James E.

Turner
Atoms, Radiation, and
Radiation Protection

Third, Completely Revised and Enlarged Edition

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Contents

Preface to the First Edition XV

Preface to the Second Edition XVII
Preface to the Third Edition XIX

1 About Atomic Physics and Radiation 1

1.1 Classical Physics 1
1.2 Discovery of X Rays 1
1.3 Some Important Dates in Atomic and Radiation Physics 3
1.4 Important Dates in Radiation Protection 8
1.5 Sources and Levels of Radiation Exposure 11
1.6 Suggested Reading 12

2 Atomic Structure and Atomic Radiation 15

2.1 The Atomic Nature of Matter (ca. 1900) 15
2.2 The Rutherford Nuclear Atom 18
2.3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 19
2.4 Semiclassical Mechanics, 1913-1925 25
2.5 Quantum Mechanics 28
2.6 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 33
2.7 Atomic Theory of the Periodic System 34
2.8 Molecules 36
2.9 Solids and Energy Bands 39
2.10 Continuous and Characteristic X Rays 40
2.11 Auger Electrons 45
2.12 Suggested Reading 47
2.13 Problems 48
2.14 Answers 53

3 The Nucleus and Nuclear Radiation 55

3.1 Nuclear Structure 55

Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection. James E. Turner

Copyright © 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 978-3.527-40606-7


VIII I Contents

3.2 Nuclear Binding Energies 58

3.3 Alpha Decay 62
3.4 Beta Decay (/3-) 65
3.5 Gamma-Ray Emission 68
3.6 Internal Conversion 72
3.7 Orbital Electron Capture 72
3.8 Positron Decay (ß+ ) 75
3.9 Suggested Reading 79
3.10 Problems 80
3.11 Answers 82

4 Radioactive Decay 83
4.1 Activity 83
4.2 Exponential Decay 83
4.3 Specific Activity 88
4.4 Serial Radioactive Decay 89
Secular Equilibrium (Ti » T2 ) 89
General Case 91
Transient Equilibrium (Ti > T2) 91
No Equilibrium (T1 < 7"2 ) 93
4.5 Natural Radioactivity 96
4.6 Radon and Radon Daughters 97
4.7 Suggested Reading 102
4.8 Problems 103
4.9 Answers 108

5 I nteraction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter 109

5.1 Energy-Loss Mechanisms 109
5.2 Maximum Energy Transfer in a Single Collision 111
5.3 Single-Collision Energy-Loss Spectra 113
5.4 Stopping Power 115
5.5 Semiclassical Calculation of Stopping Power 116
5.6 The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power 120
5.7 Mean Excitation Energies 121
5.8 Table for Computation of Stopping Powers 123
5.9 Stopping Power of Water for Protons 125
5.10 Range 126
5.11 Slowing-Down Time 131
5.12 Limitations of Bethe's Stopping-Power Formula 132
5.13 Suggested Reading 133
5.14 Problems 134
5.15 Answers 137
 Contents IIX

6 Interaction of Electrons with Matter 139

6.1 Energy-Loss Mechanisms 139
6.2 Collisional Stopping Power 139
6.3 Radiative Stopping Power 144
6.4 Radiation Yield 145
6.5 Range 147
6.6 Slowing-Down Time 148
6.7 Examples of Electron Tracks in Water 150
6.8 Suggested Reading 155
6.9 Problems 155
6.10 answers 158

7 Phenomena Associated with Charged-Particle Tracks 159

7.1 Delta Rays 159
7.2 Restricted Stopping Power 159
7.3 Linear Energy Transfer (LET) 162
7.4 Specific Ionization 163
7.5 Energy Straggling 164
7.6 Range Straggling 167
7.7 Multiple Coulomb Scattering 169
7.8 Suggested Reading 170
7.9 Problems 171
7.10 Answers 172

8 Interaction of Photons with Matter 173

8.1 Interaction Mechanisms 173
8.2 Photoelectric Effect 174
8.3 Energy-Momentum Requirements for Photon Absorption by an
Electron 176
8.4 Compton Effect 177
8.5 Pair Production 185
8.6 Photonuclear Reactions 186
8.7 Attenuation Coefficients 187
8.8 Energy-Transfer and Energy-Absorption Coefficients 192
8.9 Calculation of Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer 197
8.10 Suggested Reading 201
8.11 Problems 201
8.12 Answers 207

9 Neutrons, Fission, and Criticality 209

9.1 Introduction 209
9.2 Neutron Sources 209


X Contents
I
9.3 Classification of Neutrons 214
9.4 Interactions with Matter 215
9.5 Elastic Scattering 216
9.6 Neutron–Proton Scattering Energy-Loss Spectrum 219
9.7 Reactions 223
9.8 Energetics of Threshold Reactions 226
9.9 Neutron Activation 228
9.10 Fission 230
9.11 Criticality 232
9.12 Suggested Reading 235
9.13 Problems 235
9.14 Answers 239

10 Methods of Radiation Detection 241

10.1 Ionization in Gases 241
Ionization Current 241
W Values 243
Ionization Pulses 245
Gas-Filled Detectors 247
10.2 Ionization in Semiconductors 252
Band Theory of Solids 252
Semiconductors 255
Semiconductor Junctions 259
Radiation Measuring Devices 262
10.3 Scintillation 266
General 266
Organic Scintillators 267
Inorganic Scintillators 268
10.4 Photographic Film 275
10.5 Thermoluminescence 279
10.6 Other Methods 281
Partide Track Registration 281
Optically Stimulated Luminescence 282
Direct Ion Storage (DIS) 283
Radiophotoluminescence 285
Chemical Dosimeters 285
Calorimetry 286
Cerenkov Detectors 286
10.7 Neutron Detection 287
Slow Neutrons 287
Intermediate and Fast Neutrons 290
10.8 Suggested Reading 296
10.9 Problems 296
10.10 Answers 301
 Contents IXI

11 Statistics 303
11.1 The Statistical World of Atoms and Radiation 303
11.2 Radioactive Disintegration—Exponential Decay 303
11.3 Radioactive Disintegration—a Bernoulli Process 304
11.4 The Binomial Distribution 307
11.5 The Poisson Distribution 311
11.6 The Normal Distribution 315
11.7 Error and Error Propagation 321
11.8 Counting Radioactive Samples 322
Gross Count Rates 322
Net Count Rates 324
Optimum Counting Times 325
Counting Short-Lived Samples 326
11.9 Minimum Significant Measured Activity—Type-I Errors 327
11.10 Minimum Detectable True Activity—Type-II Errors 331
11.11 Criteria for Radiobioassay, HP S N13.30-1996 335
11.12 Instrument Response 337
Energy Resolution 337
Dead Time 339
11.13 Monte Carlo Simulation of Radiation Transport 342
11.14 Suggested Reading 348
11.15 Problems 349
11.16 Answers 359

12 Radiation Dosimetry 361

12.1 Introduction 361
12.2 Quantities and Units 362
Exposure 362
Absorbed Dose 362
Dose Equivalent 363
12.3 Measurement of Exposure 365
Free-Air Ionization Chamber 365
The Air-Wall Chamber 367
12.4 Measurement of Absorbed Dose 368
12.5 Measurement of X- and Gamma-Ray Dose 370
12.6 Neutron Dosimetry 371
12.7 Dose Measurements for Charged-Particle Beams 376
12.8 Determination of LET 377
12.9 Dose Calculations 379
Alpha and Low-Energy Beta Emitters Distributed in Tissue 379
Charged-Particle Beams 380
Point Source of Gamma Rays 381
Neutrons 383
12.10 Other Dosimetric Concepts and Quantities 387
XIII Contents

Kerma 387
Microdosimetry 387
Specific Energy 388
Lineal Energy 388
12.11 Suggested Reading 389
12.12 Problems 390
12.13 Answers 398

13 Chemical and Biological Effects of Radiation 399

13.1 Time Frame for Radiation Effects 399
13.2 Physical and Prechemical Chances in Irradiated Water 399
13.3 Chemical Stage 401
13.4 Examples of Calculated Charged-Particle Tracks in Water 402
13.5 Chemical Yields in Water 404
13.6 Biological Effects 408
13.7 Sources of Human Data 411
The Life Span Study 411
Medical Radiation 413
Radium-Dial Painters 415
Uranium Miners 416
Accidents 418
13.8 The Acute Radiation Syndrome 419
13.9 Delayed Somatic Effects 421
Cancer 421
Life Shortening 423
Cataracts 423
13.10 Irradiation of Mammalian Embryo and Fetus 424
13.11 Genetic Effects 424
13.12 Radiation Biology 429
13.13 Dose–Response Relationships 430
13.14 Factors Affecting Dose Response 435
Relative Biological Effectiveness 435
Dose Rate 438
Oxygen Enhancement Ratio 439
Chemical Modifiers 439
Dose Fractionation and Radiotherapy 440
13.15 Suggested Reading 441
13.16 Problems 442
13.17 Answers 447

14 Radiation-Protection Criteria and Exposure Limits 449

14.1 Objective of Radiation Protection 449
14.2 Elements of Radiation-Protection Programs 449
 Contents 'XIII

14.3 The NCRP and ICRP 451

14.4 NCRP/ICRP Dosimetric Quantities 452
Equivalent Dose 452
Effective Dose 453
Committed Equivalent Dose 455
Committed Effective Dose 455
Collective Quantities 455
Limits an Intake 456
14.5 Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection 457
14.6 Current Exposure Limits of the NCRP and ICRP 458
Occupational Limits 458
Nonoccupational Limits 460
Negligible Individual Dose 460
Exposure of Individuals Under 18 Years of Age 461
14.7 Occupational Limits in the Dose-Equivalent System 463
14.8 The "2007 ICRP Recommendations" 465
14.9 ICRU Operational Quantities 466
14.10 Probability of Causation 468
14.11 Suggested Reading 469
14.12 Problems 470
14.13 Answers 473

15 External Radiation Protection 475

15.1 Distance, Time, and Shielding 475
15.2 Gamma-Ray Shielding 476
15.3 Shielding in X-Ray Installations 482
Design of Primary Protective Barrier 485
Design of Secondary Protective Barrier 491
NCRP Report No. 147 494
15.4 Protection from Beta Radiation 495
15.5 Neutron Shielding 497
15.6 Suggested Reading 500
15.7 Problems 501
15.8 Answers 509

16 Internal Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 511

16.1 Objectives 511
16.2 ICRP Publication 89 512
16.3 Methodology 515
16.4 ICRP-30 Dosimetric Model for the Respiratory System 517
16.5 ICRP-66 Human Respiratory Tract Model 520
16.6 ICRP-30 Dosimetric Model for the Gastrointestinal Tract 523
16.7 Organ Activities as Functions of Time 524


XIV Contents
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16.8 Specific Absorbed Fraction, Specific Effective Energy, and

Committed Quantities 530
16.9 Number of Transformations in Source Organs over 50 Y 534
16.10 Dosimetric Model for Bone 537
16.11 ICRP-30 Dosimetric Model for Submersion in a Radioactive Gas
Cloud 538
16.12 Selected ICRP-30 Metabolic Data for Reference Man 540
16.13 Suggested Reading 543
16.14 Problems 544
16.15 Answers 550

Appendices

A Physical Constants 551

B Units and Conversion Factors 553

C Some Basic Formulas of Physics (MKS and CCS Units) 555

Classical Mechanics 555
Relativistic Mechanics (units same as in classical mechanics) 555
Electromagnetic Theory 556
Quantum Mechanics 556

D Selected Data an Nuclides 557

E Statistical Derivations 569

Binomial Distribution 569
Mean 569
Standard Deviation 569
Poisson Distribution 570
Normalization 571
Mean 571
Standard Deviation 572
Normal Distribution 572
Error Propagation 573

Index 575