Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering Computing Panel

MKMM 1213 Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Vectors and the Geometry of Spaces

Dr. Mohd Fairus Mohd Yasin

[email protected]
C24-309

Originally prepared by:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abu Hasan
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Outline I

1 Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems

The Cartesian Coordinate System
Distance and Spheres in Space
2 Vectors
Component Form
Vector Algebra Operations
Unit Vectors
Position Vectors
Midpoint of a Line Segment
3 The Dot Product
Angle Between Vectors
Orthogonal Vectors
Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections
4 The Cross Product
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
Properties of the Cross Product
Area of a Parallelogram
Determinant Formula for u × v
Torque
Triple Scalar or Box Product
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Outline II

5 Lines and Planes in Space

Lines and Line Segments in Space
Distance from a Point to a Line in Space
Equation for a Plane in Space
Lines of Intersection
Distance from a Point to a Plane
Angles Between Planes

6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Cylinders
Quadric Surfaces

7 Bibliography

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Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems
The Cartesian Coordinate System

To locate a point in space, we use three

mutually perpendicular coordinate axes,
arranged as in Figure 1.
The axes shown there make a right-handed
coordinate frame.
Looking down on the xy-plane from the
positive direction of the z-axis, positive
angles in the plane are measured
counterclockwise from the positive x-axis
and around the positive z-axis.
The Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) of a Figure 1: The Cartesian coordinate
point P in space are the values at which the system is right-handed.
planes through P perpendicular to the axes
cut the axes.
Cartesian coordinates for space are also
called rectangular coordinates because the
axes that define them meet at right angles.

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Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems
The Cartesian Coordinate System

The planes in Figure 2 are determined by

the coordinates axes:
the xy-plane (blue), whose standard
equation is z = 0;
the yz-plane (green), whose standard
equation is x = 0; and
the xz-plane (brown), whose standard
equation is y = 0.
and meet at the origin (0, 0, 0), which is
identified by 0 or sometimes the letter O.
The three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0,
and z = 0 divide space into eight cells Figure 2: The planes x = 0, y = 0, and
called octants. The octant in which the z = 0 divide space into eight octants.
point coordinates are all positive is called
the first octant; there is no convention for
numbering the other seven octants.

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Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems
Distance and Spheres in Space

The formula for the distance between two points in 2-D plane extends to points in
3-D space, Figure 3. Hence, the distance between P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
p
|P1 P2 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (1)

Figure 3: Distance between P1 and P2 by applying the Pythagorean theorem.

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Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems
Distance and Spheres in Space

Eq. 1 can be used to write equation for a sphere in space, Figure 4. A point P(x, y, z)
lies on the sphere of radius a centered at P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) precisely when |P0 P| = a or

(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2 = a2 (2)

Figure 4: Sphere of radius a centred at the point x0 , y0 , z0 ).

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Vectors
Component Form

Two vectors are equal if they have

DEFINITION:
the same length and direction, as
The vector represented by the di-
⇀ shown in Figure 6.
rected line segment AB, Figure 5,
has initial point A and terminal
point B and its length is denoted
⇀
by |AB|.

⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
Figure 6: Equal vectors AB = CD = OP = EF.

⇀
Figure 5: The directed line segment AB is Vectors are used to represent things
called a vector. that have both magnitude and
direction in the plane or in space.

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Vectors
Component Form

DEFINITION:
⇀
Let v = PQ; see Figure 7.
If v is a two-dimensional vector in the
plane equal to the vector with initial
point at the origin and terminal point
(v1 , v2 ), then the component form of v
is
⇀
v = hv1 , v2 i Figure 7: A vector v = PQ in standard
If v is a three-dimensional vector in the position has its initial point at the origin.
space equal to the vector with initial
point at the origin and terminal point
(v1 , v2 , v3 ), then the component form Note: The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector
of v is 0 = h0, 0i or 0 = h0, 0, 0i. This vector is also the only
vector with no specific direction.
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i
⇀
The magnitude or length of vector v = PQ is the non-negative number:
q p
|v| = v21 + v22 + v23 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

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Vectors
Vector Algebra Operations

Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar
multiplication.
A scalar is simply a real number. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero and are
used to scale a vector by multiplication.

DEFINITION:
Let u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i be vectors with k a scalar
Addition

u + v = hu1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 i

Scalar multiplication

ku = hku1 , ku2 , ku3 i

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Vectors
Vector Algebra Operations

Figure 8: Vector addition (a) geometric interpretation, (b) the parallelogram law.

In Figure 8(a) the initial point The parallelogram law of vector addition is
of one vector is placed at the shown in Figure 8(b) where the sum, called
terminal point of the other. the resultant vector, is the diagonal of the
parallelogram.
In engineering, forces, velocities and accelerations add vectorially, e.g. the force
acting on a particle subject to two gravitational forces is obtained by adding the
two force vectors.

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Vectors
Vector Algebra Operations

Figure 9 displays a geometric Comparing the lengths of u and ku,

interpretation of the product ku of we see that
the scalar k and vector u. If k > 0, p
then ku has the same direction as u; |ku| = (ku1 )2 + (ku2 )2 + (ku3 )2
if k < 0, then the direction of ku is
q
= k2 (u21 + u22 + u23 )
opposite to that of u.
√ q
= k u21 + u22 + u23
= |k||u|

The length of ku is the absolute value

of the scalar k times the length of u.
The vector (−1)u = −u has the same
Figure 9: Scalar multiples of u. length as u but points in the opposite
direction.

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Vectors
Vector Algebra Operations

If u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i,

then

u − v = hu1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , u3 − v3 i

Note that (u − v) + v = u, so adding

the vector (u − v) to v gives u, see
Figure 10(a).
Figure 10(b) shows the difference
u − v as the sum u + (−v).

Figure 10: (a) The vector u − v, when added

to v, gives u. (b) u − v = u + (−v).

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Vectors
Properties of Vector Operations

Let u, v, w be vectors and a, b be scalars.

u+v=v+u (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
u+0=u u + (−u) = 0
0u = 0 1u = u
a(bu) = (ab)u a(u + v) = au + av
(a + b)u = au + bu

When three or more space vectors lie in the same plane, we say they are coplanar
vectors. For example, the vectors u, v, and u + v are always coplanar.

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Vectors
Unit Vectors

A vector v of length 1 is called a unit In component form, the vector from

vector. The standard unit vectors are P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), in
Figure 11, is
i = h1, 0, 0i , j = h0, 1, 0i , k = h0, 0, 1i
⇀
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 )i + (y2 − y1 )j
Vector v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i can be written + (z2 − z1 )k
as a combination of standard unit
vectors:
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i
= hv1 , 0, 0i + h0, v2 , 0i + h0, 0, v3 i
= v1 h1, 0, 0i + v2 h0, 1, 0i
+ v3 h0, 0, 1i
= v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
where v1 , v2 and v3 are the i-, j- and
k-component of v, respectively.
v/|v| is a unit vector in the direction
of v, called the direction of the Figure 11: The vector from P1 to P2 .
nonzero vector v.

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Vectors
Midpoint of a Line Segment

The midpoint of a line segment are

found by averaging.
The midpoint M of the line segment
joining points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is the point
“x + x y + y z + z ”
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
2 2 2
Observe in Figure 13 that
⇀ ⇀ ⇀
OM = OP1 + 21 (P1 P2 ) Figure 13: The coordinates of the midpoint are
the averages of the coordinates of P1 and P2 .
⇀ ⇀ ⇀
= OP1 + 21 (OP2 − OP1 )
⇀ ⇀
= 21 (OP2 + OP1 )
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
= i+ j+ k
2 2 2

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Vectors
Midpoint of a Line Segment: Centroid of a triangle

Example: Consider a triangle ABC

where a, b, c are the position vectors
of A, B, C, respectively. The centroid,
G, of this triangle is the point of
intersection of its medians, i.e. G is
the point which divides CD in the
ratio 2 : 1, D being the midpoint of
AB.
Figure 14: The position vector of the centroid
of a triangle.

Hence
⇀ ⇀
⇀ 2OD + OC ⇀ a+b
OG = and OD =
3 2
Therefore
⇀
OG = 13 (a + b + c)

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The Dot Product
Angle Between Vectors

How does one calculate the angle

between two vectors directly from
their components?
Example: If a force F is applied to a
particle moving along a path, we
often need to know the magnitude of
the force in the direction of motion.
If v is parallel to the tangent line to
the path at the point where F is
applied, then we want the magnitude
of F in the direction of v. Figure 15 Figure 15: The magnitude of the force F in the
direction of vector v is the length F cos θ of the
shows that the scalar quantity we
projection of F onto v.
seek is the length |F| cos θ, where θ is
the angle between the two vectors F
and v.

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The Dot Product
Angle Between Vectors

When two nonzero vectors u and v Theorem 1:

are placed so their initial points Angle Between Two Vectors
coincide, they form an angle θ of The angle θ between two nonzero
measure 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, see Figure 16. vectors u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i is given by
„ «
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
θ = cos−1
|u||v|

DEFINITION:
The dot product u · v (“u dot v”) of
vectors u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i is the scalar
Figure 16: The angle between u and v.
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3

Hence,
„ «
u·v
θ = cos−1
|u||v|

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The Dot Product
Angle Between Vectors

Proof of Theorem 1: Therefore

Applying the law of cosines to the
triangle in Figure 17, 2|u||v| cos θ = . . .
|u||v| cos θ = . . .
|w|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 − 2|u||v| cos θ
cos θ = . . .
we find that
Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, we have
2|u||v| cos θ = |u|2 + |v|2 − |w|2
θ = cos−1 . . .
Because w = u − v, component form
of w is hu1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , u3 − v3 i. So
„q «2
|u|2 = u21 + u22 + u23 = u21 + u22 + u33
„q «2
|v|2 = v21 + v22 + v23 = v21 + v22 + v33

|w|2 = . . .
and
|u|2 + |v|2 − |w|2 = . . . Figure 17: The parallelogram law of addition
of vectors gives w = u − v.

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The Dot Product
Orthogonal Vectors

Two nonzero vectors u and v are The converse is also true. If u and v
perpendicular if the angle between are nonzero vectors with
them is π/2. For such vectors, we u · v = |u||v| cos θ = 0, then cos θ = 0
have u · v = 0 because cos π/2 = 0. and θ = cos−1 0 = π/2.

DEFINITION:
Vectors u and v are orthogonal if u · v = 0.

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The Dot Product
Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections

The following “dot product” properties hold, if u, v, w are vectors and c is scalar:
u·v=v·u Property 1
(cu) · v = u · (cv) = c(u · w) Property 2
u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w Property 3
(u · u) = |u|2 Property 4
0·u =0 Property 5

Proof of Property 1
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = v1 u1 + v2 u2 + v3 u3
= v·u
Proof of Property 3
u · (v + w)
= hu1 , u2 , u3 i · hv1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , v3 + w3 i
= u1 (v1 + w1 ) + u2 (v2 + w2 ) + u3 (v3 + w3 )
= u1 v1 + u1 w1 + u2 v2 + u2 w2 + u2 v3 + u3 w3
= (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ) + (u1 w1 + u2 w2 + u3 w3 )
= u·v+u·w
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The Dot Product
Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections

⇀
The notation for the vector projection
The vector projection of u = PQ onto
⇀ ⇀ of u onto v is
a nonzero vector v = PS, is vector PR,
determined by dropping a projv u
perpendicular from Q to line PS, see
Figure 18. If u represents a force, then projv u
represents the effective force in the
direction of v, see Figure 19.

Figure 18: The parallelogram law of Figure 19: The parallelogram law of addition
addition of vectors gives w = u − v. of vectors gives w = u − v.

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The Dot Product
Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections

If the angle θ between u and v is In both cases the vector projection of

acute, projv u has length |u| cos θ and u onto v is the vector
direction v/|v|, see Figure 20. v
projv u = (|u| cos θ)
|v|
If the angle θ between u and v is „ «
u·v v
obtuse, cos θ < 0 and projv u has =
length −|u| cos θ and direction |v| |v|
„ «
−v/|v|. u·v
= v
|v|2

The scalar component of u in the

direction of v is the scalar
|u||v| cos θ
|u| cos θ =
|v|
Figure 20: The length of projv u is (a) u·v v
|u| cos θ if θ is acute, and (b) −|u| cos θ if = =u·
θ is obtuse. |v| |v|

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The Dot Product
Work

A constant force of magnitude F

moving an object through a distance
d is W = Fd. This formula holds only
if the force is directed along the line
of motion.
If a force F moving an object through
⇀ Figure 21: The work done by a constant force
a displacement D = PQ has some F during a displacement D.
other direction, the work is
performed by the component of F in
the direction of D. If θ is the angle DEFINITION:
between F and D, Figure 21, then The work done by a constant force
F acting through a displacement
⇀
Work = (|F| cos θ)|D| D = PQ is
=F·D
W =F·D

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The Dot Product
Examples

Example 1: Example 2:
Find the angle θ in the triangle ABC Find the angle between u = i − 2j − 2k
determined by the vertices A = (0, 0), and v = 6i + 3j + 2k.
B = (3, 5), and C = (5, 2) (Figure 22). Example 3:
Find the vector projection of
u = 6i + 3j + 2k onto v = i − 2j − 2k,
and the scalar component of u in the
direction of v.
Example 4:
Determine if the following pairs of vector
are orthogonal:
(a) u = h3, −2i and v = h4, 6i,
Figure 22: Example 1. (b) u = 3i − 2j + k and v = 2j + 4k.

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The Cross Product
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space

In studying lines in plane, when we

want to describe how a line was
tilting, we used the notions of slope
and angle of inclination.
In studying lines in space, we want to
describe how a plane is tilting. This
is done by multiplying two vectors in
the plane together to get a third Figure 23: The construction of u × v.
vector perpendicular to the plane.
The direction of this third vector is
DEFINITION:
the “inclination” of the plane.
The cross product u × v (“u cross
A plane is determined using two v”) is the vector
nonzero vectors, u and v, in space
which are not be parallel. A unit u × v = (|u||v| sin θ)n
vector n perpendicular to the plane is
selected by the right-hand rule, see The cross product is a vector!
Figure 23.

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The Cross Product
Properties of the Cross Product

Nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u × v = 0.

Let u, v, w be vectors and r, s be scalars.

P1: (ru) × (sv) = (rs)(u × v)

P2: u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w
P3: v × u = −(u × v)
P4: (v + w) × u = v × u + w × u
P5: 0×v =0 Figure 24: The construction of v × u;
P6: u × (v × w) = (u · w)v − (u · v)w the unit vector we choose is the
negative, −n, of the one we choose in
forming u × v.

Applying the definition and P3 to calculate cross products of i, j, and k, we find

i × j = −(j × i) = k
j × k = −(k × j) = i
k × i = −(i × k) = j
i×i=j×j=k×k=0

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The Cross Product
Area of a Parallelogram

Because n is a unit vector, the

magnitude of u × v is

|u × v| = |u||v|| sin θ||n| = |u||v| sin θ

This is the area of the parallelogram

determined by u and v, see
Figure 25, |u| being the base of the
parallelogram and |v|| sin θ| the Figure 25: Area of a parallelogram.
height.

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The Cross Product
Determinant Formula for u × v

Suppose that
u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k and v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
The distributive laws and the rules for multiplying i, j, and k tell us that
u × v = (u1 i + u2 j + u3 k) × (v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
= u1 v1 i × i + u1 v2 i × j + u1 v3 i × k
+ u2 v1 j × i + u2 v2 j × j + u2 v3 j × k
+ u3 v1 k × i + u3 v2 k × j + u3 v3 k × k
= (u2 v3 − u3 v2 )i − (u1 v3 − u3 v1 )j − (u1 v2 − u2 v1 )k
The component terms in the last line are terms in the expansion of a determinant
and, hence, we could calculate the cross product as a determinant
˛ ˛
˛ i j k ˛
˛ ˛
u × v = ˛˛ u1 u2 u3 ˛
˛
˛ v1 v2 v3 ˛

For ease in calculating the cross product using determinants, we usually write
vectors in the form v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k rather than as ordered triples v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i.

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The Cross Product
Torque

We turn a bolt by applying a force F

to a wrench to produce a torque that
causes the bolt to rotate and point in
the direction of the axis of the bolt
according to the right-hand rule, see
Figure 26.
The number we use to measure the
torque’s magnitude is the product of
the length of the lever arm r and the
scalar component of F perpendicular Figure 26: The torque vector.
to r, i.e.
Magnitude of torque vector
If we let n be a unit vector along the
= |r||F| sin θ axis of the bolt in the direction of the
= |r × F| torque, then a complete description
of the torque vector is r × F, or
Torque vector = (|r||F| sin θ)n

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The Cross Product
Triple Scalar or Box Product

The product (u × v) · w is called the

triple scalar product of u, v, and w
(in that order!!), whose absolute
value

|(u × v) · w| = |u × v||w|| cos θ|

is the volume of the parallelepiped

(parallelogram-sided box)
determined by u, v, and w, see Figure 27: Volume of a parallelepiped.
Figure 27.
|u × v| is the area of the base
Because of the geometry shown in
parallelogram.
Figure 27, (u × v) · w is also called
|w|| cos θ| is the height of the the box product of u, v, and w.
parallelepiped.

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The Cross Product
Triple Scalar or Box Product

The triple scalar product can be evaluated as a determinant:

»˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ –
˛ u u3 ˛˛ ˛ u1 u3
(u × v) · w = ˛˛ 2 ˛ j + ˛ u1 u2 ˛˛
˛ ˛
i − ˛ k ·w
v2 v3 ˛ ˛ v1 v3 ˛ ˛ v1 v2 ˛
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛
˛ u2 u3 ˛
˛ − w2 ˛ u1 u3 ˛ u1 u2 ˛˛
˛ ˛ ˛
= w1 ˛˛ + w3 ˛˛
v2 v3 ˛ ˛ v1 v3 ˛ v1 v2 ˛
˛ ˛
˛ u1 u2 u3 ˛
˛ ˛
= ˛˛ v1 v2 v3 ˛˛
˛ w1 w2 w3 ˛

Hence
˛ ˛
˛ u1 u2 u3 ˛
˛ ˛
(u × v) · w = ˛˛ v1 v2 v3 ˛
˛ (3)
˛ w1 w2 w3 ˛

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The Cross Product
Examples

Example 1: Example 2:
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane Find the area of the triangle with vertices
of P(1, −1, 0), Q(2, 1, −1), and P(1, −1, 0), Q(2, 1, −1), and R(−1, 1, 2)
R(−1, 1, 2) (Figure 28). (Figure 28).
Example 3:
Find a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane of P(1, −1, 0), Q(2, 1, −1), and
R(−1, 1, 2).
Example 4:
Find the volume of the box
(parallelepiped) determined by
u = i + 2j − k, v = −2i + 3k, and
Figure 28: Examples 1 & 2. w = 7j − 4k.

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Lines and Planes in Space
Lines and Line Segments in Space

This section shows how to use scalar Suppose that L is a line in space
and vector products to write passing through a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0
equations for lines, line segments, parallel to a vector
and planes in space.
v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
In a plane, a line is determined by a
point and the slope of the line. Then L is a set of points P(x, y, z) for
⇀
In space, a line is determined by a which P0 P is parallel to v, Figure 29.
point and a vector giving the line’s Thus,
direction.
⇀
P0 P = tv

for some scalar parameter t. The

value of t depends on the location of
the point P along the line, and the
domain of t is (−∞, ∞).

Figure 29: A line in space.

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Lines and Planes in Space
Lines and Line Segments in Space

⇀
The expanded form of P0 P = tv is

(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k = t(v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)

and re-written as
xi + yj + zk = (x0 i + y0 j + z0 k) + t(v1 i + v2 j + v3 k) (4)

Vector equation for a line L through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v is

r(t) = r0 + tv, −∞ < t < ∞ (5)

where r is the position vector of a point P(x, y, z) on L, r0 is the position vector of

P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Equating corresponding components of the two sides of Eq. (5) yields parametric
equations for a line L through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v

x = x0 + tv1 , y = y0 + tv2 , z = z0 + tv3 , −∞ < t < ∞ (6)

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Lines and Planes in Space
Lines and Line Segments in Space

Example 1: Example 3:
Find parametric equations for the line Parametrize the line segment joining the
through (−2, 0, 4) parallel to points P(−3, 2, −3) and Q(1, −1, 4)
v = 2i + 4j − 2k (Figure 30). (Figure 31).

Figure 30: Example 1. Figure 31: Example 3.

Example 2: Example 4:
Find parametric equations for the line A helicopter is to fly directly from a
through P(−3, 2, −3) and Q(1, −1, 4). helipad at the origin in the direction of
the point (1, 1, 1) at a speed of 60 m/s.
What is the position of the helicopter after
10 s?

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Lines and Planes in Space
Distance from a Point to a Line in Space

Example 5:
Find the distance from the point
S(1, 1, 5) to the line

L : x = 1 + t, y = 3 − t, z = 2t.

Figure 32: Distance from S to the line through

P parallel to v.

In the notation of Figure 32, distance

from a point S to a line through P
parallel to v is

⇀
PS × v
d= (7)
|v|

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Lines and Planes in Space
Equation for a Plane in Space

A plane in space is determined by knowing a

point on the plane and its tilt or orientation.
This tilt is defined by specifying a vector
that is perpendicular or normal to the plane.
Suppose that plane M passes through a
point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is normal to the
nonzero vector n = Ai + Bj + Ck. Then M is
⇀ Figure 33: The standard equation for a
the set of all points P(x, y, z) for which P0P plane in space is defined in terms of a
is orthogonal to n (Figure 33). Thus, the dot vector normal to the plane: a point P
⇀
product n · P0 P = 0. lies in the plane through P0 normal to
⇀
n if and only if n · P0 P = 0.

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Lines and Planes in Space
Equation for a Plane in Space

The plane through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) normal to n = Ai + Bj + Ck has

⇀
Vector Equation: n · P0 P = 0
Component Equation: A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0
Component Equation Simplified: Ax + By + Cz = D
where D = Ax0 + By0 + Cz0

Example 6:
Find an equation for the plane through P0 (−3, 0, 7) perpendicular to
n = 5i + 5j − k.
Example 7:
Find an equation for the plane through A(0, 0, 1), B(2, 0, 0), and C(0, 3, 0).

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Lines and Planes in Space
Lines of Intersection

Just as lines are parallel if and only if they have the same direction, two planes are
parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, or

n1 = kn2

for some scalar k. Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.

Example 8:
Find a vector parallel to the line of
intersection of the planes
3x − 6y − 2z = 15 and 2x + y − 2z = 5,
see Figure 34.
Example 9:
Find parametric equations for the line in
which the planes 3x − 6y − 2z = 15 and Figure 34: How line of intersection of
2x + y − 2z = 5 intersect. two planes is related to the planes’
normal vectors.

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Lines and Planes in Space
Lines of Intersection

Sometimes we want to know where a line and a plane intersect. For example, if we
are looking at a flat plate and a line segment passes through it, we may be
interested in knowing what portion of the line segment is hidden from our view by
the plate. This application is used in computer graphics.
Example 10:
Find the point where the line
8
x= + 2t, y = −2t, z=1+t
3
intersects the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6.
Example 10a: Hidden lines in computer graphics
Your eye is at (4, 0, 0). You are looking at a triangular plate whose vertices are at
(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), and (−2, 2, 2). The line segment from (1, 0, 0) to (0, 2, 2) passes
through the plate. What portion of the line segment is hidden from your view by
the plate?
(Hint: This is an exercise in finding intersections of lines and planes.)

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Lines and Planes in Space
Distance from a Point to a Plane

If P is a point on a plane with normal n,

then the distance from any point S to
the plane is the length of the vector
⇀
projection of PS onto n. That is, the
distance from S to the plane is
˛ ˛
˛⇀ n ˛
d = ˛˛PS · ˛
|n| ˛
Figure 35: The distance from S to the plane
⇀
where n = Ai + Bj + Ck is normal to the is the length of the vector projection of PS
plane. onto n.
Example 11:
Find the distance from S(1, 1, 3) to the
plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6, see Figure 35.

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Lines and Planes in Space
Angles Between Planes

The angle between two intersecting

planes is defined to be the acute angle
between their normal vectors, see
Figure 36.
Example 12:
Find the angle between the planes
3x − 6y − 2z = 15 and 2x + y − 2z = 5.
Figure 36: The angle between two planes is
obtained from the angle between their
normals.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Cylinders

Quadric surfaces are surfaces defined by second-degree equations in x, y, and z.

Spheres are quadric surfaces, but there are also other quadric surfaces of equal
interest which will be covered later.

A cylinder is a surface that is

generated by moving a straight line
along a given planar curve while
holding the line parallel to a given
fixed line. The curve is called a
generating curve for the cylinder
(Figure 37).
In solid geometry, where cylinder Figure 37: A cylinder and generating curve.
means circular cylinder, the
generating curves are circles, but
now we allow generating curves of
any kind.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Cylinders

Example 1:
Find an equation for the cylinder
made by the lines parallel to the
z-axis that pass through the parabola
y = x2 , z = 0 (Figure 38).

Figure 38: Every point of the cylinder here has

coordinates of the form (x0 , x02 , z).

As Example 1 suggests, any curve f (x, y) = c in xy-plane defines a cylinder parallel

to z-axis whose equation is also f (x, y) = c, e.g. equation x2 + y2 = 1 defines
circular cylinder made by lines parallel to z-axis that pass through circle
x2 + y2 = 1 in xy-plane.
Similarly, any curve g(x, z) = c in xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to y-axis
whose space equation is also g(x, z) = c. Any curve h(y, z) = c defines a cylinder
parallel to x-axis whose space equation is also h(y, z) = c.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces

We start by studying simple quadric surfaces given by the equation

Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + Dz = E

where A, B, C, D, and E are constants.

We shall look at some basic quadric surfaces from this equation which include
ellipsoids (spheres are special cases of ellipsoids),
paraboloids,
elliptical cones, and
hyperboloids.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: ellipsoid

Figure 39: The ellipsoid.

Example 2: The ellipsoid

x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a b c
shown Figure 39 cuts the coordinate axes at (±a, 0, 0), (0, ±b, 0), and (0, 0, ±c). It
lies within the rectangular box defined by the inequalities |x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b and
|z| ≤ c. The surface is symmetric with respect to each of the coordinate planes
because each variable in the defining equation is squared.
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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: ellipsoid

The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are ellipses. For
example,

x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1 when z = 0.
a b
The curve cut from the surface by the plane z = z0 , |z0 | < c, is the ellipse

x2 y2
+ 2 = 1 when z = 0.
a2 (1 − z0 /c) 2 b (1 − z0 /c)2
If any two of the semiaxes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an ellipsoid of
revolution. If all three are equal, the surface is a sphere.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: elliptical paraboloid & cone

Figure 40: The elliptical paraboloid.

Figure 41: The elliptical cone.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: hyperbolic paraboloid

Figure 42: The hyperbolic paraboloid.

Example 3: The hyperbolic paraboloid

y2 x2 z
2
− 2 = , c>0
b a c
shown Figure 42, has symmetry with respect to the planes x = 0 and y = 0. The
cross-sections in these planes are:
c c
(a) x = 0 : the parabola z = 2 y2 , (b) y = 0 : the parabola z = − 2 x2 .
b a
The parabola in the plane x = 0 opens upward from the origin.
The parabola in the plane y = 0 opens downward.
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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: hyperbolic paraboloid

If the surface is cut by a plane z = z0 > 0, the cross-section is a hyperbola,

y2 x2 z0
− =
b2 a2 c
with its focal axis parallel to the y-axis and its vertices on the parabola in Equation
(1).

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: hyperboloid of one sheet

Figure 43: The hyperboloid of one sheet.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: hyperboloid of two sheets

Figure 44: The hyperboloid of two sheets.

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Bibliography

1 P ETER V. O’N EIL (2012): Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7ed,

ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42741-2, Cengage Learning
2 D ANIELA F LEISCH (2012): A Student’s Guide to Vectors and Tensors,
ISBN: 978-0-521-17190-8, Cambridge University Press
3 E RWIN K REYSZIG (2011): Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10ed,
ISBN: 978-0-470-45836-5, John Wiley & Sons
4 A LAN J EFFREY (2002): Advanced Engineering Mathematics,
ISBN: 0-12-382592-X, Harcourt/Academic Press
5 G LYNN JAMES ET AL . (2011): Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, 4ed,
ISBN: 978-0-273-71923-6, Pearson Education
6 L. B RIGGS ET AL . (2013): Calculus for Scientists and Engineers: Early Transcendentals,
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-78537-4, Pearson Education

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