GAMSAT CHEM NOTES

Pure Chemistry
Electronegativity and acids
- Electrons get pulled to electronegative regions, i.e. fluorine or chlorine
- Double bonds are very electronegative followed by triple bonds

Hybrid orbitals
- Happens when hydrogen bonds to carbon
- Count the number of groups of bonds (a double or triple bond only counts as 1)
o The spx total (number with – always 1- and number with p) gives number of
groups of bonds
Standard table of electronegativity
- The more positive the potential, the more likely the species is to gain electrons
o Therefore, we are more concerned with its form in the half reaction
- The more negative, the more likely it wants to lose electrons
o Therefore, these species are strong oxidants- reducing agents
 When we refer to them as oxidants we are thus more concerned with
their non-half reaction form
Condensation reaction
- A reaction that when occurs produces a water molecule as a product
- Same as a dehydration synthesis reaction
Hydrolysis
- The reverse of a condensation reaction
- It is a reaction that involves the addition of a water molecule
Hydration reaction
- A chemical reaction where a chemical is combined with water
Structural isomer
- Same chemical formula but arranged differently
o For example, fructose and glucose
Vapour pressure
- Vapour pressure of a liquid at a particular temperature is the pressure exerted by
the vapour when the vapour and the liquid are in dynamic equilibrium
o When the amount of vapour becoming liquid equals the amount of liquid
becoming vapour
 The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which
vapour pressure= 1 atm
Equilibrium concentrations

- Where the top half of the equation represents products and bottom half, reactants
o Superscripts represent the proportions of each in the reaction
- The 2nd fraction with kf and kb represent the constants for the forward reaction and
the backward reaction
Le Chatelier’s principle
- Le Chatelier’s principle: An equilibrium will shift to minimise a stress put on the
system
- Uses the same equation as the equilibrium constant but refers to a reaction which is
not at equilibrium

- When Q<K the reaction favours the forward reaction, when Q>K the reaction favours
the backward reaction
o Can also be used to predict if a reaction will favour a direction based on
temperature. For example if the reaction is exothermic, when temperature is
raised the equilibrium will move towards the backward reaction
 If the reaction is endothermic, a decrease in temperature will favour
the forward reaction
Acid definitions
- Arrhenius acid
o Something that releases hydrogen ions in water
o Arrhenius base is something that releases hydroxide ions in water
- Bronsted Lowrey
o Acid: Proton (H+) donor
o Base: Proton acceptor
- Lewis
o Lews acid= electron acceptor (a conventional base)
o Lewis base= electron donator
Conjugate acids and bases
- When a Bronsted acid dissociates in water it forms a base and vice versa
o A strong acid produces a weak base
o A weak acid produces a strong base
pH, pOH and Pkw

- Strong acids and strong bases have high K values as they tend to dissociate fully
Buffer solutions
- Solutions that resist pH changes when small amounts of acid or base are added
o An acid buffer: a weak acid with the common ion of its conjugate strong base
o A base buffer a weak base with the common ion of its conjugate strong acid
Ionisation energy
- Energy required to remove the loosest electron from an element
Neutralisation reaction
- Acid + Base-> Salt + Water
Order of reactions
- Zeroth order
o Reaction rate is independent of products or reactants, is constant
 - First order reaction
o Rate of reaction is directly proportionate to the concentration of a reacting
substance
- Second order reaction
o Reaction rate depends on two first order reactants or 1 first order reactants

Organic Chemistry
Cylcoalkane reactions
- Very electronegative products such as halogens (Cl-) replace whole side chains on
alkane rings
Naming alkenes
- Numbers are given first and indicate the position of double bonds
o Same goes for alkynes
Alcohols
- Primary alcohols are carbons with one R group and hydroxide
o Secondary alcohols have 2 R groups and hydroxide
 Tertiary have 3 R groups and one hydroxide
Naming carbons
- Primary carbon- a carbon attached to only one other carbon
- Secondary carbon- a carbon attached to two other carbons
- Applies or tertiary and quaternary carbons also
Thiols
- Contain a –SH group
Amines
- Derivates of NH3 in which one or more hydrogens are replaced by alkyl or aromatic
group

- Aliphatic/aromatic amines
o In aromatic amines- aromatic ring (carbon ring) is directly attached to amine
o In aliphatic amines- a carbon is attached the amines and has an aromatic ring
attached
- Heterocyclic
o When nitrogen Is part of a ring
Aromatic compounds
- Have rings of carbon (benzyl)
o Can have side groups attached:
Phenol
- Aromatic ring where one of the substituents is –OH
Aldehyde
- Carbon with double bonded O and a hydrogen attached
Ketone
- Carbons with just double bonded O
Amides
- Carbon with double bonded oxygen and nitrogen attached
Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharides: CNH2NON
- Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined together
- Oligosaccharides have 3 to 10 monosaccharides joined together
Nucleic acids
- Have phosphate and sugar backbone
o Have bases attached to sugar
Ka and pKa
- The higher the Ka the more something dissociates
- pKa is lower for strong acids (same formula as pH)

Isomers
- Molecular isomers are substances that have the same molecular formula but
different physical/chemical properties
- Stereoisomers- compounds with the same molecular formula but the connection
between their atoms differ in the position of these atoms in space
o Enantiomers- mirror images of each other
o Diasteoisomers- not mirror images of each other
Chiral carbons
- A carbon with 4 different groups attached
o Chirality refers to an object that cannot be superimposed on its mirror image
Cis & Trans
- Cis means the functional groups on the same side
- Trans means the functional groups are on opposite sides
 and  glucose
-  glucose hydrogen facing up after the oxygen (to the right of the oxygen)
 -  glucose has hydroxyl group facing up after (to the right of the oxygen)
Resonance
- The substances formed from reactions can exist in more than one bonding situation
o These theoretical bonding situations are called resonance forms