Title: Review of Progress Toward 20% Efficiency Flexible CIGS Solar Cells and Manufacturing Issues of Solar Modules

Author: Patrick Reinhard, A drian Chiriiii, Patrick Blasch, Fabian Pianezzi, Shiro Nishiwaki, Stephan Buecheler,
and Ayodhya N. Tiwari

Type of Research Paper: Review paper

Statement of Purpose: Improvements in efficiencies of flexible solar cells and modules achieved over the past few
decades are discussed in this paper, addressing the main characteristics of substrate materials. The technology transfer
from laboratory research to large-scale industrial production of CIGS modules leads to new manufacturing challenges,
mainly for CIGS deposition, interconnections of cells, and long-term performance stability. Whereas, some years back, it
seemed difficult to reach performance levels on flexible substrates similar to that obtained on glass, recent results on
flexible polyimide prove that the efficiency gap can be significantly reduced. Different materials, i.e., mostly metals or
plastics, have been used as flexible substrates, with highest cell efficiency demonstrated on a polyimide film.

Methodology:

Detailed study of chalcopyrite based solar cells : These cells were first developed using CuInSe2 absorber material, but it
quickly became clear that the addition of Ga can be used to tune the band gap to values between 1.04 eV for CuInSe2 and
1.68 eV for CuGaSe2. Best-in-class devices are typically grown with a Ga/(Ga+Jn) ratio of 0.25 to 0.35, corresponding to a
band gap of approximately 1.1-1.24 e V. The substrate material has to be chosen in view of its thermo-mechanical
properties, as well as its compatibility with the subsequent deposition steps and integration into a solar module.

Finding out the Flexible substrate material: Stability and compatibility of the substrate material through the whole
production process and operational lifetime of solar modules are mandatory requirements. Demands such as vacuum
compatibility, thermal stability, suitable coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), chemical inertness, humidity barrier
function, and surface smoothness have to be fulfilled. Availability in large quantities, low cost, and light weight are also
necessary for an optimal substrate material. For comparison, soda-lime glass (SLG) is included as a standard rigid substrate.
Typical parameters of the constituent layers of CIGS solar cells are given. Motivated by the need for good adhesion,
suitability with the best deposition method, as well as low weight (especially for space applications), material properties
such as CTE, maximum suitable temperature, and density are also provided. As flexible substrates, mostly metals and
special polymers have been used. Metals have the advantage of being able to withstand very high deposition temperature,
but they generally have rather high density, roughness, and CTE. One of the major advantages of polymeric substrates is
their electrically insulating property. It allows for direct monolithic integration of solar cells, developing modules through
successive patterning of layers in-between the different deposition steps. On the other hand, solar cells deposited on metal
substrates have to be stringed and tabbed, as used in Si wafer based technology, or connected in a shingling-type
configuration.

Module Interconnections and Encapsulation: Monolithic integration is the most desirable way for interconnecting thin-film
solar cells and has been successfully implemented on glass, becoming a standard industrial process. Stringing and tabbing
is another method for interconnection comprising connection of individual cells by wiring as applied in Si wafer-based
technology. Solo-Power is using such an approach for cells grown on stainless steel substrates. A flexible transparent front
encapsulation should provide a very effective barrier against moisture. Transparent polymer such as ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA) is a material available as flexible film which also has good durability under UV irradiation and low price. However, the
water vapour transport rate (WVTR) of EVA is generally not sufficient for a 20-year lifetime of the current moisture
sensitive window layers.

Discussion:

Flexible CIGS solar cell companies are in a rather early phase of industrialization. Most of them with the exception of Global
Solar were founded after 2000. They are slowly ramping up production, but they still face several manufacturing issues.
The aim is rather to discuss the various technological approaches used for manufacturing and what results have been
obtained thus far. The nominal production capacities are given for comparison with rigid substrate manufacturers, even
though actual production might be much lower. Miasole has demonstrated the highest certified efficiency among all
flexible substrates (stainless steel), with an efficiency of 15.7% on a 1-m2 module. This has been achieved by a sputtering-
only process, a shingling approach for interconnection, and glass encapsulation. A fully flexible 15.5% commercial-size (1.68
m 2) module has also been reported by Miasole. Global Solar is the oldest representative of the companies working on
flexible substrates, but ISET was the first company to report development of flexible CIGS solar modules. Global Solar,
which is a spin-off from ITN Inc. (New York), started in 1996 with the development of CIGS solar cells on stainless steel
using a co-evaporation method. Solo-power also uses stainless steel substrate and employs a roll-to-roll electro-deposition
method for CIGS followed by an annealing step. Nano-solar produces glass laminated modules on coated Al foil. They use a
printing and subsequent selenization method for CIGS formation. Currently, production capacities of CIGS modules
deposited on flexible substrates remain small compared with CIGS modules deposited on SLG.

Conclusion:

CIGS solar cells efficiency of 18.7% has been achieved on polyimide using a co-evaporation method, whereas a
monolithically integrated mini-module with 14.8% efficiency has been demonstrated. Using metal foil substrates, highest
cell efficiency of 18.2% has been obtained on enameled mild steel, 17 .8% on titanium, and 17.7% on stainless steel. The
flexibility and lightweight of the produced modules open new fields of applications. From industrial production point of
view, CIGS solar cells on a flexible substrate enable the use of roll-to-roll manufacturing methods. High throughput in
production can thus be achieved due to the inherent characteristics of roll-to-roll deposition on thin foils, leading to
potential cost reduction of the modules. Low-cost flexible encapsulation materials with sufficient moisture blocking
properties need to be developed to guarantee long-term stability.

Referencing Style:

The Referencing style used in this paper is Vancouver style.