Subject Code: ASC 372 Subject Title: HEAT TRANSFER

UNIT –III
PART – A
1. Define Radiation heat transfer.
Radiation is a mode of heat transfer occurring due to temperature difference even in
vacuum where heat is carried away by electromagnetic waves.
Example:
• Heat transfer from filament bulb
• Heat transfer from sun

2. What is Stefan's Boltzman law?

Radiation is governed by Stefan Boltzman’s law. It states that “Heat transfer is directly
proportional to area and fourth power of absolute temperature.”

Q α AT4 (or) Q = σ AT4

Where,
Q = Heat transfer rate in J/s or Watts
A = Cross sectional area in m2
T = Absolute Temperature in K
σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x10-8 W/m2 K4

Radiation is governed by Stefan-Boltzman’s law. It states that “Emissive power of a

Black body is directly proportional to fourth power of absolute temperature.”
Eb α T4 (or) Eb = σ T4 (Page 90 Data Book)
Where,
Eb = Emissive power in W/ m2
T = Absolute Temperature in K
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x10-8 W/m2 K4
3. Explain view factor / Define Shape factor.
• Shape factor is defined as a geometrical parameter which is a function of
receiving body’s area, separation and location.
• Radiation shape factor is also known as view factor, angle factor, configuration
factor and geometric configuration factor.
• It is defined as the fraction of radiant energy that is diffused from one surface
element to another without any reflections.
Range of shape factor, F12: 0 < F12 < 1

4. Explain shape factor variation with respect to area, separation and location.
Area of receiving body: Shape factor is directly proportional to area of receiving body
Separation: Shape factor is inversely proportional to separation
Location: If the receiving body is in line with emitting body, shape factor is less,
provided separation is same for both in line and not in line condition

5. What is Radiation Shield?

Radiation shields are nothing but same configuration material as that of the emitting and
absorbing body placed in between them to decrease the heat transfer by radiation.
Uses:
• Insulation of cryogenic storage tanks
• Measurement of fluid temperature by a thermometer

6. What is thermal radiation and what is its wavelength band?

Thermal radiation is defined as the transfer of energy across a system by means of
electromagnetic waves which is caused by temperature difference.
Range of wavelength band is 0.1µm < λ < 100 µm. (Page 90 Data Book)
7. Define emissive power.
At the given temperature the total amount of heat energy emitted by a surface over
entire wave length per unit time, per unit area is called as emissive power. It is given
by Eb = Q/A. Its unit is W/m2.
8. Define spectral emissive power or monochromatic emissive power.
At the given temperature the total amount of heat energy emitted by a surface about a
particular wave length per unit time, per unit area, per unit wave length is called as
spectral emissive power. It is denoted as (Eb)λ and its unit is W/m2-µ

9. Define Maxwell’s theory or Electromagnetic theory.

The energy is transferred from hot to cold body in the form of electromagnetic waves,
which posses the energy emitted by a body as a result of change in electronic
configuration of atoms or molecules. These waves travel with speed of light.
c = speed of light in a medium = λ ν
Where,
λ = Wave length in µm
ν = Frequency of quantum or photons.
c = co = 3 x108 m/s (In vaccum) (Page 90 Data Book)

10. Define photons.

It is a particle having energy, mass and momentum like the molecule of a gas.
Energy, E = mco2 = hν
Mass, m = hν / co2
Momentum, m .co = hν / co

11. What is intensity of radiation?

At a given temperature, the total amount of radiation emitted by a black body over
an entire wavelength per unit time per unit area per unit solid angle is called
radiation intensity.
Radiation Intensity, Ib = Q / (Ax Solid angle) in W/m2-Sr
Where,
Q = Heat transfer rate in J/s or Watts
A = Cross sectional area in m2
Sr = Steradian = Unit of solid angle
12. What is spectral intensity of radiation?
At a given temperature, the total amount of radiation emitted by a black body about a
particular wavelength, per unit time, per unit area, per unit solid angle, per unit wave
length is called spectral radiation intensity.
Radiation Intensity, (Ib)λ = Q / (A x Solid angle x λ) in W/m2- µ Sr
Where,
Q = Heat transfer rate in J/s or Watts
A = Cross sectional area in m2
Sr = Steradian = Unit of solid angle
λ = Wave length in micron (µ)

13. Define solid angle.

The solid angle (dω) is defined as the ratio of the area of spherical surface enclosed by
the conical surface forming the angle to the square of the radius of the sphere. It is given
by,
dω = d A
r2

14. Define concept of black body.

Black body is defined as a body which is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation, it is
an ideal surface having the following properties:
• A black body absorbs all incident radiation from all directions at all
wavelengths.
• For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more
energy than a black body.
• A black body neither reflects nor transmits any amount of incident
radiation.
15. Define concept of gray body.
Gray body is defined as the body whose absorptivity (α) of a surface does not vary with
temperature and wavelength of incident radiation. For a gray body monochromatic
emisssivity ε λ, is independent of wavelength (ε = ε λ = constant).
16. Define Irradiation.
Irradiation (G) is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per
unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.

17. Define Radiosity.

Radiosity (J) is the total radiant energy leaving a surface per unit area per unit time. It has
two parts, one is emitted (ε Eb) and other one is reflected (ρG) by the surface.
J = ε Eb + ρG

18. What is the equation for radiation between two gray bodies?
Let there be two gray bodies of emissivities ε 1 and ε 2. The equation for radiation is
given by
Q12 = Eb1 – Eb2
R1 + R + R 2
Where,
R1 = (1- ε 1) / A1 ε1 = Emissive Surface Resistance
R = 1 / A1 F12 = Shape factor Resistance
R2 = (1- ε 2) / A2 ε2 = Emissive Surface Resistance
19. Define Emissivity of a surface.
Emissivity of a surface is defined as the ratio of actual heat emitted to that of the
maximum heat incident on it.
It is also defined as the ratio of emissive power to that of the black body emissive power.
ε= Heat Emitted = Q / Qmax = E / Eb (Page 90 Data Book)
Max. Heat Incident
20. Define monochromatic emissivity.
It is defined as the ratio of monochromatic emissive power to that of the maximum
monochromatic emissive power of a black body.
ελ = (Eb)λ / (Eb)λ max

21. Give the values of emissivity for white, black and gray surfaces.
Emissivity of white surface, ε = 0
Emissivity of black surface, ε = 1
Emissivity of gray surface, 0< ε < 1

22. The emissivity of a polished silver body is lower as compared to black body.

23. Distinguish between reflection, absorption and transmission of radiation.

Reflection: It is the process of redirecting or reflecting the incident radiation upon a
surface.
Transmission: It is the process of passing or transmitting the incident radiation through
the surface.
Absorption: It is the process of absorbing the incident radiation by the surface.

24. Distinguish between reflectivity, absorptivity and transmissivity of radiation.

Reflectivity (ρ): It is a fraction of incident radiation reflected by the surface.
ρ = Qρ / Q
Transmissivity (τ): It is a fraction of incident radiation transmitted through the surface.
τ = Qτ / Q
Absorptivity (α): It is a fraction of incident radiation absorbed by the surface.
α = Qα/Q
According to principle of conservation of energy, total sum equal to incident radiation
Therefore Q = Qρ + Qτ + Qα (or) Qα/Q + Qτ / Q + Qρ / Q = 1 (or) α + τ + ρ = 1

25. The absorptivity of a white body or non -absorbing surface is zero

26. The absorptivity of a black body or perfect absorbing surface is one

27. The transmissivity of a opaque surface is zero

28. The transmissivity of a transparent surface is one

29. The reflectivity of a non - reflecting surface is zero

30. The reflectivity of a white body or perfect reflecting surface is one

31. What is meant by Kirchhoff's law?

At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of total emissive power to its absorptivity is constant
for all bodies (or) At thermal equilibrium, absorptivity and emissivity of a body are
equal.
For a small body,
Radiation absorbed, Qα = σAT4. α
Radiation emitted, Q = σAT4. ε
At thermal equilibrium, Qα = Q (or) α = ε

32. Differentiate opaque body & perfectly transparent surface.

Opaque body is a body which does not allow radiation to pass through it at any extent.
On the other hand a perfectly transparent surface is a surface which can allow the entire
radiation incident on it to pass through the surface.

33. What is specular reflection?

It occurs from surface which is very smooth like a mirror. The angle of reflection is
equal to angle of incidence.
34. What is diffuse reflection?
It occurs from the surface which is very rough. The reflection from the surface occurs in
all direction (scattered).

35. Define Wien's displacement law. / Write down the Wien's formula /
Define Wien's first and second law.
Wien’s first law states that “Maximum wavelength is inversely proportional
to absolute temperature”
λmax α 1/T (or) λmax = 2898/T µm (or) λmax T = 2898 µmK (Page 90 Data Book)

Wien’s second law states that “Maximum spectral intensity is directly proportional
to fifth power of absolute temperature”
(Eb)λ max α T5 (or) (Eb)λ max = 1.307 x 10-15 x T5
36. Define Planck's distribution law. / Write down the Planck's formula.
At a given temperature, the relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a
Black body and wavelength of a radiation is given by the following expression.

(Eb)λ = c1λ-5 (Page 90 Data Book)

exp. (c2/λT) - 1
Where,
C1 = 0.37417 x 10-15 W/m2
C2 = 0.01438 mK
λ = Wavelength, m
37. What are the gases which radiate heat?
Gases like CO2, NO, CO, H2O, SO2, NH3 and Hydrocarbons, emit and absorb radiation to
a certain extent.
38. What are the gases which do not radiate heat at lower temperatures?
Gases like O2, N2, H2, and dry air, neither emit nor absorb any radiation at lower
temperatures.

39. What is mean beam length in Gas Radiation?

When two surfaces are exchanging radiation through a medium, the length of distance
traversed by radiation from different positions on the surface varies. A mean length is
taken to describe overall transmission from one surface to other.
The length from medium to surface is called mean beam length (Lms)

Lms = 3.6 x Volume of medium

Surface Area of medium

40. How does gas radiation differ from solids?

• The radiation from solids is at all wavelengths, whereas the gases radiate over
specific wave length range within the thermal spectrum.
• The intensity of gas radiation at any temperature is less than the black body
radiation. The gases absorb the incident radiation slowly, because emission and
absorption depend on gas layer thickness, pressure, temperature, shape and size.

41. Self absorption is zero for Flat plate & convex surface
42. Self absorption is not zero for Concave Surface
43. Give all the shape factors for a concentric sphere.
F11 = 0 (convex surface)
F22 ≠ 0 (concave surface)
2
F11 + F12 = 1
Therefore F12 = 1 1
F21 + F22 = 1
Therefore F21 ≠ 1
44. Give the shape factor F12 & F21 for body-1 finite and body-2 infinite.
F12 = 1/2
1
F22 = 1

2
to ∞ to ∞

45. Give the shape factor F12 & F21 for two infinite surfaces.
F12 = F21 = 1 to ∞

1 2

to ∞

46. Explain reciprocity rule.

It is used in determining one view factor, if we know the other. If heat
exchange takes place between body 1 and 2, the reciprocity rule is given by
A1F12 = A2F21
Where,
A1 = Cross sectional area of body 1 in m2
A2 = Cross sectional area of body 2 in m2
F12 = Shape factor for heat exchange between body 1 to 2
F21 = Shape factor for heat exchange between body 2 to 1

47. Explain summation rule.

If an enclosure consist of ‘n’ surfaces, as per the principle of conservation of energy,
The entire radiation leaving surface ‘1’ must be absorbed by all other surfaces. Therefore
The sum of view factors from surfaces ‘1’ to all other surfaces including itself must be
unity. This is known as “summation rule” and it is given by, Σ Fij = 1
F11 + F12 + F13 +……..+ F1n = 1 (for i =1, j = 1 to n)
F21 + F22 + F2 3+……..+ F1n = 1 (for i =2, j = 1 to n)
48. Explain symmetry rule.
The identical surfaces ‘2’ and ‘3’ that are oriented with respect to surface ‘1’ will
intercept identical amount of radiation leaving surface ‘1’.
That is F12 = F13
1
2

49. Explain additive rule. / Explain superposition rule.

The view factor F12 between two surfaces A1 & A2 is equal to the sum of view factor
F13 & F14, if two areas A3 & A4 make up area A2 this is known as additive rule.
That is F12 = F13 + F14
A1F12 = A1 F13 + A1 F14 (multiply by A1)
A2F21 = A3 F31 + A4 F41 (by reciprocity rule)
A3 F21 + A4 F21 = A3 F31 + A4 F41 (since A2 = A3 + A4)

4
1
3

50. An alternate approach for analyzing thermal radiation between gray or black
surface is called electrical analogy.