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 THERMODYNAMICS
CONTENTS
Thermodynamic system, surroundings, universe,
system boundary

1
Types of thermodynamic system
Macroscopic and microscopic point view
Properties of system
Intensive and Extensive properties
BASIC CONCEPTS State of system
IN THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamic process, path and cycle
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Quasi-static process
Concept of continuum
Point function and path function
Working substance
Pressure
Mass Density
Weight Density
Specific volume
Specific gravity
Solved Examples
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Thermometric property

2
Electrical resistance thermometer
Thermocouple
Ideal gas thermometers
Constant volume gas thermometers
TEMPERATURE Constant pressure gas thermometers
Temperature scales
Thermodynamic temperature scales
Ideal gas
Ideal gas temperature
International Practical temperature scales
Solved Example
Energy transfer by work

3
WORK AND HEAT
Energy transfer by heat
Indicator diagram
Free expansion
Solved Example
TRANSFER

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 Joule’s equivalent of heat

4
FIRST LAW OF
First law for cyclic process
First law for a system undergoing change of state
Work and heat transfer for various process for
closed system
THERMODYNAMICS PV graph for various processes
Internal energy
Enthalpy
Specific heats for various processes
Solved Examples
Flow work

5
FIRST LAW APPLIED
Steady flow process
Mass balance
Energy Balance
Steady flow energy equation
TO Nonflow energy equation
FLOW PROCESSES Applications of SFEE
Flow work vs Nonflow work
Variable flow processes
Examples of Variable Flow processes
Solved examples
Limitations of first law
Second law helps….

6
Thermal energy reservoirs
Directional law for spontaneous process
Difference between heat and work
Cyclic heat engine
SECOND Reversed heat engine
LAW Kelvin Planck’s statement
OF
PMM2
THERMODYNAMICS
Clausius statement
Equivalence of 2 statements
Reversible process
Carnot cycle and reversed Carnot cycle
Carnot theorem
Heat Transportation
Irreversibility
Causes of irreversibility
Types of irreversibility
Solved Examples
Clausius Inequality
Concept of Entropy
Entropy in terms of thermodynamic properties
TS diagram for various processes

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 Entropy Principle

7
ENTROPY
Applications of Entropy Principle
Entropy generation
Solved Example

Available energy
Dead State
Available energy referred to a cycle
Decrease in available energy when heat is
transferred through a finite temperature
difference
Available energy from a finite energy source

8
AVAILABLE ENERGY,
Quality of energy
Law of degradation of energy
Maximum work in reversible process
Reversible work by an open system exchanging
AVAILABILITY heat only with the surroundings
AND Reversible work in steady flow
IRREVERSIBILITY process
Reversible work in a closed system
Useful Work
Maximum work obtainable when system
exchanges heat with a thermal reservoir in
addition to atmosphere
Availability
Availability in a steady flow process
Availability in nonflow process
Availability in chemical reaction
Irreversibility and Gouystodola
theorem
Second law efficiency
Solved examples

Pure Substance

9
PURE SUBSTANCE
Phase
Various terms related to study of pure
substance
Various property diagram
Dryness fraction

Specific and molar volume

Mass fraction
Mole fraction

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 Dalton’s law of partial pressure

10
PROPERTIES
Amagatleduc’s law of partial
volumes

OF GAS MIXTURE
Maxwell equation
TdS Equation

11
Heat Capacity Relationship
Energy Equation
Clausius Claypeyron Equation
Internal energy change for an ideal
THERMODYNAMIC gas
RELATIONS Enthalpy change
Entropy changes
Joule –Thomson coefficient

SOLVED PROBLEMS

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 CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS IN THERMODYNAMICS

The word THERMODYNAMICS means “Heat in Motion”.

“THERMODYNAMICS is basically a branch of science which focuses on the study of energy

transfer and its effect on various physical properties of the system.”
“THERMODYNAMICS is the study of three E’s i.e. Energy, Entropy and Equilibrium.”
“THERMODYNAMICS is a science that governs following:
 Energy and its transformation.
 Feasibility of a process involving transformation of energy.
 Feasibility of a process involving transfer of energy.
 Equilibrium process.
Thus, we can say that THERMODYNAMICS deals with energy conversion, energy exchange
and the direction of exchange.

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
 System is that part of universe which is under investigation or under the study of
observer.
 Properties of the system are observed when the exchange of energy i.e. work or heat,
takes place.
 There is no arbitrary rule for selection of system but proper selection makes the
calculations easy.
SURROUNDINGS
 The remaining portion of universe which is external to the system is called as
surrounding.
 The exchange of energy takes place between system and surroundings; hence
surroundings may be influenced by the changes taking place in system.

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UNIVERSE
 System and surroundings together constitutes Universe i.e.
System + Surroundings = Universe.

Figure 1.1
SYSTEM BOUNDARY
 System and surroundings in the universe are separated by System boundary.
 A system boundary has zero thickness.
 Boundary may be Real or Hypothetical and Fixed or Moving.
 It is a surface, and since a surface is a two-dimensional object, it has zero volume.
Thus, it attains neither mass nor volume.

Figure 1.2
If heat (energy) exchange doesn’t take place across body it is called adiabatic boundary
otherwise it will be diathermic boundary.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURROUNDINGS, IMMEDIATE SURROUNDINGS AND
ENVIRONMENT
 Surroundings are everything outside the system boundaries.
 The immediate surroundings refer to the portion of the surroundings that is affected by
the process, and
 Environment refers to the region beyond the immediate surroundings whose properties
are not affected by the process at any point.

TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Generally two types of exchange can occur between the system and its surroundings:
 Energy exchange (heat or work) and
 Exchange of matter (movement of molecules across the boundary of the system and
surroundings).
Based on the type of exchange, it may be classified into three types.
 Closed system
 Open system
 Isolated system
Closed System
 Heat and work (energy) crosses the boundary.
 No mass transfer takes place i.e. mass of system is fixed, hence it is also called as NON
FLOW SYSTEM.
 Due to fixed mass, we also define closed system as CONTROL MASS.
 Boundary of the system is not fixed but arbitrarily selected.
 Since boundary may change, volume of the system is not necessarily fixed.
 Energy transfer can be experienced only at boundaries.
 e.g. Piston cylinder arrangement, gas being compressed by a piston in a closed cylinder.
The fluid contained in the cylinder can receive or reject heat, can expand or contract,
hence changing the volume, but no matter (fluid) can flow out or into the cylinder, i.e.
mass remains fixed.

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 Figure 1.3
Open system
 Heat and work crosses the boundary.
 Mass transfer also takes place i.e. mass of system is not fixed; hence it is also called as
FLOW SYSTEM.
 System boundary is known as CONTROL SURFACE which always remains fixed.
 Volume of the system does not change; hence open system is also defined as CONTROL
VOLUME.
 e.g. Steam generator or boiler
A steam generator converts water into steam by gaining heat from furnace. Hence water
flows into the system and steam flows out of the system; hence matter is crossing the
boundary of system.

Figure 1.4

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Isolated System
 Heat and work does NOT cross the boundary.
 Mass of the system remains fixed i.e. No mass transfer takes place.
 e.g. Thermos flask.
 Neither heat flows into/out of the system nor the matter flows.
Classify the following as open, close or isolated system with suitable
reasons:
 Cooling system of engine of a car
 Pressure cooker
 Air compressor
Thus, a special type of closed system that does not interact with its surroundings is called an
Isolated System.

GATE TIP
Open system
 Heat and work crosses the boundary. Mass transfer also takes place i.e. mass of
system is not fixed
 Known as FLOW SYSTEM.
 Volume of the system does not change.
Closed System
 Heat and work (energy) crosses the boundary. No mass transfer takes place.
 Known as NON FLOW SYSTEM.
 Volume of the system change.
Isolated System
 Heat and work does not cross the boundary.. No mass transfer takes place

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Question on GATE Tip:
Ques 1: A closed thermodynamic system is one in which
(a) There is no energy or mass transfer across the boundary
(b) There is no mass transfer, but energy transfer exists
(c) There is no energy transfer, but mass transfer exists
(d) Both energy and mass transfer take place across the boundary, but the mass transfer is
controlled by valves

Ques 2: Which of the following statements are true?

(a) A closed system is necessarily an isolated system
(b) An isolated system is necessarily a closed system
(c) A system cannot be both closed and isolated.
(d) The concepts of closed and isolated in regards to a system are independent concepts.

Ques 3: Which of these Cases would be best suited for using a control volume approach in the
thermodynamic analysis of the system?
(a) Compression of air in a cylinder
(b) Expansion of gases in a cylinder after combustion
(c) Air in a balloon
(d) Air Filling in a Cycle tyre from any compressor

Solutions
1) (b) As we know that In closed system only energy transfer will happen.
2) Statement (b) is true. Because for isolated system ,system should be a closed system at first.
3) All Systems (a) to (c) are closed systems, so we can’t use control mass for these cases. Only
system (d) is an open system with a fixed boundary because here mass flow and energy transfer
both are taking place so option (d) will be answer.

HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEM

 A phase is defined as the quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in
chemical composition i.e. chemical composition does not vary within system; and
physical structure i.e. solid, liquid or gas.
 The system consisting of single phase is called a homogeneous system. e.g. air, mixture
of water and sugar etc.
 The system which consists of more than one phase is called heterogeneous system. e.g.
mixture of water and oil etc.

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MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC VIEWPOINT
Macroscopic Viewpoint Microscopic Viewpoint
1. A certain quantity of matter is under 1. The behaviour of matter is described by
investigation without focusing on the summing up behaviour of each molecule.
events taking place at molecular level.
2. Properties that define the system can be 2. Since properties are concerned with
measured and can be felt by human individual molecule, they cannot be felt
senses. by human senses.

3. Observations are based on assumption 3. Exact observations are carried out by

(properties are average values) since considering the structure of matter.
structure of matter is not considered at
all. 4. The analysis of approach requires a
large no. of molecules so behaviour of
4. The analysis of this approach requires
the molecules is studied by using
simple mathematical formula.
advanced statistical and mathematical
methods.

 Macroscopic viewpoint is an engineering approach while microscopic viewpoint is a

scientific approach.

PROPERTIES OF SYSTEM
 Properties are the descriptive and measurable characteristics of the system.
 Properties describe the state of a system i.e. has a definite value when system is in a
particular state.
 These are macroscopic in nature and hence, can be measured very easily.
 Their differential is exact i.e. value can be determined by simply integrating from one
state to another.
 They depend only upon the state of system but not on the path followed by the process,
hence are Point function or State function.

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  Temperature, pressure, volume energy etc. are the various properties of system.

Guru Gyan
Thus, Properties are macroscopic characteristics of a system such
as mass, volume, energy, pressure and temperature etc. to which
numerical values can be assigned at a given time without knowledge
of the past history of the system.

Check for a property:

 An expression is a property of the system if its differential is exact.
e.g. Expression is an exact differential of hence is a property. But
alone are not exact differential, hence are not the property of system.
 Expression is exact differential if
M N
y
INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
 Properties of system may be classified as Intensive or Extensive properties.

 INTENSIVE PROPERTIES are those which are independent of mass of system.

 Property of small portion of the system defines the property of whole of the system.
 Intensive properties are expressed in lower case letters except Pressure (P), temperature
(T).
 All the specific properties are intensive properties.
 e.g. Pressure (P), temperature (T), density etc.

 EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES are mass dependent. Hence their value depends upon the
size of the system.
 An extensive property when expressed as per unit mass becomes an intensive property
(Specific property).
 Extensive properties are expressed in upper case letter except mass.
 e.g. mass (m), energy (E), enthalpy (H), entropy (S) etc.

 .

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 Guru Gyan:

Intensive properties are those which will be unchanged by any process,

whereas those properties whose values are increased or decreased in
proportion to the enlargement or reduction of the system are called
extensive properties.

If the system consists of mixture of different phases, the phases are

separated from each other by phase boundary. The thermodynamic
properties change abruptly at the phase boundary, even though the
intensive properties like temperature and pressure are identical.

Ques 1: Here two systems S1 and S2 as shown in Figure 2.1.Both the systems are in similar
states. S3 is the combined system of S1 and S2. Is the value of property for S3 same as that for
S1 and S2 or will have some other value?

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Solution: If property is intensive then S3 will also have same value as S1 and S2 and if property
is extensive then it will not have same value as S1 and S2.

Ques 2: Which of the following are intensive properties?

1. Kinetic energy 2. Specific enthalpy
3. Pressure 4. Entropy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2 and 4

Ans.2 - Specific Enthalpy is defined as enthalpy per unit mass so it will not depend on mass and
Pressure will not depend on mass also. Thus both Specific Enthalpy and Pressure both will be
treated as intensive property.

STATE OF A SYSTEM
 State of a system is the condition of system at any point of time.
 The state of a simple compressible system can be completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties. (This is also called two property rule or state
postulates)
 When one or more than one property of system changes, then a change of state of
system takes place.

Note:
 A system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects. (These effects are nearly negligible in
the most of the engineering problems )

 Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant.

 Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and
together they can fix the state of a simple compressible system

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 Dialogue box….
Temperature and pressure, however, are independent properties for single-phase systems,
but are dependent properties for multiphase systems. Explain.

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS, PATH AND CYCLE

 Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a
process
 The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of
the process

Figure 1.6
 When change of state takes place in such a way that the initial and final states of system
are identical, then the process is called thermodynamic cycle.

Figure 1.7

Dialogue box…..
I.C. Engine does not execute thermodynamic cycle. Explain.

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THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
 A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if the conditions are satisfied for:
 Mechanical equilibrium
 Chemical equilibrium
 Thermal equilibrium
 Phase equilibrium
Mechanical equilibrium in system exists when there is no change in pressure at any point of
system with time i.e. uniformity of pressure. It also means that there is no any unbalanced force.
In other words, there is no pressure gradient within the system.
 The variation of pressure as a result of gravity in most thermodynamic
systems is relatively small and usually disregarded.
 Still water contained in a tank is also considered to be in mechanical
equilibrium, though the pressure increases as one move downward from
free water surface.

 Chemical equilibrium in a system exists when there is no change in chemical

composition with time i.e. no chemical reaction takes place.
 Thermal equilibrium in a system exists when there is no temperature differential within
system.
 Temperature is same throughout the entire system.
 Fluids comprising the system are not chemically reactive since it may raise
temperature of system by chemical reaction.
 Phase equilibrium in a multiphase system exists when the mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
Note:
 A system is said to be in non-equilibrium state if any one of the above condition is
not satisfied by the system.
 In non-equilibrium, states passed by the system cannot be described by
thermodynamic properties which represent the system as a whole.
When a system remains in equilibrium state, it should not undergo any changes on its own.

QUASI-STATIC PROCESS
 When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close
to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium,
process.

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  Thus, clear state properties (pressure, temperature etc.) can be assigned to the system at
every moment. A quasi-static process can thus be represented by a set of continuous
points on a state-space diagram (e.g., a p − V diagram or a T − v diagram).

Features of Quasi-Static Process

 A quasi-equilibrium process is a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust
itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than
those at other parts.

 Frictionless quasi-static processes are reversible.

 These are idealized process and not the true representation of actual process.
 Every state passed may be regarded as equilibrium state.
 Infinite slow process and easy to analyze.
 All work producing devices work on this principle.

Guru Gyan:
A process is said to be reversible if the system and its surroundings
are restored to their respective initial states by reversing the
direction of the process. A reversible process has to be quasi-static,
but a quasi – static process is not necessarily quasi-static.

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Examples:
Quasi-static: Slow expansion of a piston and cylinder system such that pressure and volume can
be clearly defined at every point in time.
Non quasi-static: Sudden expansion of the piston-cylinder system. Pressure in the system cannot
be specified at every point in time.
Quasi-static: Two bodies exchanging energy in the form of heat such that the temperature of
each body is clearly defined at every point of time.
Non quasi-static: Rapid removal of energy from one surface of a reasonably large system such
that there is no unique temperature for the system.

Reversible Process
A process in which an infinitesimal change in the driving potential can reverse the direction of
the process.
Example: A piston expanding against an external pressure. The driving potential is the pressure
difference which is infinitesimal. At any stage, if the external pressure is increased
infinitesimally, the piston should start moving the opposite way.
Or Else: Heat transfer occurring due to a temperature difference between two bodies. The
temperature difference between the two bodies is infinitesimal. If the temperature of body
receiving energy is changed infinitesimally, the direction of heat transfer also changes.
NOTE: A reversible process is necessarily quasi-static though the opposite is not true. For
example, consider heat exchange between a really well insulated vessel at temperature T1 and
the surroundings which are at T2 far lesser than T1. Changing either T1 or T2 does not reverse
the direction of the process, though it is slow enough to be quasi-static.

Ques 3: Which Of The Following Is/Are Reversible Process(es)?

1. Isentropic expansion
2. Slow heating of water from a hot source
3. Constant pressure heating of an ideal gas from a constant temperature source
4. Evaporation of a liquid at constant temperature
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 Only
(b) 1 And 2
(c) 2 And 3
(d) 1 And 4

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Solution:
(d) Isentropic expansion and evaporation of a liquid at constant temperature. Isentropic
expansion is also known as reversible adiabatic process (which will be discussed in later
chapter).

CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM
Despite the large gaps between molecules, a substance can be treated as a continuum
because of the very large number of molecules even in an extremely small volume.
It assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.
If the mean free path is very small as compared with some characteristic length in the
flow domain (i.e., the molecular density is very high) then the gas can be treated as a
continuous medium. If the mean free path is large in comparison to some characteristic
length, the gas cannot be considered continuous.

 The continuum idealization allows us

 to treat properties as point functions and
 to assume the properties vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.

 This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to
the space between the molecules.

PATH FUNCTION AND POINT FUNCTION

Point Functions
 They depend only upon the initial and final condition (state) of the system but not on the
path followed by the system.
 They have exact differential i.e. their integration can be carried out simply.
 Differential amount is represented by symbol “d” i.e. small change in volume will be
expressed as dV.
 Change in value can be expressed as the difference between initial and final value.

 Thermodynamic properties are point functions since for a given state there is a definite
value for each property and is independent of the path the system follows during the
change of state.

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  In a cycle, since initial and final states are identical, the cyclic integral of a property
(point function) is always zero i.e. .

Path Functions
 They depend upon the path followed by the system.
 They have inexact differential.
 Differential amount is represented by symbol i.e. for small work done and small
heat transfer
 Work and heat are the path functions.
 Change in the value can NOT be expressed as the difference between initial and final
value.

W1-2 (but not W)

 Before integration, multiplication with integrating factor is required.

WORKING SUBSTANCE
 A working substance refers to a fluid in thermodynamic devices to serve as a medium for
transport of energy between the system and surroundings.
 Fluid may be gas, vapour, liquid or any nonreactive mixture of these constituents.
 Working substance may change their phase during processes occurring in the system.
 Example – refrigerants used in refrigeration and air-conditioners, water vapour used in
steam power plants.

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 GATE Tip

Intensive Property
 Independent of mass
Extensive Property
 mass dependent.
 value depends upon the size of the system.
Specific property
 An extensive property when expressed as per unit mass becomes an intensive
property.
Point Functions
 They depend only upon the initial and final condition
 not on the path followed by the system.
 exact differential
 Cyclic integral of a property (point function) is always zero
Path Functions
 Depend upon the path followed by the system.
 Inexact differential.

PRESSURE
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
 SI unit of Newton per square meter (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,

 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the

atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.

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 The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by
vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure.


 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the container. It
changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other directions. Therefore, the
pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
 A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction is
that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the
same amount. This is called Pascal’s law.
 Hydrostatic law defines the variation of pressure in a fluid with height as .
 The pressure gauges used in engineering applications measure Absolute pressure.

Figure 1.9

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Ques 1: Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa, assuming that the barometer reads
760 mmHg:

(a) 80 cm Hg gauge (b) 50 cm Hg vacuum

(c) 1.2 m H2O gauge (d) 5.3 bar

SOLUTION:
760 mm Hg = 0.760 × 13600 × 9.81 Pa
= 10139.16 Pa
≈ 101.4 kPa
(a) 80 cm Hg gauge
= 0.80 × 13600 × 9.81 × 10-3 + 101.4 kPa
= 106.732+ 101.4 kPa
= 208.132kPa

(b) 50 cm Hg vacuum
= (76 – 50) cm (absolute)
= 0.26 × 13.600 × 9.81 kPa
= 34.68 kPa

(c) 1.2 m H2O gauge

= 1.2 × 1000 × 9.81 × 10-3 + 101.4 kPa
= 113.172 kPa

(d) 5.3 bar = 5.3 × 105Pa = 530 kPa

Ques 2: Any vertical column having height of 60m and fluid in vertical column having density
1878 kg/m3 exists in a place where g = 9.65 m/s2. What is the pressure at the base of the
column?

Solution: Pressure at depth p = z ρg

= 60 × 1878 × 9.65
= 1087.62 Pa

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MASS DENSITY
 The amount of working substance contained in a given volume is called as mass density
of that substance.

Kg/m3

Ques 3: A pump discharges a liquid into a drum having 3 m in diameter and 8.40 m in length,
can hold 3000 kg of the liquid. Find the density of the liquid?

Solution:

Volume of drum = π/4 ×d2x h

= (π 32 x8.4) /4
= 59.376 m3
Density= =

WEIGHT DENSITY (SPECIFIC WEIGHT)

 Weight per unit volume is called as specific weight.

ϓs ρg N/m3
 Specific weight of a substance may vary with location on earth.
SPECIFIC VOLUME
 Volume per unit mass is called specific volume.
m3/Kg
 It is the reciprocal of mass density.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 It is the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of a standard fluid at a specified
temperature.
 For liquids, standard fluid is water at 40C for which ρH2O =1000kg/m3.
SG =
ρ

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  For gases, air or hydrogen at 00C is taken as standard fluid.
 Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity.
 Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. This means that mercury is13.6 times heavier than
water.

STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

 At STP, the temperature is taken as 150C and pressure is taken as 1.01325 bar
(atmospheric pressure)

NORMAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

 At NTP, the temperature is taken as 00C and pressure is taken as 1.01325 bar
(atmospheric pressure)

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OTHER SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ques 1.
A large chamber is separated into two compartments which are maintained at different pressures.
Pressure gauge A reads 180 kPa, and pressure gauge B reads 120 kPa. If barometric pressure is
100 kPa, determine the absolute pressure existing in the compartments and the reading of gauge
C.

B
C
X Y

Figure 1.10

Approach: Pressure gauge A has been installed on the wall where pressure due to gases in x and
y are acting in opposite direction, hence it will read a pressure difference of both.
Similarly, Pressure gauges B and C reads the pressure difference between respective chamber
and atmosphere.
SOLUTION:
Let x kPa and y kPa be absolute pressures in compartments X and Y respectively.

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Ques 2.
The pressure and specific volume of the atmosphere are related according to equation
, where p is in N/m2 and v in m3/kg. What depth of atmosphere is required to produce a
pressure of 1.033 bar at the earth surface? Assume g=9.81 m/s2.
Approach: Earth surface is surrounded by a fluid i.e. air. The pressure inside the fluid varies
vertically. Hence there exists a pressure difference between pressure at top of air column and at
earth surface. This pressure difference can be used to obtain the height of air column using
hydrostatic law i.e.
SOLUTION:
Let H be the depth of atmosphere required to produce a pressure of 1.033 bar and A be the area
of air column. Consider an element dh of this height. Let p be pressure acting above and p+dp
be acting below the element.
Force balance:

Solving the equation,

Integrating,

Hence, atmospheric pressure exists on earth surface due to the air column lying above the
earth surface.

Ques 3: In a condenser Vacuum Gauge reads around 0.72 mHg. Calculate absolute pressure in
the condenser in kPa (where the atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kPa)?

Solution:
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum pressure
= 101.3 – 0.66 × 13600 × 9.81 × 10-3 kPa
= 101.3- 96.059 kPa
=5.24 kPa

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 PRACTICE SET

1. Which of the following is correct?

a. Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
b. Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure + Atmospheric pressure
c. Atmospheric pressure = Absolute pressure + Gauge pressure
d. Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure × Atmospheric pressure

2. Which of the following is an example of closed system?

a. Thermosflask
b. Pressure cooker
c. Steam turbine
d. All of above

3. Which of the following expressions are true?

a. 1, 2
b. 1
c. 2
d. 2, 3

4. A diathermic wall allows flow of

a. Heat and matter
b. Only heat
c. Only matter
d. None of these

5. Atm is…..
a. 1.01325 Mpa
b. 1.0 Mpa
c. 1.005 Mpa
d. 760 Kpa

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 6. The Barometer reading 760 mm hg equals
a. 90 cm hg Gauge
b. 40 cm hg Vacuum
c. 10.336 m H2o Gauge
d. 3.1 Bar

7. A 30 m high vertical column of a fluid of density 1878 kg/m3 exists in a place where g =
9.65 m/s2. What is the pressure at the base of the column?
a. 501.45 Kpa
b. 600.25 Kpa
c. 644.67 Kpa
d. 543.68 Kpa

Answers and Hints:

1-a 2-b 3-c 4-b 5-a 6-c 7- hint (p = ρgh)

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GATE QUESTIONS:
Question1: The pressure gauges G1 and G2 installed on the system show pressures of P G1 = 5.00
bar and PG2 = 1.00 bar. Value of unknown pressure P is

(A) 1.01 bar (B) 2.01 bar

(C) 5.00 bar (D) 7.01 bar

Solution:

P = PG 2 + Atmospheric pressure

= 1.00 + 1.0
= 2.01 bar.

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