HA and HB Type Loading

History
The first standard vehicle load for highway bridges in the UK was introduced in 1922. British Standards
introduced a traffic live load requirement in BS 153 Part 3 in 1923, which was later revised in 1925 and
1937. The Type HA uniformly distibuted loading was introduced in 1945 and the concept of a Type HA
and HB load was included in the 1954 edition of BS 153: Part 3A. In 1961 the HB load was specified in
terms of units and varied depending on the class of road, with 45 units required for Motorways and
Trunk Roads and 37.5 units for class i and class ii roads. A requirement for all public roads to be
designed for at least 30 units of HB was introduced in 1973.

HA Loading
BD 37/01 of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HA loading is the normal design
loading for Great Britain and adequately covers the effects of all permitted normal vehicles other than
those used for abnormal indivisible loads. Normal vehicles are governed by the Road Vehicles
(Authorised Weight) Regulations 1998, referred to as the AW Vehicles and cover vehicles up to 44 tonne
gross vehicle weight. Loads from these AW vehicles are represented by a uniformly distributed load and
a knife edge load. The loading has been enhanced to cover:
i) impact load (caused when wheels 'bounce' i.e. when striking potholes or uneven expansion joints).
ii) overloading
iii) Lateral bunching (more than one vehicle occupying the width of a lane).
The magnitude of the uniformly distributed load is dependent on the loaded length as determined from
the influence line for the member under consideration. For simply supported decks this usually relates to
the span of the deck.

HB Loading
BD 37/01 of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HB loading requirements derive
from the nature of exceptional industrial loads (e.g. electrical transformers, generators, pressure
vessels, machine presses, etc.) likely to use the roads in the area.
The vehicle load is represented by a four axled vehicle with four wheels equally spaced on each axle.
The load on each axle is defined by a number of units which is dependant on the class of road.
Motorways and trunk roads require 45 units, Principal roads require 37.5 units and other public roads
require 30 units. One unit of HB is equal to 10kN per axle. There are five HB vehicles to check although
most vehicles can be discounted by inspection.

Design
The design procedure is to analyse the bridge for HA and HB load effects applying the appropriate load
factors. The member is then deisgned for the worst effects of HA or HB loading.

BS 5400 Part 2 : 2006

Clause 6.2 Type HA Loading

Problem:
How do you work out the HA loading and bending moment for a bridge deck ?
Example:
Carriageway = 6m wide
Deck span = 34m (centre to centre of bearings for a simply supported single span)

Design for a metre width of deck :

Cl 3.2.9.3.1.
Number of notional lanes = 2
Notional lane width = 6.0/2 = 3.0m
Cl 6.2.1.
Loaded length = 34m
W = 336(1/L)0.67 kN/m (per notional lane)
W = 31.6 kN/m (per notional lane)
Cl 6.2.2.
Knife Edge Load = 120 kN (per notional lane)
Cl 6.4.1.1.
α2 = 0.0137[bL(40-L)+3.65(L-20)]
α2 = 0.0137[3.0(40-34.0)+3.65(34.0-20)] = 0.947
Note: For loaded lengths less than 20m the load is proportioned to a standard lane width of 3.65m, i.e.
0.274bL = bL/3.65.
For a metre width of deck :
W = (31.6 x 0.947)/3.0 = 10.0 kN/m
KEL = (120 x 0.947)/3.0 = 37.88 kN
Cl 6.2.7.
γfL = 1.50 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)

Design HA loading for a metre width of deck :

W = 1.5 x 10.0 = 15.0 kN/m
KEL = 1.5 x 37.88 = 56.82 kN

Maximum mid span Bending Moment with KEL at mid span = M ult
Mult = (15.0 x 342)/8 + (56.82 x 34)/4
Mult = 2170 + 480 = 2650 kNm
Note: Use of γf3
BS 5400 Pt.3 & Pt.5 - γf3 is used with the design strength so Mult = 2650 kNm.
BS 5400 Pt.4 - γf3 is used with the load effect so Mult = 1.1 x 2650 = 2915 kNm.
Clause 6.3 Type HB Loading

Assume the road over the bridge is not a Principal Road then we need to check for 30 units type HB loading
(see BD 37 Chapter 4).

Cl 6.3.1
Nominal load per axle = 30units x 10kN = 300kN
The maximum bending moment will be achieved by using the shortest HB vehicle i.e. with 6m spacing (see
BD 37 Fig 12).
The maximum moment for a simply supported span occurs under the inner axle when the vehicle is
positioned such that the mid span bisects the distance between the centroid of the load and the nearest
axle.
With a 34m span and the 6m HB vehicle with equal axle loads, the inner axle is placed at 1.5m from the mid
span.

RL = 300(10.7+12.5+18.5+20.3)/34 = 547 kN
RR = 4x300-547 = 653kN
Moment at X = 547x15.5 - 300x1.8 = 7939kNm
Cl 6.4.2
The HB vehicle occupies one lane with HA load in the adjacent lane. Assume for the example that the HB
load is carried by a standard lane width of 3.65m.
Hence the moment per metre width of deck = 7939/3.65 = 2175kNm
Cl 6.3.4.
γfL = 1.30 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HB moment for a metre width of deck :
Mult = 1.3 x 2175 = 2828 kN/m (compared to 2650 for HA load)
Hence in this case HB load effects would govern although a grillage or finite element type distribution
would reduce the HB moment considerably.
 Reinforced Concrete to BS EN 1992-2 & UK National Annex

1. Introduction

Both the Serviceability and Ultimate Limit States need to be considered.

Serviceability Limit State ensures that crack widths do not exceed specified values, and also ensures
that concrete and reinforcement stresses are maintained below a safe limit.
Ultimate Limit State ensures that the structure will not collapse.
2. Serviceability Limit State

i) Crack Control
Cracks in concrete can be caused by :

 corrosion of the reinforcement which causes the concrete to spall

 thermal movements, particularly cooling from heat of hydration (called early thermal cracking)
 structural actions such as bending, shear or torsion

Corrosion of reinforcement is controlled by use of suitable concrete grades and providing adequate
cover to the reinforcement.
Cracks due to thermal movements are controlled by providing minimum nominal steel area and
restricting the maximum bar spacing. is used to calculate the minimum steel area and bar spacing to
control early thermal cracking.
The width of shear cracks is controlled by ultimate strength calculations.
Crack widths caused by bending and tension may be calculated using , alternatively may be used to
limit the stress in the bar for a given bar diameter, or a given bar spacing, from .
For calculating the crack width only the quasi-permanent load combination is used. for traffic actions
and ψ2 = 0.5 for thermal actions consequently only thermal actions (variable action) are considered in
combination with the permanent actions. However only secondary effects of the temperature
difference need to be considered; the primary self-equilibrating stresses may be ignored.
Crack widths may be calculated using . The crack width (wk) is a function of the spacing between the
cracks (sr,max) and the strain in the reinforcement (εsm) and concrete (εcm):
wk = sr,max(εsm - εcm) ................................................................................Equation (7.8)
where sr,max = k3c + k1k2k4φ/ρp,eff ............................................................Equation (7.11)
and (εsm - εcm) = {σs - [ktfct,eff(1 + αeρp,eff)/ρp,eff]}/Es ≥ 0.6σs/Es ................Equation (7.9)
Using a rectangular section as an example:

We first need to determine the position of the neutral axis:

Es = 200kN/mm2 ()
The short-term value of Ec,eff is obtained from the value of Ecm in which is appropriate to the live load
portion of the moment (Mst). The permanent load portion of the moment (M qp) has a long-term value
of Ec,eff to take account of the effects of creep. The modified value of E c,eff used for the crack width
calculation is an intermediate value between the short and long term values.
Modified Ec,eff = Ecm(Mst + Mqp) / [Mst + Mqp(1 + φ)] where φ is the value of the creep coefficient
φ(∞,t0).
αeff = Modular ratio = Es / Ec,eff.
ρp,eff = As / bd and ρ'p,eff = A's / bd
Then
x/d = √{[αeffρp,eff+(αeff-1)ρ'p,eff]2+2[αeffρp,eff+(αeff-1)ρ'p,effd'/d]}-[αeffρp,eff+(αeff-1)ρ'p,eff]
Second Moment of Area of Cracked Section Ic = bx3/3 + (αeff-1)As'(x-d')2 + αeffAs(d-x)2
Hence reinforcement stress σs = αeffMEd(d-x)/Ic where MEd = Mqp+Mst
kt is obtained by interpolation between 0.4 for long-term and 0.6 for short-term loadings:
kt = 0.4 + (0.2Mst/MEd)
fct,eff = fctm (from )
αe = αeff = Es / Ec,eff
ρp,eff = (As + ξ1A'p)/Ac,eff where A'p = 0
Ac,eff = bhc,ef where hc,ef is the lesser of 2.5(h-d), (h-x)/3 or h/2
(εsm - εcm) can now be evaluated from Equation (7.9)

sr,max can also be evaluated from Equation (7.11) with:

k1 = 0.8 (for high bond reinforcement)
k2 = 0.5 (for bending)
k3 = 3.4 and k4 = 0.425 (from UK National Annex to EN 1992-1-1)
The Crack Width wk can now be calculated using Equation (7.8) in

ii) Stress Limits

The methods given in the code for checking crack widths assumes a linear elastic behaviour. It is
therefore necessary to check the stress limits to ensure this assumption is correct. in particular that
the strains caused by transient loads will not become permanent.
The section properties are determined by considering whether the concrete in the tension zone is
cracked or not. This is done by assuming initially that the section is uncracked whereby the second
moment of area of the section Ic is for the full concrete section (bh3/12 for a rectangular section). The
maximum tensile stress in the concrete is obtained from MEd y / Ic and compared with the tensile
strength of the concrete fctm from .
If the tensile stress is greater than fctm then the section will be considered cracked and the stresses
calculated using a cracked elastic section analysis similar to that used to determine the crack width
described above.
All load combinations need to be checked to ensure that the stress limits are not exceeded.
As the maximum design variable loading can occur at any time during the life of the bridge then, for
the cracked section, it is usual to check the stresses at first opening and also after all the creep has
occurred at the end of the life of the bridge. This is done by using E c,eff = Ecm for both the short and
long-term loading when the bridge is first opened, and using the modified value of E c,eff, as described
in the crack control calculation above, for the full life of the bridge.
The stress limits given in the code are:
k3fyk = 0.8fyk for reinforcement in tension (BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Clause 7.2.(5)).
k1fck = 0.6fck for concrete in compression (BS EN 1992-2:2005 Clause 7.2.(102)).

3. Ultimate Limit State

To determine the moment of resistance of a member at failure by limit state analysis the following
assumptions are made:

a. The distribution of strain across any section is linear. This means that plane sections before
bending remain plane after bending, and the strain at any point is proportional to its distance
from the neutral axis.
b. The resistance of concrete in tension is ignored.
c. The relationship between the stress and strain in the reinforcement is as shown in Figure 3.8 of
EN 1992-1-1 with γs = 1.15.
d. The relationship between the stress and strain in the concrete is as shown in Figure 3.4 of EN
1992-1-1 with fcd = αccfck/γc ( αcc = 0.85, γc = 1.5). The distribution of stress in the concrete at
failure may be represented by a uniform stress fav = ηfcd acting over the depth of the
compression zone λX where X is the depth to the neutral axis.

Clause 3.1.7(3) of EN 1992-1-1 allows a rectangular concrete stress distribution to be assumed as

shown below. The value of λ = 0.8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa, and λ = 0.8-(fck-50)/400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa.
The value of the uniform stress fav = ηfcd where η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa, and η = 1.0-(fck-50)/200 for
50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa.
For the singly reinforced rectangular section (assuming the reinforcement yields):
Taking moments about the centre of compression for the tensile force
Mu = fydAsz = 0.87fykAsz
The depth to the neutral axis depends upon the reinforcement provided and is obtained by equating
the forces:
Fs = Fc → 0.87fykAs = 0.85ληfckbx/1.5
Rearranging and dividing both sides by d we get:
(x/d) = (1.53fykAs) / (ληfckbd)
Lever arm z = (d - 0.5λx) so substituting for x we get:
z = (1 - [0.77fykAs] / [ηfckbd])d
To meet the criteria for assuming the reinforcement yields then the strain in the steel ε s needs to be
greater than εs,yield.
From the strain diagram εs = εcu3(d-x)/x which has to be greater than 0.87fyk/Es
This re-arranges to x/d ≤ 1 / {[0.87fyk/(Esεcu3)]+1}..............................................Equation(A)
If x/d does not meet this condition then the options are:

1. calculate the actual force in the reinforcement using the strain compatibility method and hence
the moment of resistance, or
2. increase d, or
3. increase the concrete strength or add compression reinforcement.

For the doubly reinforced rectangular section:

Equating the tensile and compressive forces

Fs = Fc + F's → 0.87fykAs = 0.85ληfckbx/1.5 + 0.87fykA's
0.87fyk(As - A's) = 0.57ληfckbx .................................................Equation(B)

If compression reinforcement needs to added as for option (3) in the singly reinforced section above
then the procedure is:

i. reduce x in equation (A) so that it satisfies the equation

ii. provide compression reinforcement A's , by re-arranging equation (B)
A's = As - 0.65ληfckbx/fyk
If both As and A's are known then equation (B) can be re-arranged to determine x:
x = 1.53fyk(As - A's) / (ληfckb)
To meet the criteria for assuming the reinforcement yields then the tension reinforcement can be
checked using equation (A).
To ensure the compression reinforcement yields then the strain in the steel ε' s needs to be greater
than εs,yield.
From the strain diagram ε's = εcu3(1-d'/x) which has to be greater than 0.87fyk/Es
This re-arranges to x/d' ≤ 1 / {1 - [0.87fyk/(Esεcu3)]}.
If either of these checks fails then the ultimate moment of resistance needs to be determined using
the strain compatibility method.

4. Shear

a) Members Without Shear Reinforcement

Tests have been carried out on beams with and without shear reinforcement. The results for members
without shear reinforcement show a correlation between the concrete strength, the amount of
longitudinal tension reinforcement and the depth of the section.
The shear strength (VRd,c) of a section without shear reinforcement is give by:
VRd,c = [CRd,ck(100ρ1fck)1/3 + k1σcp]bwd (BS EN 1992-2 Clause 6.2.2(101))
with a minimum value of VRd,c = (vmin + k1σcp)bwd
where:
CRd,c = 0.18/γc (UK NA to BS EN 1992-2 Clause 6.2.2(101))
k = 1 + √(200/d) ≤2.0
ρ1 = Asl / bwd ≤0.02 Asl = Area of longitudinal tensile reinforcement at effective depth d
bw = smallest width of section in the tension zone
fck = concrete cylinder strength (limited to C50 ~ see UK NA to BS EN 1992-2 Clause 3.1.2(102)P)
k1 = 0.15 (UK NA to EN 1992-2 Clause 6.2.2(101))
σcp = NEd / Ac (N/mm2) NEd = Axial force from any applied loading Ac = Gross concrete area
vmin = 0.035k3/2fck1/2

Note: For sections close to supports the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992-2 Clause 6.2.2(101) allows
the value of CRd,c to be increased to (0.18/γc)·(2d/a) provided that the shear force VEd is not multiplied
by β (see EN 1992-1-1 Clause 6.2.2 (6)) and the longitudinal reinforcement is fully anchored at the
support, where 'a' is the distance from the edge of the support (or centre of bearing where flexible
bearings are used) to the position at which the shear resistance is considered.

It is convenient not to put shear links in concrete slabs and if V Rd,c is found to be insufficient then it is
usually more efficient to provide additional longitudinal tension reinforcement.
Beams, however, have to be provided with shear links even if V Rd,c is found to be adequate. BS EN
1992-1-1 Clause 9.2.2(5) says:
the minimum shear reinfrocement ratio ρw,min = Asw / (s.bw.sinα) = (0.08√fck) / fyk
Clause 9.2.2(6) says the spacing (s) of the shear links should not exceed s l,max = 0.75d(1 + cotα)
where:
Asw = area of shear reinforcement in length s (one link with 2 legs = 2 x leg area)
s = spacing of links measured along the axis of the member
bw = breadth of the web of the menber
α = the angle between the link and the longitudinal axis of the member
fyk = characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement

b) Members With Shear Reinforcement

Clause 6.2.3 of BS EN 1992-1-1 uses a truss model to evaluate the shear resistance of concrete
members with shear reinforcement. The concrete resists the compressive forces whilst the
reinforcement resists the tensile forces.

θ = the angle between the concrete compression strut and the longitudinal axis of the member.
Values of θ between 45o and 21.8o (1 ≤ cotθ ≤ 2.5) may be used.
α = the angle between the link and the longitudinal axis of the member. Values of α between 45 o and
90o may be used.
By considering vertical equilibrium on a section parallel to the line of the concrete strut it can be
shown that the design shear force which can be resisted by the yielding shear reinforcement is:
VRd,s = Aswzfywd(cotθ+cotα)sinα/s {Clause 6.2.3(4) equation (6.13)}

By considering vertical equilibrium on a section perpendicular to the line of the concrete strut it can be
shown that the design shear force limited by compression in the concrete is:
VRd,max = αcwbwzν1fcd(cotθ+cotα)/(1+cot2θ) {Clause 6.2.3(4) equation (6.14)}

where:
fywd = design yield strength of the shear reinforcement
αcw = 1.0 for non-prestressed structures
ν1 = 0.6(1-fck/250)(1-0.5cosα) {UK NA to 1992-2 clause 6.2.3(103)}
Note: If stress of shear reinforcement is below 80% of f yk then ν1 = 0.54(1-0.5cosα)

c) Additional Longitudinal Reinforcement

Clause 6.2.3(107) of BS EN 1992-2 requires an additional tensile force ΔF td = 0.5VEd(cotθ-cotα) to be
resisted by the longitudinal reinforcement due to the force developed from the truss analogy.
The total force in the longitudinal steel due to bending and the truss force = M Ed/z + ΔFtd. The total
force should not be greater than MEd,max/z where MEd,max is the maximum moment along the beam.

Reinforced Concrete Deck Design to EN 1992-2 & UK National Annex

Problem:

Design a simply supported reinforced concrete deck slab using a unit strip method. The deck carries a
100mm depth of surfacing,
together with a traffic load (LM1) udl of 5.5 kN/m2 and tandem axle load of 100kN (300kN/3m lane width).
The deck should also be designed to carry the SV80 model vehicle. The span of the deck is 12.0m centre to
centre of bearings.

γconc. = 25kN/m3

SV80 model vehicle also to be considered.

Use C32/40 concrete to BS 8500.
Use Grade B500B reinforcement to BS 4449.

EN 1992-1-1 Table 4.1 gives the Exposure Class XD1 as suitable for deck soffits.
NA to BS EN 1992-1-1 clause 4.4.1.2(5) says values of c min,dur shall be taken from BS 8500-1
BS 8500-1
Table A.5
Nominal cover for C32/40 concrete = cnom = cmin,dur + Δcdev = 45 + Δcdev with
maximum water-cement ratio = 0.55 and minimum cement content of 320 kg/m 3
Fixing tolerence for reinforcement Δcdev = 15mm for insitu concrete ∴ Nominal cover cnom = 45 + 15 = 60mm
Loading per metre width of deck (unit strip)
(Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method of designing the slab (See BS EN 1991-
1-1 to 1991-1-7, 1991-2 and National Annex for full design loading)
EN 1991-1-1
Annex A
Permanent Actions (Gk):
deck slab = 25 x 0.65 x 1.0
= 16.3 kN/m
NA Table NA.1
cl. 5.2.3(3)
It will be assumed that the depth of surfacing could vary considerably as a result of future resurfacing.
Clause 5.2.3(3) makes an allowance of up to 55% additional weight.
surfacing = 1.55 x 24 x 0.1 x 1.0
= 3.7 kN/m
EN 1991-2
Table 4.2
Variable Actions (Qk):
Traffic Load Model 1
(Q1k = 1 & q1k = 0.61)
= 5.5 kN/m(udl) + 2 x (300kN/3m) axles @ 1.2m centres.
NA Fig NA.1
Traffic Load Model 3 (SV80)
= 6 x (130kN/3m) axles @ 1.2m c/c
NA Cl. 2.16.3
DAF for 130kN axle = 1.16
∴ axle load = 1.16x130/3 = 50.3kN
Combination of Actions
a) Ultimate Limit State : EN 1990 clause 6.4.3.2 requires one combination of actions to be considered for
the "STR" limit state:
Eqn 6.10
Ed = E(ΣγGjGkj + γpP + γQ,1Qk,1 + ΣγQ,iΨ0,iQk,i)
Table NA.A.2.4
Group of Loads
γsup
γinf
Ψ0
Dead Load
1.35
0.95
-
Superimposed Dead Load
1.20
0.95
-
Temperature Difference
1.55
0
0#
Traffic Groups
1.35
0
N/A##
Key:
#
EN 1990 Table A.2.1 Note 3 says the value of Ψ 0 of 0.6 may be reduced to 0 when considering ULS.
##
Traffic loads are the leading action
b) Serviceability Limit State : EN 1990 clause 6.5.3 requires three combinations of actions to be
considered for the serviceability limit state:
i) Characteristic combination
Ed = E(ΣGkj + P + Qk,1 + ΣΨ0,iQk,i)
for limiting stresses
ii) Frequent combination
Ed = E(ΣGkj + P + Ψ1,1Qk,1 + ΣΨ2,iQk,i)

iii) Quasi-permanent combination

Ed = E(ΣGkj + P + ΣΨ2,iQk,i)
for crack control
Table NA.A.2.1
Action
Ψ0
Ψ1
Ψ2
Traffic load group gr1a
0.75
0.75
0
Traffic load group gr5
0
0
0
Thermal
0.6
0.6
0.5

Temperature Difference Effects

Apply temperature differences given in EN 1991-1-5 Figure 6.2c(Type 3a) to a 1m wide deck section.
EN 1991-1-5 Table C.1 - Coefficient of thermal expansion = 10 x 10 -6 per ºC.
CIRIA Report C660 ("Early-age thermal crack control in concrete") suggests that a value of 10 x 10 -6 per
ºC is unsuitable for some of the concrete aggregates used in the UK and suggest a value of 12 x 10 -6 per ºC
should be used if the type of aggregate has not been specified. ∴ use 12 x 10-6 per ºC
From EN 1992-1-1 Table 3.1 :
fck = 32 → fcm = fck +8 = 40 → Ecm = 22[(fcm) / 10]0.3 = 22 x 40.3 = 33.35 kN/mm2
Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C = 33.35 x 10 3 x 12 x 10-6 = 0.4 N/mm2
Interpolating values of ΔT from EN 1991-1-5 Table B.3 for a 0.65m depth of slab with 100mm surfacing we
get:

Section Properties
Area = 1000 x 650 = 0.65 x 106 mm2
Second Moment of Area = 1000 x 6503 / 12 = 22.9 x 109 mm4

a) Heating temperature difference

Force F to restrain temperature strain :
0.4 x 103 x [ 150 x ( 3.0 + 5.05 ) + (195 x 1.5) + (195 x 1.05)] x 10 -3 = 683 kN
Moment M about centroid of section to restrain curvature due to temperature strain :
0.4x103x[150x(3.0x250+5.05x275)+175x(0.3x87.5+1.35x116.7)-(20x0.15x6.7)-(195x1.05x260)]x10 -6 =
119.9kNm

b) Cooling temperature difference

Force F to restrain temperature strain :
- 0.4 x 103 x [ 130 x ( 1.8 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 1.9 ) + 163 x ( 0.9 + 0.75 )] x 10 -3 = - 508 kN
Moment M about centroid of section to restrain curvature due to temperature strain :
- 0.4 x 103 x [130 x ( 1.8 x 260 + 2.5 x 282 - 1.5 x 260 - 1.9 x 282 ) + 163 x ( 0.9 x 141 - 0.75 x 141 )] x 10 -6
= -14.3kNm

Note:
1) Sign convention is compressive stresses are positive.
2) The deck is simply supported and allowed to expand and contract freely. Therefore there will be no
secondary stresses due to the curvature and axial strain in the deck.

Dead + Superimposed Dead Loading (per metre width of deck)

SLS = Serviceability Limit State

ULS = Ultimate Limit State

Design SLS moment = ∑Gkj =

2
(16.3 + 3.7) x 12 / 8 = 360 kNm
Design ULS moment = ∑(γGjGkj) =
[(1.35 x 16.3)+(1.2 x 3.7)] x 122 / 8] = 476 kNm

Variable Actions (per metre width of deck)

Traffic Group gr1a

Footway loading will not affect the unit strip loading.
 Moment at leading axle =
5.5x(6x6.3 - 6.32/2) + 100x5.7x(6.3 + 5.1)/12 = 640 kNm
Design SLS moment
characteristic combination = Qk1 = 640 kNm
Design ULS moment
= γQ1Qk1 = 1.35 x 640 = 864 kNm

Traffic Group gr5

Model LM1 is positioned 5m clear of LM3 and will be off the deck.

Moment at X =
143.4 x 5.7 - 50.3 x (2.4 + 1.2) = 636kNm
Design SLS moment characteristic
combination = Qk1 = 636 < 640 kNm ∴ gr1a governs
Design ULS moment
= γQ1Qk1 = 1.35 x 636 = 859 < 864 kNm ∴ gr1a governs

Combinations of Actions

a) Ultimate Limit State

Ed = E(ΣγGjGkj + γpP + γQ,1Qk,1 + ΣγQ,iΨ0,iQk,i)
Design ULS mid span moment =
476 + 0 + 864 + 0 = 1340 kNm

b) Serviceability Limit State

Characteristic Combination
Ed = E(ΣGkj + P + Qk,1 + ΣΨ0,iQk,i)
Design SLS mid span moment =
360 + 0 + 640 + 0.6 x (differential temperature effects)
=
1000 kNm + 0.6 x (differential temperature effects)
Quasi-permanent Combination
Ed = E(ΣGkj + P + ΣΨ2,iQk,i)
Design SLS mid span moment =
360 + 0 + 0 = 360 kNm

Ultimate Capacity of Deck Slab

Ultimate Design Moment = 1340 kNm

EN 1992-1-1
& EN 1992-2
It is usual to design reinforced concrete for the ultimate limit state and check for serviceability
conditions.
cl. 3.1.6(101)P
Design compressive strength = fcd = αccfck / γc
cl. 3.1.7
αcc = 0.85
cl. 2.4.2.4
Table 2.1N γc = 1.5
γs = 1.15
fcd = 0.85 x 32 / 1.5 = 18.1 N/mm2
Table 3.1
εc2 = 0.002
εcu2 = 0.0035
n = 2.0
Try 32mm dia. reinforcement at 125mm centres:
Nominal cover to reinforcement in deck soffit = 60mm
Fig. 3.3
Using parabolic-rectangular diagram:
Average stress fav = fcd[1-εc2 / {εcu2(n+1)}] = 18.1 x [1 - 0.002 / {0.0035 x (2 + 1)}] = 14.7 N/mm 2
Assuming steel yields then:
M = fsz = fykAsz / γs = Fcz = favbXz
Depth to neutral axis X = fykAs / (favbγs)
X = 500 x 6434 / (14.7 x 1000 x 1.15) = 190.6mm

Check that steel will yield:

Cl. 3.2.7(4)
Modulus of Elasticity Es = 200 kN/mm2
Steel strain at yield = εs,yield = fyk / γs / Es = 500 / 1.15 / 200000 = 0.00217
from linear strain relationship:
εs = εcu2(d/X - 1) = 0.0035 ( 574 / 190.6 -1) = 0.007 > 0.00217 ∴ steel will yield.

Hence Mult = favbXz = favbX(d - βX)

Where β = 1 - [0.5εcu22 - εc22 / {(n+1)(n+2)}] / [εcu22 - εcu2εc2 / (n+1)]
β = 1 - [0.5 x 0.00352 - 0.0022 / {(2+1)x(2+2)}] / 0.00352 - 0.0035 x 0.002 / (2+1)] = 0.416
Mult = 14.7 x 1000 x 190.6 x (574 - 0.416 x 190.6) x 10 -6 = 1386 kNm > 1340 ∴ OK

Check Serviceability Limit State

Characteristic Combination SLS Design Moment = 1000 kNm (360 + 640) + 0.6 x (differential temperature
effects)

Check stresses in the concrete and reinforcement at:

i) Early Age (before creep has occurred)
ii) Long term after all the creep has taken place.
i) Before creep has occurred the cracked section properties will be based on the short-term modulus for
all actions.
EN 1992-1-1
Table 3.1
Ecm = 22[(fck + 8) / 10]0.3 = 22[(32 + 8) / 10]0.3 = 33.4 kN/mm2
Ec,eff = Ecm = 33.4 kN/mm2
Modular Ratio m = Es / Ecm = 200 / 33.4 = 6.0
Let dc = depth to neutral axis then equating strains for cracked section:
εs = εc(d - dc) / dc
Equating forces:
AsEsεs = 0.5bdcεcEc,eff
Hence dc = [-AsEs + {(AsEs)2 + 2bAsEsEc,effd}0.5] / bEc,eff
dc = [-6434x200000 + {(6434x200000)2) + 2x1000x6434x200000x33400x574}0.5] / (1000x33400) =
175mm
Cracked second moment of area = As(d-dc)2 + Ec,effbdc3 / 3Es
INA = 6434 x (574 - 175)2 + 33.4 x 1000 x 1753 / (3 x 200) = 1.32 x 109 mm4 (steel units)
Concrete stress σc = M / zc + 0.6 x (differential temperature effects)
σc = {1000 x 106 x 175 / (1.32 x 109 x 6.0)} + (0.6 x 2.49) = 22.1 + 1.5 = 23.6 N/mm 2 (Heating temperature
difference)
cl. 7.2(102)
Limiting concrete stress = k1fck
k1 = 0.6
Limiting concrete stress = 0.6 x 32 = 19.2 N/mm2 < 23.6 ∴ Fail

The concrete strength class will need to be increased to class C40/50

Re-working the example gives:
Ecm = 35.2 kN/mm2 m = 5.7 dc = 171 mm INA = 1.34 x 109 mm4 σc = 22.4 + 1.5 = 23.9 N/mm2
Limiting stress = 0.6 x 40 = 24 N/mm2 > 23.9 ∴ OK

EN 1992-1-1
ii) After all creep has taken place the cracked section properties will be based on the long-term and short-
term modulus for the various actions.
Short-term modulus = Ecm
Long-term modulus = Ecm / (1+φ)
Effective modulus Ec,eff = (Mqp + Mst)Ecm / {Mst + (1 + φ)Mqp}
Table 3.1
fcm = fck + 8 = 40 + 8 = 48 N/mm2
Cl. 3.1.4
Relative humidity of the ambient environment = 80% (outside conditions)
Age of concrete at initial loading t0 = 6 days (when soffit formwork is released)
Annex B
(B.6)&(B.8c)
h0 = 650
α1 = [35 / fcm]0.7 = [35 / 48]0.7 = 0.80
α2 = [35 / fcm]0.2 = [35 / 48]0.2 = 0.94
(B.3b)
φRH = [1 + α1 x {(1 - RH / 100) / (0.1 x h01/3)}] x α2 = [1 + 0.8 x {(1 - 80 / 100) / ( 0.1 x 650 1/3)}] x 0.94 = 1.113
(B.4)
β(fcm) = 16.8 / fcm0.5 = 16.8 / 480.5 = 2.425
(B.5)
β(t0) = 1 / (0.1 + t00.2) = 1 / ( 0.1 + 60.2) = 0.653
(B.2)
φ0 = φRH x β(fcm) x β(t0) = 1.113 x 2.425 x 0.653 = 1.762
Moment due to long-term actions = Mqp = 360 kNm
Moment due to short-term actions = Mst = 640 kNm
Hence Effective Modulus Ec,eff = {(360 + 640) x 35.2} / {640 + 360 x ( 1 + 1.762)} = 21.5 kN/mm 2
Modular Ratio m = Es / Ec,eff = 200 / 21.5 = 9.3
Let dc = depth to neutral axis then equating strains for cracked section:
εs = εc(d - dc) / dc
Equating forces:
AsEsεs = 0.5bdcεcEc,eff
Hence dc = [-AsEs + {(AsEs)2 + 2bAsEsEc,effd}0.5] / bEc,eff
dc = [-6434x200000 + {(6434x200000)2) + 2x1000x6434x200000x21500 x574}0.5] / (1000x21500) =
209mm
Cracked second moment of area = As(d-dc)2 + Ec,effbdc3 / 3Es
INA = 6434 x (574 - 209)2 + 21.5 x 1000 x 2093 / (3 x 200) = 1.18 x 109 mm4 (steel units)
Concrete stress σc = M / zc + 0.6 x (differential temperature effects)
σc = {1000 x 106 x 209 / (1.18 x 109 x 9.3)} + (0.6 x 2.49) = 19.1 + 1.5 = 20.6 N/mm 2 (Heating temperature
difference)
cl. 7.2(102)
Limiting concrete stress = k1fck
k1 = 0.6
Limiting concrete stress = 0.6 x 40 = 24.0 N/mm2 > 20.6 ∴ OK

cl. 7.2(5)
Limiting steel stress = k3fyk
k3 = 0.8
Limiting steel stress = 0.8 x 500 = 400 N/mm2
Tensile stress due to cooling temperature difference =
9.3x[{(1.52+0.06)x(130-60-16)/130}-0.06] = 5.5 N/mm 2
Steel stress σs = M / zs + 0.6 x (differential temperature effects)
σs = {1000 x 106 x (574 - 209) / (1.18 x 109)} + (0.6 x 5.5) = 309 + 3 = 312 N/mm 2 < 400 ∴ OK

Crack Control:
Consider worst condition before creep has occurred and
Quasi-Permanent Combination Moment = 360 kNm (no secondary effects from temperature difference as
deck is simply supported single span)
Cl. 7.3.4(1)
Crack width wk = sr,max(εsm - εcm)
Cl. 7.3.4(3)
Spacing Limit = 5(c+φ/2) = 5(60 + 32/2) = 380mm > 125mm ∴:
sr,max = k3c + k1k2k4φ / ρp,eff
k1 = 0.8 (high bond bars)
k2 = 0.5 (for bending)
k3 = 3.4 (recommended value)
k4 = 0.425 (recommended value)
Cl. 7.3.2(3)
hc,eff is the lesser of:
i) 2.5(h-d) = 2.5(650 - 574) = 190
ii) (h-x)/3 = (650 - 175) / 3 = 158
iii) h/2 = 650 / 2 = 325
∴ hc,eff = 158 mm
and Ac,eff = 158 x 1000 = 158000 mm2
Cl. 7.3.4(2)
ρp,eff = As / Ac,eff = 6434 / 158000 = 0.0407
sr,max = k3c + k1k2k4φ / ρp,eff
sr,max = (3.4 x 60) + (0.8 x 0.5 x 0.425 x 32) / 0.0407 = 204 + 134 = 338
Cl. 7.3.4(2)
(εsm - εcm) = [σs - {ktfct,eff(1 + αeρp,eff) /ρp,eff}] / Es ≥ 0.6σs / Es
kt = 0.4 for permanent loading (no short-term loading included in design moment of 360 kNm)
αe = Es / Ecm = 200 / 35.2 = 5.7
σs = 360 x 106 x (574 - 171) / (1.34 x 109) = 108 N/mm2
Table 3.1
fct,eff = fctm = 3.5 N/mm2
(εsm - εcm) = [108 - {0.4 x 3.5 x (1 + 5.7 x 0.0407) / 0.0407}] / 200000 = 0.328 x 10 -3
0.6σs / Es = 0.6 x 108 / 200000 = 0.324 x 10-3 < 0.328 x 10-3 ∴ OK
Crack width wk = sr,max(εsm - εcm) = 338 x 0.328 x 10-3 = 0.11 mm
NA EN 1992-2
Table NA.2
Recommended value of wmax = 0.3 mm > 0.11 mm ∴ OK
Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for the mid span. The concrete strength class will need
to be C40/50

Shear Design

Shear is designed for ultimate limit state.

cl. 5.4.4
VEd = shear force due to ultimate actions.
Maximum VEd due to permanent actions = Σ(γGjGkj) = [(1.35 x 16.3) + (1.2 x 3.7)] x 12 / 2 = 159 kN
Traffic Group gr1a

Cl. 6.2.2(6)
Reduction factor β for tandem axle at support = av / 2d = 0.5d / 2d = 0.25
Minimum reduction is applied at 2d = 2 x 0.574 = 1.148m from support
Only one axle should be considered for reduced load effect (see PD 6687-2:2008 Cl. 7.2.2)
Maximum VEd due to gr1a = Σ(γQ1Qk1) = 1.35 x [100 x (0.25 + 10.8/ 12) + (5.5 x 6.0)] = 188 kN

Traffic Group gr5

TS axles of LM1 are not fully on the deck ∴ ignore the load effects from these axles [see EN 1991-2
Clause 4.3.2(1a)]

Cl. 6.2.2(6)
Reduction factor β for axle at support = av / 2d = 0.5d / 2d = 0.25
Minimum reduction is applied at 2d = 2 x 0.574 = 1.148m from support
Only one axle should be considered for reduced load effect (see PD 6687-2:2008 Cl. 7.2.2)
Maximum VEd due to gr5 = Σ(γQ1Qk1) = 1.35x{50.3x[0.25+(10.8+9.6+8.4+7.2+6)/12]+5.5x1.0x0.5/12} = 255 kN

Maximum VEd from variable actions is from traffic group gr5 = 255 kN
Maximum Combination VEd = Σ(γGjGkj + γQ1Qk1) = 159 + 255 = 414 kN

Cl. 6.2.2(101)
Shear Capacity of Slab: Try B32 dia. reinforcement @ 125c/c
VRd,c = [CRd,ck(100ρ1fck)1/3]bwd
CRd,c = 0.18 / γc = 0.18 / 1.5 = 0.12
k = 1 + (200 / d)0.5 ≤2.0
k = 1 + (200 / 574)0.5 = 1.59 < 2.0
ρ1 = Asl / bwd ≤0.02
ρ1 = 6434 / (1000 x 574) = 0.011 < 0.02
Cl. 3.1.2(102)P
fck = 40 ( < Cmax = C50/60)
VRd,c = [0.12 x 1.59 x (100 x 0.011 x 40)1/3] x 1000 x 574 x 10-3 = 387 kN ( < 414 kN Fail : see below)
Minimum VRd,c = (vmin)bwd = 0.035k3/2fck1/2bwd = 0.035 x 1.593/2 x 401/2 x 1000 x 574 x 10-3 = 255 kN
cl 6.2.2(6)
Check that the maximum allowable shear force is not exceeded:
Maximum allowable shear force = 0.5bwdνfcd
ν = 0.6[1 - fck / 250] = 0.6 x [1 - 40 / 250] = 0.504
fcd = αccfck/γc
αcc = 1.0 [see NA to Cl. 3.1.6(101)P]
fcd = 1.0 x 40 / 1.5 = 26.7 N/mm2
Maximu VEd = 0.5 x 1000 x 574 x 0.504 x 26.7 x 10 -3 = 3857 kN >> 414 kN
VRd,c = 387 kN < VEd = 414 kN ∴ Fail. It would be necessary to increase the longitudinal reinforcement to
B40 at 125 c/c however the UK National Annex allows an alternative approach.
NA to 1992-2
Cl. 6.2.2(101)
Alternative Solution:
If the reduction factor β is not used to reduce the applied shear force actions then the allowable shear
force VRd,c may be enhanced if the section being considered is within 2d of the support.
Traffic Group gr5
Ignore effects from LM1

i) Consider a section at d (a = 0.574m) from the support :

Maximum ULS shear force due to gr5 = 1.35x[50.3x(11.426+10.226+9.026+7.826+6.626+5.426)/12] = 286
kN
Maximum VEd from permanent actions = {[(1.35x16.3)+(1.2x3.7)]x12/2} - {0.574x[(1.35x16.3)+(1.2x3.7)]} =
143 kN
Maximum Combination VEd = Σ(γGjGkj + γQ1Qk1) = 143 + 286 = 429 kN
Enhanced CRd,c = (0.18/γc) x (2d/a) = (0.18 / 1.5) x 2 = 0.24 kN
VRd,c = [CRd,ck(100ρ1fck)1/3]bwd
VRd,c = [0.24 x 1.59 x (100 x 0.011 x 40)1/3] x 1000 x 574 x 10-3 = 773 kN ( > 429 kN ∴ OK)
ii) Consider a section at 2d (a = 1.148m say 1.15m) from the support (no enhancement):
Maximum ULS shear force due to gr5 = 1.35 x [50.3 x (10.85 + 9.65 + 8.45 + 7.25 + 6.05 + 4.85) / 12] = 267
kN
Maximum VEd from permanent actions = {[(1.35x16.3)+(1.2x3.7)]x12/2} - {1.15x[(1.35x16.3)+(1.2x3.7)]} = 128
kN
Maximum Combination VEd = Σ(γGjGkj + γQ1Qk1) = 128 + 267 = 395 kN
VRd,c = 387 kN ≈ 395 kN (2% error say OK for conservative nature of unit strip analysis)

Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for shear at the ends of the deck.

Note: Intermediate sections between mid span and the ends of the deck will have a smaller moment than
at mid span and a small shear than at the ends of the deck. These sections need to be checked to
determine where the reinforcement may be reduced to B25 at 125c/c.
cl. 7.3.2(2)
Minimum area of reinforcement As,min = kckfct,effAct / σct
kc = 0.4
k = 1.0 - {[(h - 300) / (800 - 300)] x (1.0 - 0.65)} = 0.755
Table 3.1
fct,eff = fctm = 3.5 N/mm2
Act = 1000 x 650 / 2 = 325000 mm2
σs = fyk = 500 N/mm2
As,min = 0.4 x 0.755 x 3.5 x 325000 / 500 = 687 mm 2
cl. 9.2.1.1(1)
Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement As,min = 0.26btdfctm / fyk > 0.0013btd
As,min = 0.26 x 1000 x 574 x 3.5 / 500 = 1045 mm 2
0.0013btd = 0.0013 x 1000 x 574 = 746 > 1045 ∴ OK

Hence minimum longitudinal steel (bottom of slab) = B16 @ 125 c/c (A s = 1608 mm2 > 1045)
Minimum distribution steel = B12 @ 125 c/c longitudinally (A s = 905 mm2 > 687) & B12 @ 150 c/c
transversely (As = 754 mm2 > 687)