choices; the pressure
head there is zero. The pressure from the pressure gage should be converted to a pressure head by dividing by
the unit weight of water (9.8 kN/m3). To determine the pressure head at a point, assume that you connect a small
tube at that point and then figure out how high the water will rise in the tube.

Solution 6.1
Step 1: Define the datum position. Choose C as datum (Figure E6.1b).
Step 2: Determine the heads.
Top of soil—B
Pressure gage 5 19.6 kPa; equivalent pressure head 5 pressure/unit weight of water 5 19.6/9.8 5 2 m 5
200 cm
Elevation head 5 50 cm; pressure head of water above B 1 pressure gage head 5 100 1 200 5 300 cm;
total head 5 elevation head 1 pressure head 5 50 1 300 5 350 cm

Bottom of soil—C
Elevation head 5 0 cm; pressure head 5 0 cm; total head 5 0 1 0 5 0 cm
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Step 3: Determine the heads at the center of the soil.

The heads are linearly distributed through the soil. Therefore, the heads are proportional to the soil height.
At the center of the soil, elevation head 5 25 cm, pressure head 5 300/2 5 150 cm, and the total head 5
25 1 150 5 175 cm.

6.4 DA R CY’S L AW

Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity through soils is proportional to the gradient of the
total head. The flow in any direction, j, is

dH
vj 5 kj (6.6)
dxj
where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic conductivity
(sometimes called the coefficient of permeability), and dH is the change in total head over a distance dx.
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 110 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

The unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is, cm/s. With reference to Figure 6.2, Darcy’s law
becomes
DH
vx 5 kx 5 kx i (6.7)
L
where i 5 DH/L is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow is laminar.
The average velocity, v, calculated from Equation (6.7) is for the cross-sectional area normal to
the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however, occurs only through the interconnected voids. The
velocity through the void spaces is called seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained by dividing the average
velocity by the porosity of the soil:
kj
vs 5 i (6.8)
n
The volume rate of flow, qj, or, simply, flow rate is the product of the average velocity and the
cross-sectional area:
qj 5 vj A 5 Akj i (6.9)

The unit of measurement for qj is m3/s or cm3/s. The conservation of flow (law of continuity) stipulates
that the volume rate of inflow (qj)in into a soil element must equal the volume rate of outflow, (qj)out, or,
simply, inflow must equal outflow: (qj)in 5 (qj)out.
The hydraulic conductivity depends on
1. Soil type: Coarse-grained soils have higher hydraulic conductivities than fine-grained soils. The
water in the double layer in fine-grained soils significantly reduces the seepage pore space.
2. Particle size: Hydraulic conductivity depends on D250 (or D210) for coarse-grained soils.
3. Pore fluid properties, particularly viscosity: k1 : k2 < m2 : m1, where m is dynamic viscosity (dynamic
viscosity of water is 1.12 3 1023 N.s/m2 at 15.68C) and the subscripts 1 and 2 denote two types of
pore fluids in a given soil.
4. Void ratio: k1 : k2 < e21 : e22, where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two types of soil fabric for coarse-grained
soils. This ratio is useful in comparing the hydraulic conductivities of similar soils with different void
ratios. However, two soils with the same void ratio can have different hydraulic conductivities.
5. Pore size: The greater the interconnected pore space, the higher the hydraulic conductivity. Large
pores do not indicate high porosity. The flow of water through soils is related to the square of the
pore size, and not the total pore volume.
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6. Homogeneity, layering, and fissuring: Water tends to seep quickly through loose layers, through
fissures, and along the interface of layered soils. Catastrophic failures can occur from such seepage.
7. Entrapped gases: Entrapped gases tend to reduce the hydraulic conductivity. It is often very difficult
to get gas-free soils. Even soils that are under groundwater level and are assumed to be saturated
may still have some entrapped gases.
8. Validity of Darcy’s law: Darcy’s law is valid only for laminar flow (Reynolds number less than 2100).
Fancher et al. (1933) gave the following criterion for the applicability of Darcy’s law for hydraulic
conductivity determination:

vDsgw
#1 (6.10)
mg

where v is velocity, Ds is the diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume to the average soil particles,
m is dynamic viscosity of water (1.12 3 1023 N.s/m2 at 15.68C), and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Typical ranges of kz for various soil types are shown in Table 6.1.
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 6.5 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR k 111

TABLE 6.1 Hydraulic Conductivity for Common Soil Types

Soil type kz (cm/s) Description Drainage

Clean gravel (GW, GP) .1.0 High Very good

Clean sands, clean sand and gravel
mixtures (SW, SP) 1.0 to 1023 Medium Good
Fine sands, silts, mixtures comprising
sands, silts, and clays (SM-SC) 1023 to 1025 Low Poor
Weathered and fissured clays
Silt, silty clay (MH, ML) 1025 to 1027 Very low Poor
Homogeneous clays (CL, CH) ,1027 Practically impervious Very poor

Homogeneous clays are practically impervious. Two popular uses of “impervious” clays are in dam
construction to curtail the flow of water through the dam and as barriers in landfills to prevent migration of
effluent to the surrounding area. Clean sands and gravels are pervious and can be used as drainage materials
or soil filters. The values shown in Table 6.1 are useful only to prepare estimates and in preliminary design.

6.5 E M P I RICAL R E L AT IONSHI PS FO R k

For a homogeneous soil, the hydraulic conductivity depends predominantly on the interconnected pore
spaces. You should recall that the pore space (void ratio) is dependent on the soil fabric or structural
arrangement of the soil grains. Taylor (1948) proposed a relationship linking k with void ratio as

gw C1e3
kz 5 D250 (6.11)
m 11e

where C1 is a constant related to shape that can be obtained from laboratory experiments. A number
of empirical relationships have been proposed linking kz to void ratio and grain size for coarse-grained
soils. Hazen (1930) proposed one of the early relationships as

kz 5 CD210 1 unit: cm/s 2 (6.12)

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where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.4 if the unit of measurement of D10 is mm. Typically, C 5
1.0. Hazen’s tests were done on sands with D10 ranging from 0.1 mm to 3 mm and Cu , 5. Other relation-
ships were proposed for coarse-grained and fine-grained soils by Samarasinghe et al. (1982), Kenny et al.
(1984), and others. One has to be extremely cautious in using empirical relationships for kz because it is
very sensitive to changes in void ratio, interconnected pore space, and the homogeneity of your soil mass.

THE ESSENTIAL P OINTS ARE:

1. The flow of water through soils is governed by Darcy’s law, which states that the average flow
velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
2. The proportionality coefficient in Darcy’s law is called the hydraulic conductivity, k.
3. The value of kz is influenced by the void ratio, pore size, interconnected pore space, particle size
distribution, homogeneity of the soil mass, properties of the pore fluid, and the amount of undis-
solved gas in the pore fluid.
4. Homogeneous clays are practically impervious, while sands and gravels are pervious.

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 112 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

EXAMPLE 6.2 Calculating Flow Parameters

A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long. A constant supply of water is allowed to flow into
one end of the soil at A, and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker (Figure E6.2). The average amount of water
collected is 1 cm3 for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown in Figure E6.2. Determine the (a) hydraulic
gradient, (b) flow rate, (c) average velocity, (d) seepage velocity if e 5 0.6, and (e) hydraulic conductivity.

1m
1m

A
Soil
B
1m
0.8 m
Datum
Table

FIGURE E6.2

Strategy In flow problems, you must define a datum position. So your first task is to define the datum position
and then find the difference in total head between A and B. Use the head difference to calculate the hydraulic gradi-
ent and use Equations (6.7) to (6.9) to solve the problem.

Solution 6.2
Step 1: Define the datum position. Select the top of the table as the datum.

Step 2: Find the total heads at A (inflow) and B (outflow).

HA 5 1 hp 2 A 1 1 hz 2 A 5 1 1 1 5 2 m

HB 5 1 hp 2 B 1 1 hz 2 B 5 0 1 0.8 5 0.8 m

Step 3: Find the hydraulic gradient.

DH 5 HA 2 HB 5 2 2 0.8 5 1.2 m
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DH 1.2
L 5 1 m;  i 5 5 5 1.2
L 1

If you were to select the outflow, point B, as the datum, then HA 5 1 m 1 0.2 m 5 1.2 m and HB 5 0. The
head loss is DH 5 1.2 m, which is the same value we obtained using the table’s top as the datum. It is
often simpler, for calculation purposes, to select the exit flow position as the datum.

Step 4: Determine the flow rate.

Volume of water collected, Q 5 1 cm3, t 5 10 seconds

Q 1
qz 5 5 5 0.1 cm3 /s
t 10

Step 5: Determine the average velocity.

qz 5 Av

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 6.5 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR k 113

p 3 1 diam 2 2 p 3 102
A5 5 5 78.5 cm2
4 4
qz 0.1
v 5 5 5 0.0013 cm/s
A 78.5

Step 6: Determine seepage velocity.

v
vs 5
n
e 0.6
n5 5 5 0.38
11e 1 1 0.6
0.0013
vs 5 5 0.0034 cm/s
0.38
Step 7: Determine the hydraulic conductivity. From Darcy’s law, v 5 kzi.

v 0.0013
6 kz 5 5 5 10.8 3 10 24 cm/s
i 1.2

EXAMPLE 6.3 Calculating Hydraulic Heads and Application to a Practical Scenario

A drainage pipe (Figure E6.3a) became completely blocked during a storm by a plug of sand 1.5 m long, followed by
another plug of a mixture of clays, silts, and sands 0.5 m long. When the storm was over, the water level above ground
was 1 m. The hydraulic conductivity of the sand is 2 times that of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.

(a) Plot the variation of pressure, elevation, and total head over the length of the pipe.
(b) Calculate the porewater pressure at (1) the center of the sand plug and (2) the center of the mixture of clays,
silts, and sands.
(c) Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.

Brick wall
1m
Grate
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Clay soil
Downpipe
2.0 m

Drain pipe
C
0.3 m
A B Datum
1.5 m
0.5 m
Sand
Mixture of silts, clays,
and sands
FIGURE E6.3a Illustration of blocked drainage pipe.

Strategy You need to select a datum. From the information given, you can calculate the total head at A and
B. The difference in head is the head loss over both plugs, but you do not know how much head is lost in the sand
and in the mixture of clays, silts, and sands. The continuity equation provides the key to finding the head loss over
each plug.
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 114 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Solution 6.3
Step 1: Select a datum.
Select the exit at B along the centerline of the drainage pipe as the datum.

Step 2: Determine heads at A and B.

1 hz 2 A 5 0 m,   1 hp 2 A 5 0.3 1 2 1 1 5 3.3 m,  HA 5 0 1 3.3 5 3.3 m

1 hz 2 B 5 0 m,   1 hp 2 B 5 0 m,  HB 5 0 m

Step 3: Determine the head loss in each plug.

Head loss between A and B 5 |HB 2 HA| 5 3.3 m (decrease in head taken as positive). Let DH1, L1,
k1, and q1 be the head loss, length, hydraulic conductivity, and flow in the sand; let DH2, L2, k2, and
q2 be the head loss, length, hydraulic conductivity, and flow in the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
Now,

DH1 DH1
q1 5 Ak1 5 A 3 2k2
L1 L1

DH2 DH2
q2 5 Ak2 5 A 3 k2
L2 L2

From the continuity equation, q1 5 q2.

DH1 DH2
6 A 3 2k2 5 Ak2
L1 L2
Solving, we get

DH1 L1 1.5
5 5 5 1.5
DH2 2L2 2 3 0.5

DH1 5 1.5D H2 (1)

However, we know that

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DH1 1 DH2 5 DH 5 3.3 m (2)

Solving for DH1 and DH2 from Equations (1) and (2), we obtain

DH1 5 1.98 m  and  DH2 5 3.3 2 1.98 5 1.32 m

Step 4: Calculate heads at the junction of the two plugs.

Total head at C 5 HC 5 HA 2 DH1 5 3.3 2 1.98 5 1.32 m

1 hz 2 C 5 0

1 hp 2 C 5 HC 2 1 hz 2 C 5 1.32 m

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 6.5 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR k 115

Step 5: Plot distribution of heads.

See Figure E6.3b.

3.5
A
3
Pressure head and total head
2.5 D

Head (m)
2
1.5 C
1
Elevation head E
0.5
0 B
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m)
FIGURE E6.3b Variation of elevation,
pressure, and total heads along pipe.

Step 6: Calculate porewater pressures.

Let D be the center of the sand.

1 hp 2 A 1 1 hp 2 C 3.3 1 1.32
1 hp 2 D 5 5 5 2.31 m
2 2
uD 5 2.31 3 gw 5 2.31 3 9.8 5 22.6 kPa

Let E be the center of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.

1 hp 2 C 1 1 hp 2 B 1.32 1 0
1 hp 2 E 5 5 5 0.66 m
2 2
uE 5 0. 66 3 9.8 5 6.5 kPa

Step 7: Find the average hydraulic gradients.

DH1 1.98
i1 5 5 5 1.32
L1 1.5

DH2 1.32
i2 5 5 5 2.64
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L2 0.5

EXAMPLE 6.4 Calculating Hydrostatic Pressures

The groundwater level in a soil mass is 2 m below the existing surface. Plot the variation of hydrostatic pressure with
depth up to a depth of 10 m.

Strategy Since the hydrostatic pressure is linearly related to depth, the distribution will be a straight line starting
from the groundwater level, not the surface.

Solution 6.4
Step 1: Plot hydrostatic pressure distribution.

p 5 u 5 gw zw 5 9.8zw

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 116 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

At a depth of 10 m, zw 5 10 2 2 5 8 m and p 5 u 5 9.8 3 8 5 78.4 kPa

The slope of the hydrostatic pressure distribution 5 9.8 kN/m3.
See Figure E6.4.

Hydrostatic pressure (kPa)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
2
4

Depth (m)
6
8
10
12
FIGURE E6.4

What’s next . . . We have considered flow only through homogeneous soils. In reality, soils are stratified
or layered with different soil types. In calculating flow through layered soils, an average or equivalent
hydraulic conductivity representing the whole soil mass is determined from the permeability of each
layer. Next, we will consider flow of water through layered soil masses: One flow occurs parallel to the
layers, the other flow occurs normal to the layers.

6.6 FLOW PARAL L E L TO SO I L LAYERS

When the flow is parallel to the soil layers (Figure 6.6), the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points.
The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the layers.
There is an analogy here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If we consider a unit
width (in the y direction) of flow and use Equation (6.9), we obtain

qx 5 Av 5 1 1 3 Ho 2 kx 1eq2 i 5 1 1 3 z1 2 kx1i 1 1 1 3 z2 2 kx2i 1 c1 1 1 3 zn 2 kxni (6.13)

where Ho is the total thickness of the soil mass, kx(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the horizontal
(x) direction, z1 to zn are the thicknesses of the first to the nth layers, and kx1 to kxn are the horizontal
hydraulic conductivities of the first to the nth layer. Solving Equation (6.13) for kx(eq), we get
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1
kx1eq2 5 1 z1kx1 1 z2kx2 1 c1 znkxn 2 (6.14)
Ho

Y
X

z1 Horizontal flow
Z Vertical flow
k1

Ho z2 k2

z3 k3

FIGURE 6.6 Flow through stratified layers.

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 6.8 EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 117

6.7 F LOW NOR MAL TO S OIL LAYERS

For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head losses in each layer:

DH 5 Dh1 1 Dh2 1 c1 Dhn (6.15)

where DH is the total head loss, and Dh1 to Dhn are the head losses in each of the n layers. The velocity
in each layer is the same. The analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors in series. From
Darcy’s law, we obtain

DH Dh1 Dh2 c Dhn

kz1eq2 5 kz1 5 kz2 5 5 kzn (6.16)
Ho z1 z2 zn

where kz(eq) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the vertical (z) direction and kz1 to kzn are the
vertical hydraulic conductivities of the first to the nth layer. Solving Equations (6.15) and (6.16) leads to

Ho
kz1eq2 5 (6.17)
z1 z2 zn
1 1c
kz1 kz2 kzn

Values of kz(eq) are generally less than kx(eq)—sometimes as much as 10 times less.

6.8 E Q U I VAL E NT H Y DR AULI C CO N D UCTI VI TY

The equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow parallel and normal to soil layers is

keq 5 "kx1eq2 kz1eq2 (6.18)

EXAMPLE 6.5 Vertical and Horizontal Flows in Layered Soils

A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in Figure E6.5. Assuming flow takes place laterally and vertically
through the sides of the canal and vertically below the canal, determine the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the
horizontal and vertical directions. The vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities for each layer are assumed
Copyright © 2008. Wiley Textbooks. All rights reserved.

to be the same. Calculate the ratio of the equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity to the equivalent vertical
hydraulic conductivity for flow through the sides of the canal.

1.0 m k = 2.3 × 10 –5 cm/sec

1.5 m k = 5.2 × 10 –6 cm/sec Canal 3.0 m

2.0 m k = 2.0 × 10 –6 cm/sec

1.2 m k = 0.3 × 10 –4 cm/sec

3.0 m k = 0.8 × 10 –3 cm/sec

FIGURE E6.5

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 118 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Strategy Use Equation (6.14) to find the equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity over the depth of the
canal (3.0 m) and then use Equation (6.17) to find the equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity below the canal. To
make the calculations easier, convert all exponential quantities to a single exponent.

Solution 6.5
Step 1: Find kx(eq) and kz(eq) for flow through the sides of the canal.
Ho 53m
1
kx1eq2 5 1 z1kx1 1 z2kx2 1 c1 znkxn 2
Ho
1
5 1 1 3 0.23 3 10 26 1 1.5 3 5.2 3 10 26 1 0.5 3 2 3 10 26 2
3

5 3 3 10 26 cm/s
Ho
kz1eq2 5
z1 z2 zn
1 1 c1
kz1 kz2 kzn
3
5 5 0.61 3 10 26 cm/s
1 1 1.5 0.5
a 1 1 b
10 26 0.23 5.2 2

Step 2: Find the kx(eq)/kz(eq) ratio.

kx1eq2 3 3 10 26
5 5 4.9
kz1eq2 0.61 3 10 26

Step 3: Find kz(eq) below the bottom of the canal.

Ho 5 1.5 1 1.2 1 3.0 5 5.7 m

Ho 5.7
kz1eq2 5 5
z1 z2 z 1.5 1.2 3
1 c1
n
1 1 1
kz1 kz2 kzn 2 3 10 26 30 3 10 26 800 3 10 26
5 7.2 3 10 26 cm/s

What’s next . . . In order to calculate flow, we need to know the hydraulic conductivity kz. We will discuss
Copyright © 2008. Wiley Textbooks. All rights reserved.

how this is determined in the laboratory and in the field.

6.9 D E T E R MINAT ION OF THE HYD RAU LI C CO N D UCTI VI TY

Virtual Laboratory
Access www.wiley.com/college/budhu, Chapter 6; click on Virtual Lab, and select constant-head test
to conduct an interactive virtual constant-head permeability test. After you complete the virtual
constant-head test, select the falling-head test and conduct a virtual falling-head permeability test.

6.9.1 Constant-Head Test

The constant-head test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils. A typical
constant-head apparatus is shown in Figure 6.7. Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical sample
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 6.9 DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 119

Mariotte bottle

Coarse-grained
soil

FIGURE 6.7 To measuring

A constant-head test setup. cylinder

of soil under a constant head (h). The outflow (Q) is collected in a graduated cylinder at a convenient
duration (t).
With reference to Figure 6.7,

DH h
DH 5 h  and  i 5 5
L L

The flow rate through the soil is qz 5 Q/t, where Q is the total quantity of water collected in the
measuring cylinder over time t.
From Equation (6.9),

qz QL
kz 5 5 (6.19)
Ai tAh

where kz is the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction and A is the cross-sectional area.
The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of kz. The experi-
mental value (kT 8C) is corrected to a baseline temperature of 208C using

mT °C
k20°C 5 kT °C 5 kT °C RT
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(6.20)
m20°C

where m is the dynamic viscosity of water, T is the temperature in 8C at which the measurement was
made, and RT 5 mT 8C/m208C is the temperature correction factor that can be calculated from

RT 5 2.42 2 0.475 ln 1 T 2 (6.21)

6.9.2 Falling-Head Test

The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these soils is too
slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant-head test. A compacted soil sample or a sample
extracted from the field is placed in a metal or acrylic cylinder (Figure 6.8). Porous stones are positioned
at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent its disintegration and to allow water to percolate
through it. Water flows through the sample from a standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder. The
head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different times, the head of water
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 120 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

dh

Standpipe

Fine–grained
soil

L
FIGURE 6.8
A falling-head test setup. To beaker

is recorded. Let dh be the drop in head over a time period dt. The velocity or rate of head loss in the
tube is

dh
v52
dt
and the inflow of water to the soil is

dh
1 qz 2 in 5 av 5 2a
dt

where a is the cross-sectional area of the tube. We now appeal to Darcy’s law to get the outflow:
h
1 qz 2 out 5 Aki 5 Ak
L
where A is the cross-sectional area, L is the length of the soil sample, and h is the head of water at any
time t. The continuity condition requires that (qz)in 5 (qz)out. Therefore,

dh h
–a 5 Ak
dt L

By separating the variables (h and t) and integrating between the appropriate limits, the last equation
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becomes
h
Ak t2 2
dh
3 dt 5 2 3
aL t1 h1 h

and the solution for k in the vertical direction is

aL h1
k 5 kz 5 ln a b (6.22)
A 1 t2 2 t1 2 h2

The hydraulic conductivity is corrected using Equation (6.20).

THE ESSENTIAL P OINTS ARE:

1. The constant-head test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils.
2. The falling-head test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained soils.

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 6.9 DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 121

EXAMPLE 6.6 Interpretation of Constant-Head Test Data

A sample of sand, 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long, was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a constant-head appara-
tus. The total head was kept constant at 30 cm and the amount of water collected in 5 seconds was 40 cm3. The test
temperature was 208C. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity and the seepage velocity.

Strategy From the data given, you can readily apply Darcy’s law to find kz.

Solution 6.6
Step 1: Calculate the sample cross-sectional area, hydraulic gradient, and flow.

D 5 5 cm
p 3 D2 p 3 52
A5 5 5 19.6 cm2
4 4
DH 5 30 cm
DH 30
i5 5 52
L 15
Q 5 40 cm3
Q 40
qz 5 5 5 8 cm3 /s
t 5
Step 2: Calculate kz.
qz 8
kz 5 5 5 0.2 cm/s
Ai 19.6 3 2
Step 3: Calculate the seepage velocity.

kzi 0.2 3 2
vs 5 5 5 0.67 cm/s
n 0.6

EXAMPLE 6.7 Interpretation of Falling-Head Test Data

The data from a falling-head test on a silty clay are:
Cross-sectional area of soil 5 80 cm2
Length of soil 5 10 cm
Initial head 5 90 cm
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Final head 5 84 cm
Duration of test 5 15 minutes
Diameter of tube 5 6 mm
Temperature 5 228C
Determine k.

Strategy Since this is a falling-head test, you should use Equation (6.22). Make sure you are using consistent units.

Solution 6.7
Step 1: Calculate the parameters required in Equation (6.22).

p 3 1 6/10 2 2
a5 5 0.28 cm2
4
A 5 80 cm2 1 given 2

t2 2 t1 5 15 3 60 5 900 seconds

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 122 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Step 2: Calculate kz.

aL h1 0.28 3 10 90
kz 5 ln a b 5 ln a b 5 2.7 3 10 26 cm/s
1
A t2 2 t1 2 h2 80 3 900 84

From Equation (6.21), RT 5 2.42 2 0.475 ln (T) 5 2.42 2 0.475 ln (22) 5 0.95

k20°C 5 kz RT 5 2.7 3 10 26 3 0.95 5 2.6 3 10 26 cm/s

What’s next . . . In the constant-head test and the falling-head test, we determined the hydraulic con-
ductivity of only a small volume of soil at a specific location in a soil mass. In some cases, we have to use
remolded or disturbed soil samples. In addition, if field samples are used, they are invariably disturbed
by sampling processes (see Chapter 3). The hydraulic conductivity is sensitive to alteration in the fabric of
the soil and, consequently, there are doubts about the accuracy of representing the in situ soil conditions
using laboratory permeability tests. There are several field methods to determine the hydraulic conductiv-
ity. Next, we will discuss one popular method.

6.9.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Hydraulic Conductivity

One common method of determining the hydraulic conductivity in the field is by pumping water
at a constant flow rate from a well and measuring the decrease in groundwater level at observa-
tion wells (Figure 6.9). The equation, called the simple well formula, is derived using the following
assumptions.
1. The water-bearing layer (called an aquifer) is unconfined and nonleaky.
2. The pumping well penetrates through the water-bearing stratum and is perforated only at the sec-
tion that is below the groundwater level.

Observation wells Pumping well

r1
r2 R
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Initial groundwater level

Drawdown curve
dz
dr

H
h2 h h1

r
z

Impervious
FIGURE 6.9 Layout of a pump test to determine kz.
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 6.9 DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 123

3. The soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite size.

4. Darcy’s law is valid.
5. Flow is radial toward the well.
6. The hydraulic gradient at any point in the water-bearing stratum is constant and is equal to the
slope of groundwater surface (Dupuit’s assumption).
Let dz be the drop in total head over a distance dr. Then, according to Dupuit’s assumption, the
hydraulic gradient is
dz
i5
dr
The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is
A 5 2prz

where z is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious soil layer.

From Darcy’s law, the flow is

dz
qz 5 2przk
dr
We need to rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and r2 and h1 and h2:

r2 h
dr 2

qz 3 5 2kp 3 zdz (6.23)

r1 r h1

Completing the integration leads to

qz ln 1 r2 /r1 2
k5 (6.24)
p 1 h22 2 h21 2
With measurements of r1, r2, h1, h2, and qv (flow rate of the pump), k can be calculated from Equation
(6.24). This test is only practical for coarse-grained soils.
Pumping tests lower the groundwater, which then causes stress changes in the soil. Since the
groundwater is not lowered uniformly, as shown by the drawdown curve in Figure 6.9, the stress changes
in the soil will not be even. Consequently, pumping tests near existing structures can cause these
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structures to settle unevenly. You should consider the possibility of differential settlement on existing
structures when you plan a pumping test.

EXAMPLE 6.8 Interpretation of Pumping Test Data

A pumping test was carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the following measurements were recorded. Rate
of pumping was 10.6 3 1023m3/s; drawdowns in observation wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center of the
pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m, respectively, from the initial groundwater level. The initial groundwater level
was located at 1.9 m below ground level. Determine k.

Strategy You are given all the measurements to directly apply Equation (6.24) to find k. You should draw a
sketch of the pump test to identify the values to be used in Equation (6.24).

Solution 6.8
Step 1: Draw a sketch of the pump test with the appropriate dimensions—see Figure E6.8.
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 124 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Observation wells Pumping well

15 m
30 m

Initial groundwater level 1.9 m

1.4 m
1.6 m

Drawdown curve

15 m

Impervious

FIGURE E6.8

Step 2: Substitute given values in Equation (6.24) to find k.

r2 5 30 m,  r1 5 15 m,  h2 5 15 2 1 1.9 1 1.4 2 5 11.7 m

h1 5 15 2 1 1.9 1 1.6 2 5 11.5 m

qz ln 1 r2 /r1 2 10.6 3 10 23 ln 1 30/15 2

k 5 5 5 5.0 3 10 22 cm/s
p 1 h22 2 h21 2 p 1 11.72 2 11.52 2 104

6.10 GR OUNDWAT E R LOWERI N G BY WELLPO I N TS

Sometimes it is necessary to temporarily lower the groundwater level for construction of foundations.
The process of lowering the groundwater is called dewatering and is accomplished by inserting well-
Copyright © 2008. Wiley Textbooks. All rights reserved.

points around the excavation for the foundations. A wellpoint system consists of an interconnected
network of wells (pipes) installed around the perimeter of an excavation (Figure 6.10). The wells are
installed in rows and the spacing depends on the soil type and the hydraulic conductivity. The spacing in
clean sands with water depth of about 5 m is about 1 m to 1.5 m.
Reconsidering Figure 6.9, the drawdown, d, is

d5H2h (6.25)

The radius of influence, R, of the depression cone is the radius at which the drawdown is zero. The flow
rate or discharge between the limits r and R and h and H can be found from Equation (6.23) as

kp 1 H2 2 h2 2
qw 5 (6.26)
R
ln a b
r
Solving for h, we get
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 6.10 GROUNDWATER LOWERING BY WELLPOINTS 125

Header pipe

Riser
pipe

Groundwater

Wellpoint

(a)

FIGURE 6.10
Wellpoint system for an excavation. (b)

R
qw ln a b
r
h 5 6 H2 2 (6.27)
ã kp

Therefore, at any point with coordinates (r, z), the drawdown is

R
qw ln a b
r
d 5 H 6 H2 2 (6.28)
ã kp

The positive sign is used when water is pumped into the well and the negative sign is used when water
is pumped from the well. The maximum drawdown, dmax, occurs at the well face, i.e., r 5 ro, and from
Equation (6.28),

R
qw ln a b
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r o
dmax 5 H 6 H2 2 (6.29)
ã kp
The radius of influence of the depression cone is found from experience and can be estimated (Slichter,
1899) from

R 5 3000dmax"k; d is in m and k is in m/s. (6.30)

Equation (6.30) does not have a theoretical basis and is not dimensionally correct. However, it has been
satisfactorily applied in practice. An equation (Kozeny, 1933) that is dimensionally correct is

t qw k
R5 12 (6.31)
Å nÄ p

where t (sec) is duration for a discharge, qw(m3/s), n is porosity, and k is the average hydraulic conduc-
tivity (m/s). The predictions of R from Equations (6.30) and (6.31) are normally significantly different.
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 126 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

However, the discharge is not very sensitive to the accuracy of R because the changes in ln (Rr) are
small for large changes in (Rr). The accuracy of R has significant impact for drawdown near existing
buildings. For closely spaced wellpoints, a two-dimensional flow analysis (Chapter 14) is required.

EXAMPLE 6.9 Interpretation of Wellpoint Data

A wellpoint of 0.1 m radius in a permeable soil layer 7 m thick has a constant discharge of 0.05 m3/s in a 24-hour
operation. The soil parameters are k 5 0.004 m/s and e 5 0.5. Determine the radius of influence and the maximum
drawdown.

Strategy Use Kozeny’s (1933) equation for R and then use Equation (6.29) to calculate dmax.

Solution 6.9
Step 1: Calculate R.
e 0.5
n 5 5 5 0.33
11e 1 1 0.5

t qw k 24 3 3600 0.05 3 0.004

R5 12 5 R 5 12 5 158.3 m
Å nÄ p Å 0.33 Ä p

Compare R using Slichter’s equation.

R 5 3000dmax"k 5 3000 3 2.56"0.004 5 485.7 m

The value of dmax was inserted from Step 2.

Step 2: Calculate dmax.

R 158.3
qw ln a b 0.05 ln a b
ro 0.1
dmax 5H2 H2 2 572 72 2 5 2.56 m
ã kp ã 0.004p

6.11 S UMMARY

Flow of water through soils is governed by Darcy’s law, which states that the velocity is proportional to
Copyright © 2008. Wiley Textbooks. All rights reserved.

the hydraulic gradient. The proportionality constant is the hydraulic conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity
depends on soil type, particle size, pore fluid properties, void ratio, pore size, homogeneity, layering and fissur-
ing, and entrapped gases. In coarse-grained soils the hydraulic conductivity is determined using a constant-
head test, while for fine-grained soils a falling-head test is used. In the field, a pumping test is used to determine
the hydraulic conductivity. Wellpoints are used at a construction site to lower the groundwater level.

Self-Assessment
Access Chapter 6 at http://www.wiley.com/college/budhu to take the end-of-chapter quiz to test your
understanding of this chapter.

Practical Example
EXAMPLE 6.10 Application of Flow Data to a Canal
A ditch is required for a utility line near an ephemeral canal, which at the time of excavation was filled with water,
as shown in Figure E6.10. The average vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities are 1 3 1025 cm/s and 2 3
1024 cm/s, respectively. Assuming a 1-m length of ditch, determine the flow rate of water into it.
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 EXERCISES 127

100 m
EL:1000 m

EL:993 m Canal

EL:992 m
EL:991 m
Ditch

FIGURE E6.10

Strategy You need to determine an equivalent hydraulic conductivity and then calculate the flow rate using
Darcy’s law. However, to calculate the flow rate, you need to determine the hydraulic gradient. To do so, find the
difference in total head between the canal and the ditch, and then divide by the length of the flow.

Solution 6.10
Step 1: Calculate an equivalent hydraulic conductivity.

keq 5 "kzkx 5 "10 25 3 2 3 10 24 5 4.5 3 10 25 cm/s

Step 2: Determine the hydraulic gradient.

Take datum as the bottom of the ditch.
Elevation head at base of ditch 5 0, pressure head at base of ditch 5 0; total head at ditch 5 0
Elevation head at base of canal 5 1 m, pressure head at base of canal 5 8 m; total head at canal 5 9 m
Head difference, Dh 5 9 m

100 2 993
Slope > tan 21 a b 5 4°
100

100
Average length of flow path, L 5 5 100.2 m
cos 1 4° 2
Dh 9
i5 5 5 0.09
L 100.2

Step 3: Calculate the flow rate.

Assume flow parallel to the slope and consider a vertical section of the ditch.

A 5 1 993 2 991 2 3 1 5 2 m2
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qi 5 AKeq i 5 2 3 1 4.5 3 10 25 /100 2 3 0.09 5 0.81 3 10 27 m3 /s

EX E R C I S E S

Theory Figure P6.2 on page 128. Take the water level at exit as
datum. (Hint: You need to convert the pressure 10 kPa
6.1 A pump test is carried out to determine the hydraulic
to head.)
conductivity of a confined aquifer, as shown in Figure
P6.1 on page 128. Show that the equation for k is 6.3 The groundwater level in a soil layer 10 m thick is located
at 3 m below the surface. (a) Plot the distribution of
q ln 1 r1 /r2 2 hydrostatic pressure with depth. (b) If the groundwater
k5 were to rise to the surface, plot on the same graph
2pH 1 h1 2 h2 2
as (a), using a different line type, the distribution of
hydrostatic pressure with depth. (c) Repeat (b), but the
Problem Solving groundwater is now 2 m above the ground surface (flood
6.2 Determine the pressure head, elevation head, and total condition). Interpret and discuss these plots with respect
head at A, B, and C for the arrangement shown in to the effects of fluctuating groundwater levels.
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 128 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

Observation wells Pumping well

r1
r2

Initial groundwater level

Drawdown curve

h2
h1
Impervious

H
Permeable

Impervious
FIGURE P6.1

10 kPa

0.4 m
0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m

Soil A

1m C Exit Datum
0.75 m
0.5 m

FIGURE P6.2
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6.4 In a constant-head permeability test, a sample of soil 12 cm in the standpipe of diameter 5 mm dropped from 68 cm
long and 6 cm in diameter discharged 1.5 3 1023 m3 of to 50.2 cm. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of this clay.
water in 10 minutes. The head difference in two piezome- 6.7 Calculate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity for the
ters A and B located at 1 cm and 11 cm, respectively, from soil profile shown in Figure P6.7.
the bottom of the sample is 2 cm. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil. What is the soil type tested?
6.5 A constant-head test was conducted on a sample of soil 10 m kz = 2.3 × 10–2 cm/s
15 cm long and 60 cm2 in cross-sectional area. The quan- kx = 8 × 10–2 cm/s
tity of water collected was 50 cm3 in 20 seconds under a 2m kz = 5.7 × 10–4 cm/s, kx = 25.5 × 10–4 cm/s
head difference of 24 cm. Calculate the hydraulic con-
ductivity. If the porosity of the sand is 55%, calculate the 10 m kz = 9.2 × 10–7 cm/s
average velocity and the seepage velocity. Estimate the kx = 27 × 10–7 cm/s
hydraulic conductivity of a similar soil with a porosity of
FIGURE P6.7
35% from the results of this test.
6.6 A falling-head permeability test was carried out on a clay 6.8 A pumping test was carried out to determine the av-
soil of diameter 10 cm and length 15 cm. In 1 hour the head erage hydraulic conductivity of a sand deposit 20 m
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 EXERCISES 129

thick overlying impermeable clay. The discharge from the silt layer. The excavation has to be kept dry. Determine
pumping well was 10 3 1023 m3/s. Drawdowns in the the flow (qi) into the excavation.
observation wells located 15 m and 30 m from the 6.10 Groundwater is pumped for domestic use from an un-
centerline of the pumping well were 2.1 m and 1.6 m, confined aquifer (water-bearing sand layer). The thick-
respectively. Groundwater table was reached at 3.2 m ness of the clay layer above the sand layer is 20 m and
below the ground surface. Determine the hydraulic con- its initial porosity is 40%. After 10 years of pumping, the
ductivity of the sand. Estimate the effective grain size porosity is reduced to 30%. Determine the subsidence of
using Hazen’s equation. the clay surface.
6.11 A canal is dug parallel to a river, as shown in Figure P6.11.
Practical A sandy-silt seam of average thickness 0.5 m cuts across
6.9 An excavation is proposed for a square area near the the otherwise impermeable clay. The average vertical and
bend of a river, as shown in Figure P6.9. It is expected horizontal hydraulic conductivities are 1.5 3 1025 cm/s and
that the flow of water into the excavation will come 15 3 1025 cm/s, respectively. Assuming a 1-m length of
through the silt layer. Pumping tests reveal an average canal, determine the flow rate of water from the canal to
horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 2 3 1025 cm/s in the the river.

River

a a

Excavation
Plan

1.2 1m
Slope
1
2m 4m
Excavation

Silt
Cross section a–a. 8m 21 m
FIGURE P6.9 Not to scale

30 m Canal
Copyright © 2008. Wiley Textbooks. All rights reserved.

EL: 99.5 m
Clay EL: 99.0 m
EL: 98.0 m
EL: 96.48 m
Sandy-silt seam
River 0.5 m (average)
FIGURE P6.11

θ = 20°

4m Stream

A Rock outcrop

B
Canal

FIGURE P6.12

Budhu, Muni. Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Wiley Textbooks, 2008. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/eafit/detail.action?docID=792431.
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 130 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

6.12 An excavation is made for a canal that is fed by a stream, at the far edge of the excavation must be 0.5 m below
as shown in Figure P6.12. The measured flow into the the base.
canal is 0.25 3 1024 m3/s per unit area. Two porewater (a) Calculate the radius of influence.
pressure transducers, A and B, placed along a line par-
(b) Calculate the maximum drawdown.
allel to the slope and approximately at the canal mid-
height gave readings of 3 kPa and 2.5 kPa. Assuming flow (c) Plot the drawdown curve.
parallel to the slope, estimate the hydraulic conductivity. (d) For the radius of influence in (a), (i) calculate the
6.13 A well of 0.1 m radius is part of a wellpoint network to discharge if the well radius increases to 0.2 m, and (ii)
keep an excavation dry (Figure P6.13). The groundwater compare it to the discharge for the 0.1-m-radius well.

Wellpoint Flow

Original GWL

2m
Excavation
0.1 m Drawdown
8m 0.5 m
k = 5.8 × 10–5 m/s
qw = 13.2 × 10–4 m3/s

1m 8m

Impermeable
FIGURE P6.13
Copyright © 2008. Wiley Textbooks. All rights reserved.

Budhu, Muni. Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Wiley Textbooks, 2008. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/eafit/detail.action?docID=792431.
Created from eafit on 2020-03-07 20:16:48.