Chapter 12 Electrodynamics and Relativity Ether

12.1 The Special Theory of Relativity Properties of the ether: Since the light speed c is enormous,
the ether had to be extremely rigid. So it did not impede the
Ether: Since mechanical waves require a medium to motion of light. For a substance so crucial to electro-
propagate, it was generally accepted that light also require a magnetism , it was embarrassingly elusive. Despite the
medium. This medium, called the ether, was assumed to peculiar property just mentioned, no one could detect its
pervade all mater and space in the universe. ghostly presence.

“Absolute” frame: The Maxwell’s equation was inferred Efforts to detect the ether: Michelson inspired by the
that the speed of light should equal c only with respect to Maxwell took the problem of detecting the ether as a
ether. This meant that the ether was a “preferred” or challenge. He developed his interferometer and used it to try
“absolute” reference frame. to detect the earth’s motion relative to the ether. The result
were not conclusive.
∂2E 1 ∂2E
− =0
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2
1 2

The Michelson-Morley Experiment The Michelson-Morley Experiment (II)

Michelson and Morley wanted to detect the speed of the Parallel:
earth relative to the ether. If the earth were moving relative to
L0 L0 (2 L0 / c)
the ether, there should be an “ether wind” blowing at the
T1 = + =
same speed relative to the earth but in the opposite direction. (c − v) (c + v) (1 − v 2 / c 2 )
Michelson-Morley interferometer: Use light speed Perpendicular:
variation to verify the existence of ether.
2 L0 (2 L0 / c)
T2 = =
(c 2 − v 2 )1/ 2 (1 − v 2 / c 2 )1/ 2

L0 v 2
∆T = T1 − T2 ≅ ( 2 )
c c
3 4
 The Michelson-Morley Experiment (III) The Two Postulates
The two postulates in the theory of special relativity are:
Using v=30 km/s, the expected shift was about 0.4 fringe. 1. The principle of relativity: All physical laws have the
Even though they were able to detect shifts smaller than same form in all inertia frames.
1/20 of a fringe, they found nothing.
2. The universal speed of light: The speed of light in free
space is the same in all inertial frames. It does not depend
Possibilities:
on the motion of the source or the observer.
z The ether was dragged with the Earth.
z No ether. Both postulates are restricted to inertial frames. This is why
the theory is special.
z Constant light speed.
•The principle of relativity extends the concept of covariance
from mechanics to all physical laws.
•The constancy of the speed of light is difficult to accept at first.
All the experimental consequences have confirmed its
5 correctness. 6

Some Preliminaries Some Preliminaries (II)

Event: Event is something that occurs at a single point in A reference frame is assumed
space at a single instant in time. to consist of many observers
Observer: An observer is ether a person, or an automatic uniformly spread through the
device, with a clock and a meter stick. Each observers can space. Each observer has a
record events only in the immediate vicinity. meter stick and a clock to make
measurements only in the
Reference frame: A reference frame is a whole set of immediate vicinity.
observers uniformly distributed in space. The frame in which
an object is at rest is called its rest frame.
To synchronize four equally spaced clocks, a signal is sent
Synchronization of clocks: It is extremely important to out by clock A to trigger the other clocks---each of which has
define precisely what is meant by the time in a given been set ahead by the amount of time it takes to travels from
reference frame. This requires a careful procedure for the A to the given clock.
synchronization of clocks.

7 8
 Relativity of Simultaneity Relativity of Simultaneity
How can we determine whether two events at different (another example)
locations are simultaneous?
Two events at different locations are simultaneous if an Two events that are simultaneous in one inertial
observer midway between them receives the flashes at the system are not, in general, simultaneous in another.
same instant.
Relativity of Simultaneity: Spatially separated events that
are simultaneous in one frame are not simultaneous in
another, moving relative to the first.

9 10

Geometry of Relativity: Time Dilation Time Dilation (II)

How does the relative motion of two frames affects the Now let us find the time interval recorded in the frame S, in
measured time interval between two events? which the clock has velocity v. The time interval ∆t in frame
S measured by two observers A and B at different positions.

∆t 2 ∆t
(c ⋅ ) = L20 + (v ⋅ ) 2
2L0 2 2
τ=
c 2L 1
T = ∆t = 0 ⋅ ( )
c 1− v / c
2 2

1
A proper time, τ, is the time interval between two events as
T = γ T0 where γ =
measured in the rest frame of a clock. In this frame both
1 − v2 / c2
events occur at the same position. (Note: properÆown), Note that we have used c as the speed of light in both
11 frames---in accord with the second postulate. 12
 Time Dilation (III) Time Dilation (IV)
Since γ>1, the time interval T measured in frame S (by two
Another example: clocks) is greater than the proper time, T0, registed by the
clock in its rest frame S’. The effect is called time dilation.
h
τ= (proper time) Two spatially separated clocks, A and B, record a greater
c time interval between two events than the proper time
recorded by a single clock that moves from A to B and is
h 2 + (v∆t ) 2 1 h present at both events.
∆t = ⇒ ∆t =
c 1− v / c c
2 2

1
∆t = γτ , where γ = 1
1 − v2 / c2 γ=
1− v2 / c2
Moving clocks run slow.
13 14

Example of Time Dilation Geometry of Relativity: Length Contraction

Experimental evidence (muon decay): Consider a rod AB at rest in frame S, as shown below. The
The reality of time dilation was verified in an experiment distance between its ends is its proper length L0:
performed in 1941. The proper length, L0, of an object is the space interval
Rest frame at ground: An elementary particle, the muon (µ), between its ends measured in the rest frame of the object.
decays into other particle. The particle decay rate is
N = N 0 e − t /τ
where τ = 2.2 µs is called the mean lifetime.
Moving frame at the upper atmosphere: Another source of
generating muon is bombarded with cosmic ray protons. The
muon generated with this method has the speed of v=0.995c.
The mean lifetime is 10 times longer than their cousins that
decay at rest in the laboratory.
15 16
 Length Contraction (II) Length Contraction (III)
Another example:
An observer O’ in Frame S’, which moves at velocity v
relative to frame S, can measure the rod’s length. By
recording the interval b times at which O’ passes A and B.
The measurements in the two frames are

Frame S : L0 = ∆x = v∆t  1 L0 =
cτ
 ⇒ L = L0
(L0 : proper length)
2
Frame S ′ : L = ∆x′ = v∆t ′ γ L + v∆t1 L − v ∆t 2
∆t1 = , ∆t2 =
c c
L L L 1
∆t1 = , ∆t2 = ⇒ ∆t = ∆t1 + ∆t2 = 2
c−v c+v c 1 − v2 / c2
c 1 c 1 1
L= ∆t = γτ = L0
2γ 2
2γ 2
γ

17
Moving objects are shortened. 18

Effects of Length Contraction (I) Length Contraction Effects (II)

distortion rest frame

v = 0 .0 c v = 0. 5 c

muon frame

v = 0.95 c v = 0.99 c

19 20
 The Twin Paradox The Barn and Ladder Paradox
Nothing in the theory of relativity catches the imagination
more than the so-called twin paradox.
Twin A stays on earth while twin B travels at high speed to a
nearby start. When B returns, they both find that A has aged
more than B.
The paradox arises because of the apparent symmetry of before farmer’s view
the situation: In B’s frame, it is A that leaves and returns, so
one should also find that B has aged more than A.
Who’s right?
A > B
? What’s going on?
B > A ladder’s view

21 22

The Lorentz Transformation The Addition of Velocity

The laws of electromagnetism are not covariant with respect
to the Galiliean transformation. However with Lorentz
dx = γ (dx′ + vt ′) = γdt ′(u ′x + v)
transformation they are covariant. The space and time are vdx′ u′ v
related shown as follows: dt = γ (dt ′ + 2 ) = γdt ′(1 + x2 )
c c
Rest frame
x′ = γ ( x − vt ) Taking the ratio of these equations we find
u ′x + v
vx
t ′ = γ (t − 2 ) ux =
c 1 + u ′x v c 2
Moving frame
x = γ ( x′ + vt ′) A extreme case
c+v
vx′ when u ′x = c, we have u x = =c
t = γ (t ′ + 2 ) 1 + cv c 2
c 23 24
 Covariant Vector, Contravariant Vector,
The Structure of Spacetime: (i) Four-vectors
and Invariant Quantity
v aµ = ( a0 a3 )
x 0 ≡ ct , x1 = x, x 2 = y, x3 = z , and β = the covariant vector (row): aµ
a1 a2
c
(
≡ − a0 a1 a 2 a3 )
x 0 = γ ( x 0 − β x1 ), 
 a  0

x 1 = γ ( x1 − β x 2 )   1
 the Lorentz transformations the contravariant vector (column): a µ aµ =  2 
a
x 2 = x2  a 
  3 
x =x
3 3
a 
 x0   γ −γβ 0 0   x0  invariant quantity under Lorentz transformation
 1   
 x  =  −γβ γ the Einstein
0 0   x1  3
 b0 
x µ = ∑ Λ vµ x v summation convention
 1
 x2   0 0 1 0   x2 
aµ b µ = a µ bµ
( )
3
3 b 
v =0
 3     aµ b µ = ∑ aµ b µ = − a 0 a1 a 2
0 1   x3 
a
x   0 0 v =0
 b2 
 3 
b 
the Lorentz transformation matrix 25 = −a 0b0 + a1b1 + a 2b 2 + a 3b3 = − a 0b 0 + a 1b 1 + a 2b 2 + a 3b 3 26

The Invariant Interval Space-Time Diagrams (Minkowski Diagrams)

( ) (
Two event A and B occurs at x A0 , x1A , x A2 , x 3A and xB0 , x1B , xB2 , xB3 )
lightlike (I = 0, c 2t 2 = d 2 )
the displacement 4-vector: ∆x µ ≡ x Aµ − xBµ

the interval between two events: I ≡ ∆xµ ∆x µ = −c 2t 2 + d 2

timelike I < 0 (c 2 t 2 > d 2 )

spacelike I > 0 (c 2t 2 < d 2 )
lightlike I = 0 (c 2t 2 = d 2 )
timelike (I < 0, c 2t 2 > d 2 )

27 spacelike (I > 0, c 2t 2 < d 2 ) ? Occurs at the same time. 28

 12.2 Relativistic Mechanics Proper Velocity 4-Vector (4-velocity)
12.2.1 Proper Time and Proper Velocity Proper time τ is invariant, whereas “ordinary” time t depends
How to define the velocity? on the particular reference frame.

Imagine you are on a flight to Moon, and the pilot announces Proper velocity has an enormous advantage over ordinary
that the plane’s velocity relative to ground is 4/5c. velocity: it transforms simply.
dl dx µ The numerator, dx µ , is a displacement 4-vector;
u= the ordinary velocity µ
η ≡
dt dτ The denominator, dτ , is invariant.
However, your watch runs slow due to time dilation. You η 0 = γ (η 0 − βη 1 ), 
might be more interested in the distance covered per unit 
η 1 = γ (η 1 − βη 2 )  µ µ v
proper time.  More generally, η = Λ v η
dl 1 η =η
2 2

η= = u the proper velocity η =η
3 3 
dτ 1 − u 2 / c2 dct dt c
η0 = =c =
Which definition is more preferable/useful? 29 dτ dτ 1 − u 2 / c2 30

Mass-Energy Equivalence 12.2.2 Relativistic Energy and Momentum

Mass-energy equivalence: Since no internal process How to define the momentum?
can even move the center of mass of a system, we can
derive mass-energy equivalence. In classical mechanics Momentum is mass times velocity, but
immediately a question arise: Should we use ordinary
velocity or proper velocity? There is no priori reason to favor
E EL one over the other.
= mv, ∆x = v∆t = p ≡ mη =
mu
the relativistic momentum
c Mc 2 1 − u 2 / c2
− M∆x + mL = 0
= mrelu mrel : the relativistic mass
dt mc E
p 0 = mη 0 = mc = =
E = mc 2
dτ 1− u / c
2 2 c
2
mc
where E ≡ relativistic energy
31
1 − u 2 / c2 32
 Kinetic Energy Conservation and Invariant
Conserved quantity: same value before and after some
How to define the kinetic energy? process.
The relativistic kinetic energy is the total energy minus the Invariant quantity: same value in all inertia frame.
rest energy:
Mass is invariant, but not conserved.
mc 2 Charge is both conserved and invariant.
Ekin = E − Eres = − mc 2
1− u / c
2 2 Energy is conserved, but not invariant.
1u 2
3 u4 Momentum is conserved, but not invariant.
= mc 2 (1 + + + ... − 1)
2 c2 8 c4
Velocity is neither conserved nor invariant.
1 3 mu 4
= mu 2 + + ...
µ
2 8 c2 Invariant: p pµ = −( p ) + ( p ⋅ p ) = − m c
0 2 2 2

K=
1 E2
mu 2 the classical defination of the kinetic energy ⇒ 2 − p 2 = m2c 2
2 c
33 34

12.2.3 Relativistic Kinematics Massless Particle: Photon

Explore some applications of the conservation law to particle In classical mechanics there is no such thing as a massless
decays and collisions. particle.

Example 12.7 Two lumps of clay, each In special relativity, p and E are still proportional to m. If u=c,
of (rest) mass m, collide head-on at 3/5c. then the zero numerator is balanced by a zero in the
They stick together. Question: what is denominator, leaving p and E indeterminate (zero over zero).
the mass (M) of the composite lump?  mu 0
 p = =
 1 − u 2 / c2 0
When u = c and m = 0, ⇒ 
E = mc 2 0
Example 12.8 A pion at rest decays into =
a muon and a neutrino. Find the energy  1− u / c
2 2 0
of the outgoing muon, in terms of the A massless particle could carry energy and momentum,
two masses, mπ and mµ (assume mµ=0) provided it always travels at the speed of light.

Does it make any sense? 35 E = pc = hv photon 36

 The Compton Effect (Example 12.9) The Compton Effect (ii)
The derivation of Compotn’s scattering: Classically an For known X ray frequency and final particle momentums
electromagnetic wave carries moment given by p=E/c. We can further solve these two equations.
Conservation of linear momentum: ( pλ − pλ ′ cos θ ) 2 + ( pλ ′ sin θ ) 2 = p 2
 px : pλ = pλ ′ cos θ + p cos φ ( pλ − pλ ′ ) 2 + 2( pλ − pλ ′ )m0 c = p 2

 p y : 0 = pλ ′ sin θ − p sin φ p=
hf h
=
c λ Further solving these two equations, we obtain
( pλ − pλ ′ cos θ ) 2 + ( pλ ′ sin θ ) 2 = p 2 (1)
( pλ − pλ ′ )m0 c = pλ pλ ′ (1 − cos θ )
Conservation of energy:
1 1 1
− = (1 − cos θ )
hf = hf ′ + K ; K = (γ − 1)m0 c 2 pλ ′ pλ m0 c
(cpλ − cpλ ′ ) = K ⇒ ∆λ =
h
(1 − cos θ )
 2 m0 c
 K + 2 Km0 c = c p
2 2 2
h
= 0.00243 nm is called the Compton wavelength.
( pλ − pλ ′ ) 2 + 2( pλ − pλ ′ )m0 c = p 2 (2) m0 c
37 38

12.2.4 Relativistic Dynamics Work-Energy Theorem

Newton’s laws
The work-energy theorem (“the net work done on a particle
Newton’s first law is built into the principle of relativity. equals the increase in its kinetic energy”) holds relativistically.
dp mu
F= , where p = = mrelu
Newton’s second law retains its validity in relativistic dt 1 − u 2 / c2
mechanics, provided we use the relativistic momentum. dp dp dl d mu
dp mu W ≡ ∫ F ⋅ dl = ∫ ⋅ dl = ∫ ⋅ dt = ∫ ( ) ⋅ udt
F= where p = = mrelu dt dt dt dx 1 − u 2 / c 2
dt 1 − u 2 / c2
d  mu  1  dmu 1 −udu 
  ⋅u =  1 − u 2 / c2 − mu ⋅u
Newton’s third law does not, in general, extend to the dt  1 − u 2 / c 2  1− u / c 
2 2
dt 2
1 − u 2 / c 2 c dt 
relativistic domain due to the relativity of simultaneously. 1  u2 du u 2 du  1  du 
= 3 
(1 − 2 )mu + 2 mu  = 3 
mu 
 dt 
(1 − u 2 / c 2 ) 2 
c dt c dt 
Only in the case of contact interactions, where the two forces (1 − u 2 / c 2 ) 2
are applied at the same physical point, can the third law be d  mc 2  dE dE
retained. =  = ⇒ W =∫ dt = Efinal − Einitial
39 dt  1 − u / c  dt
2 2 dt 40
 The Ordinary Force and The Minkowski Force Example 12.12: Hidden momentum
The ordinary force: F is the derivative of momentum with As a model for a magnetic dipole m, consider a rectangular
respect to ordinary time, transformation is ugly (both the loop of wire carrying a steady current. Picture the current as a
numerator and denominator must be transformed). stream of noninteracting positive charges that move freely
dp y dp y dp y dt Fy within the wire. When a uniform electric field E is applied, the
Fy = = = =
dt γ (dt − c dx) γ (1 − c u x ) γ (1 − βc u x )
β β
charges accelerate in the left segment and deccelerate in the
dp dpz dpz dt Fz right one. Find the total momentum of all charges in the loop.
Fz = z = = =
dt γ (dt − c dx) γ (1 − c u x ) γ (1 − βc u x )
β β
Solution:
dpx dp 0 dpx β dE
−β − The current is the same in all four
dp γ (dpx − β dp ) dt
0
dt = dt c dt
Fx = x = = segments I=λu.
dt γ (dt − βc dx) (1 − βc u x ) (1 − βc u x )
eN + eN Il
I= u+ = − u− so N ± u± =
The Minkowski force: K is the derivative of momentum with l l e
respect to proper time. Relativistic momentum is
dp dt dp F dp µ p = γ + mN + u+ − γ − mN −u− = (γ + − γ − )m
Il
≠0
K≡ = = , Kµ ≡
dτ dτ dt 1 − u 2 / c2 dτ 41 e 42

Hidden momentum (relativistic effect) 12.3 Relativistic Electrodynamics

The gain in energy (γmc2) is equal to the work done by the 12.3.2 How the Fields Transform
electric force E. We have learned that one observer’s electric field is
IlEw another’s magnetic field.
(γ + − γ − )mc 2 = eEw ⇒ p = 2
c What are the general transformation rules for electromagnetic
Ilw is the magnetic dipole moment of the loop
fields?
as vectors m points into the page,
and p is to the right, so Let’s start with “Charge invariant”.
1
p = 2 (m × E) Consider the simplest possible electric field.
c
A magnetic dipole in an electric field carries linear
momentum, even though it is not moving. σ0
E0 = yˆ σ
E= yˆ
This so-called hidden momentum is strictly relativistic, ε0 ε0
and purely mechanical.
A more realistic model for a current-carrying wire can be found in the supplement. 43 44
See V. Hnizdo, Am. J. Phys. 65, 92 (1997).
 The Transformation of The Electric Field Example 12.13: The E-field of a moving point chagre.
Are we sure that the field is still perpendicular A point charge q is at rest at the origin in system S0. Question:
to the plates? What is the electric field of this same charge in system S,
What if the field of a moving plane tilted, say, which moves to the right at speed v0 relative to S0?
in the direction of motion? It doesn’t. Solution:

The total charge on each plate is invariant.

Q = σ 0l0 w0 = σ lw where l = 1 − v02 / c 2 l0 and w = w0
1 perpendicular
σ= σ 0 = γ 0σ 0 ⇒ E⊥ = γ 0 E0⊥ components
1 − v0 / c
2 2

Q = σ 0l0 w0 = σ lw,
where l = l0 and w = w0
parallel
σ = σ 0 ⇒ E // = E0// components Very efficient as compared with Chap.10 Eq. 10.68.
45 46

The Transformation of The Magnetic Field The Transformation of The Magnetic Field
K ± = ∓σ v0 xˆ γ vv 1
To derive the general rule we must = γ (1 + 20 ) and c 2 = ⇒ E y = γ ( E y − vBz )
start out in a system with both electric γ0 c ε 0 µ0
v
and magnetic fields. ⇒ Bz = γ ( Bz − Ey )
σ c2
Ey = and Bz = − µ0σ v0
ε0
In a third system, S, traveling to the v is the velocity ⇒ Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy )
of S relative to S0 Ex = Ex
right with speed v relative to S, the field v
⇒ By = γ ( By + Ez )
would be σ c2
Ey = and Bz = − µ0σ v
ε0
v + v0 1
v= , γ = , σ = γσ 0
1 + vv0 / c 2 1 − v 2 / c2 Bx = Bx
Ex = Ex E y = γ ( E y − vBz ) Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy )

γσ 0 γ σ 1 Bx = Bx By = γ ( By +
v
Bz = γ ( Bz −
v
Ey = = ( ) , where γ = c2
Ez )
c2
Ey )
ε0 γ 0 ε0 1 − v2 / c2 47 48
 Two Special Cases 12.3.3 The Field Tensor
Ex = Ex E y = γ ( E y − vBz ) Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy ) E and B certainly do not transform like the spatial parts of the
v v two 4-vectors (4-velocity and 4-momentum).
Bx = Bx By = γ ( By + Ez ) Bz = γ ( Bz − Ey )
c2 c2 What sort of an object is this, which has six components and
1. If B=0 in S, then transforms according previous results?
v v
B=γ( 2
Ez )yˆ − γ ( 2 Ez )zˆ Answer: Antisymmetric, second-rank tensor.
c c
1 t 00 t 01 t 02 t 03 
= − 2 ( v × E) where v = vxˆ t µ v = t vµ
(symmetric tensor,
c  10  10 distinct components)
t t13 
11 12
t t
t µv =  20 21 
t t t 22 t 23  (antisymmetric tensor,
2. If E=0 in S, then t µv = −t vµ
t 30 t 31
t 32
t 33  6 distinct components)
E = −γ v( Bz yˆ − By zˆ ) = −v( Bz yˆ − By zˆ )  0 t 01 t 02 t 03 
= v×B  01 
where v = vxˆ  −t 0 t12 t13 
t µv =  02 
49
−t −t12 0 t 23 
50
 −t 03 −t13 −t 23 0 

The Tensor Transformation The Field Tensor and The Dual Tensor
 γ −γβ 0 0 Ex Ey E
−γβ F 01 ≡ , F 02 ≡ , F 03 ≡ z , F 12 ≡ Bz , F 31 ≡ By , F 23 ≡ Bx .
a v = Λ λv a λ 4-vector transformation  γ 0 0  c c c
Λ= 
t µ v = Λ λµ Λσv t λσ tensor transformation  0 E / c E / c Ez / c 
 0 0 1 0
− E / c
x y

 0 0 0 1   x 0 Bz − By 
F µv =  the field tensor
Work out the following transformation: − E y / c − Bz 0 Bx 
 − Ez / c By − Bx 0 
t 01 = t 01 t 02 = γ (t 02 − β t12 ) t 03 = γ (t 03 + β t 31 )
t 23 = t 23 t 31 = γ (t 31 + β t 03 ) t 12 = γ (t12 − β t 02 )
There was a different way of imbedding E and B in an
By direct comparison, we can construct the field tensor F µv antisymmetric tensor.
 0 Bx By Bz 
Ex = Ex E y = γ ( E y − vBz ) Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy ) −B − Ez / c E y / c 
 x 0
G µv =  the dual tensor
Bx = Bx By = γ ( By +
v
Ez ) Bz = γ ( Bz −
v
Ey )  − By Ez / c 0 − Ex / c 
c2 c2  − Bz − E y / c Ex / c 0 
51 52
 12.3.4 Electrodynamics in Tensor Notation Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor Notation (i)
Reformulate the laws of electrodynamics (Maxwell’s Maxwell’s equations can be written in the following forms.
equations and the Lorentz force law) in relativistic notation.
∂F µv Gauss’s law
= µ0 J u
How the sources of the fields, ρ and J, transform? ∂x v Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction
Q Q
ρ= and J = ρ u, where ρ0 = (the proper charge density) ∂F µ v ∂F 00 ∂F 01 ∂F 02 ∂F 03
V V0 µ =0 = + 1 + 2 + 3 = µ0 J 0
V ∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
ρ = ρ0 0 = γρ0 , where V = 1 − u 2 / c 2 V0 (length contraction) 1 ∂Ex ∂E y ∂Ez ρ
V ( + + ) = µ0 c ρ ⇒ ∇⋅E =
J = ρ u = γρ0u = ρ0 (γ u) = ρ0 η, where η = γ u (proper velocity) c ∂x ∂y ∂z ε0
∂F 1v ∂F 10 ∂F 11 ∂F 12 ∂F 13
The current density 4-vector: J µ = (c ρ , J x , J y , J z ) µ =1 = + 1 + 2 + 3 = µ0 J 1
∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
Conservation of charge: 1 ∂Ex ∂Bz ∂B 1 ∂E
− 2 + − = µ0 J x → ( − 2 + ∇ × B) x = µ0 ( J ) x
y

∂J x ∂J y ∂J z 3
∂J i c ∂t ∂y ∂z c ∂t
∇⋅J = + + =∑ i
∂ρ ∂x ∂y ∂z i =0 ∂x ∂J µ
∇⋅J = − =0 1 ∂E ∂E
∂t ∂ρ ∂ (c ρ ) ∂J 0 + µ = 2 and 3 (− + ∇ × B) y , z = µ0 J y , z ⇒ ∇ × B − µ 0ε 0 = µ0 J
∂x µ c 2 ∂t ∂t
− =− =− 0 53 54
∂t ∂ (ct ) ∂x

Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor Notation (ii) The Minkouski Force and Relativistic Potentials
Maxwell’s equations can be written in the following forms. The Minkowski force on a charge q is given by
∂G µv Faraday’s law K=
1
q[E + (u × B)] =
1
F
=0
∂x v Gauss’s law for magnetic field 1 − u 2 / c2 1 − u 2 / c2
∂G 0 v ∂G 00 ∂G 01 ∂G 02 ∂G 03 The electric and magnetic fields can be expressed in terms of
µ =0 = + 1 + + =0
∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x3 a scalar potential and a vector potential.
∂B ∂By ∂Bz ∂A
( x+ + )=0 ⇒ ∇⋅B = 0 E = −∇V − B = ∇× A
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂G1v ∂G10 ∂G11 ∂G12 ∂G13 Aµ = (V c , Ax , Ay , Az ) 4-vector potential
µ =1 = + 1 + 2 + 3 =0
∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
1 ∂Bx 1 ∂Ez 1 ∂E y ∂B ∂Av ∂Aµ
− − + =0 → ( + ∇ × E) x = 0 F µv = − the definition of the field tensor
c ∂t c ∂y c ∂z ∂t ∂xµ ∂xv
∂B ∂B ∂Aµ
+ µ = 2 and 3 ( + ∇ × E) y , z = 0 ⇒ ∇×E + =0 =0 the Lorentz gauge
∂t ∂t ∂x µ
55 56
 39.3 Covariance
Homework of Chap.12 Covariance: The laws of mechanics are covariance---they
retain their form---with respective to Galiliean transformation.
Newton’s second low, F=ma, in one frame has the same form,
F’=ma’, in another. However, the Maxwell’s equations does
not satisfy this requirement when applying the Galiliean
Prob. 3, 4, 6, 25, 30, 33, 38, 46
transformation.
x′ = x − vt; t ′ = t
Three Problems:
1. The force between the charge depends on the frame of
reference employed.
2. Maxwell’s equations are valid in only one special frame
with the Galiliean transformation.
3. The applied electromagnetism law will change with
57 reference frame. 58

The Relativistic Doppler Effect The Relativistic Doppler Effect (II)

In the classical Doppler effect for sound waves, the In order to obtain the Doppler effect, we have to calculate
observed frequency depends differently on the velocities of the time interval measured in two frames. Note that the time
the source and the observer. The underlying reason is that dilation is assumed in the following calculation.
for sound there is a medium (the air) that serves as an
“absolute” reference frame. d v
(a) Source at rest, observer moves (b) Source moves, observer at rest = γ (1 + )T0
T = ∆t +
(velocity modulation) (wavelength modulation)
c c
v′ v ± vo v v c+v
f′= = fo f′= = fo T= T0
λo v λ ′ v ± vs c−v
Longitudinal Transverse
In contrast, for light there is no absolute frame: The
relativistic Doppler effect for light depends only on the c−v 1
f = fo f = fo
relative velocity between the source and the observer. c+v γ
59 60