Systems with first-order dynamic behavior are not the only ones encountered in a

chemical process. An output may change under the influence of an input, in a drastically
different way than that of a first order system, following higher-order dynamics.

WHAT IS A SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM?

A second-order system is one whose output, Y(t), is described by the solution of a

second-order differential equation.

A second-order transfer function will be developed by considering a classical example

from mechanics. This is the damped vibrator, which is shown in the figure below

Figure 1: Damped Vibrator

Consider the block at some instant when it is to the right of Y = 0 and when it is moving
toward the right (positive direction). Under these conditions, the position Y and the velocity df/dt
arc both positive. At this particular instant, the following forces are acting on the block:

1. The force exerted by the spring (toward the left) of -KY where K is a positive constant, called
Hooke’s constant.

2. The viscous friction force (acting to the left) of -C dY/dt, where C is a positive constant called
the damping coefficient.

3. The external force F(t) (acting toward the right).

Newton’s law of motion, which states that the sum of all forces acting on the mass is
equal to the rate of change of momentum (mass X acceleration), takes the form

W d2Y dY
Ft=
( ) 2
+C + KY
gc d t dt

Where. W = mass of block, lb

l bm −ft
gc = 32.2
lb f −s 2

C = viscous damping coefficient, lbf / (ft/sec)

 K = Hooke’s constant, lbf /ft

F(t) = driving force

For convenience, this is written as

2 d2Y dY
τ 2
+2 ζ τ +Y = X (t)
dt dt

Where,

W
τ 2=
gc K

C
2ζ τ=
K

F (t )
X ( t )=
K

Whereas,

W
τ=
√ gc K

g c C2
ζ=
4 WK √
If the block is motionless (dY/dt = 0) and located at its rest position (Y = 0) before the
forcing function is applied becomes

τ 2 s2 Y ( s ) +2 ζ τY ( s ) +Y ( s )=X (s)

Thus, the transfer function follows

Y ( s) 1
= 2 2
X (s) τ s +2 ζ τ +1

Note: It requires two parameters, τ and ζ, to characterize the dynamics of a second-order system

Systems with second or higher-order dynamics can arise from several physical situations.
These can be classified into three categories:

1. Multicapacity Processes i.e. processes which consist of two or morecapacities (first-

order systems) in series, through which material or energy must flow.
2. Inherently Second-Order Systems, like the fluid or mechanical solid components of
a process which possess inertia and are subjected to acceleration. Such systems are
rare in chemical processes.
 3. A Processing System with its Controller, may exhibit second or higher order
dynamics. In such cases, the controller which has been installed on a processing unit
introduces additional dynamics which, when together with the dynamics of the unit,
give rise to second or higher-order behavior.

STEP RESPONSE

1
X ( s )=
s

In terms of the damped vibrator shown, this is equivalent to suddenly applying a force of
magnitude K directed toward the right at time t = 0. This follows from the fact that X is defined
by the relationship X(t) = F(t)/K .

1 1
Y ( s )= ( 2 2 )
s τ s +2 ζ τ +1

The quadratic term in this equation may be factored into two linear terms that contain the
roots

−ζ √ ζ 2−1
S1= +
τ τ

−ζ √ ζ 2−1
S2 = −
τ τ

Thus,

1
τ2
Y ( s )=
s ( s−s1 ) ( s−s2 )

Case I: Step Response for ζ < 1.

1
For this case, the inversion of Y ( s )= τ2 yields the result,
s ( s−s1 ) ( s−s2 )

1−ζ 2
−ζt
sin ⁡( √1−ζ 2 + √
1 (
τ
) t
Y ( f ) =1− e )
√1−ζ 2 τ ζ

Since ζ < 1 the equations indicate a pair of complex conjugate roots in the left-half plane
and a root at the origin. The complex roots correspond to S 2 and S2* and the root at the origin to
S6.

−ζt
τ
Y ( f ) =C1 +e ¿
 The constant C1, C2 and C3 are found by partial fractions. The response of a second-order
system for ζ < 1 is said to be under-damped.

Case II: Step Response for ζ = 1.

For this case, the response is given by the expression

−t
1
( )
Y ( t ) =1− 1+
τ
e τ

This condition is called critical dumping and allows most rapid approach of response to
Y = 1 with oscillation.

Case III: Step Response for ζ >1.

For this case, the response is given by the expression

−ζt
t ζ t
Y ( t ) =1−e τ
( cos h √ ζ 2−1 + 2 sinh √ ζ 2−1 )
τ √ ζ −1 τ

This is known as an over-dumped response.

Figure 2. Response of a second-order system to a unit-step forcing function

Table 1 Summary of Step Response

Case I Number of roots Description of Response

I <1 Complex Underdamped or oscillatory
II =1 Real / equal Critically damped
III >1 Real Overdamped or nonoscillatory

Terms used to describe an underdamped second-order response

Figure 3. Terms used to describe an underdamped second-order response

1. Overshoot. It is a measure of how much the response exceeds the ultimate value
following a step change and is expressed as the ratio A/B in Figure 3.
−πζ
( )
√ 1−ζ 2
Overshoot =e
2. Decay Ratio. The decay ratio is defned as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaks and is
given by CIA in Figure 3.
−2 πζ
( )
√1−ζ 2
Decay Ratio=e =( Overshoot )∗¿
3. Rise Time. This is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate value and
is labeled T in Figure 3.
4. Response Time. This is the time required or the response to come within ±5 percent of
its ultimate value and remain there.

5. Period of Oscillation. The radian frequency is the coefficient of t in the sine term.
 √ 1−ζ 2
ω=
τ

Since the radian frequency ω is related to the cyclical frequency f by ω = 2πf, it

follows that

1 1 √1−ζ 2
f= = ( )
T 2π τ

Where, T is the period of oscillation (time/cycle). In terms of Figure 3, T is the time elapsed
between peaks. It is also the time elapsed between alternate crossings of the line Y=1.

6. Natural Period of Oscillation. The system oscillates continuously without attenuation in

amplitude. Under these “natural” or undamped conditions, the radian frequency is 1/π.
1
ω n=
τ
The corresponding natural cyclical frequency fn and the period Tn arer related by the
expression
1 1
f n= =
T n 2 πτ
Thus, τ has the significance of the undamped period. The natural frequency is related to
the actual frequency by the expression
f
= √1−ζ 2
fn

Summary: It is evident that ζ is a measure of the degree of damping, or the oscillatory character,
and τ is a measure of the period, or speed, of the response of a second-order system

IMPULSE RESPONSE

If a unit impulse ζ(t) is applied to the second-order system, the transform of the response
is

1
Y ( s )= 2 2
τ s + 2ζτs +1

The nature of the response to a unit impulse will depend on whetherthw roots of the denominator
of the transform response equation are real or complex.

Case I: Impulse Response for ζ<1

1
Y (t)= ¿
τ

Case II: Impulse Response for ζ = 1

 −t
1 τ
Y (t)= 2 t e
τ

Case III: Impulse Response for ζ > 1

−ζt
1 1 t
Y ( t ) = ( 2 )e τ
sinh √ ζ 2−1
τ √ ζ −1 τ

Figure 4 Response of a second-order system to a unit – impulse forcing function

Summary: The impulse-response curves in Figure 4 show the same general behavior as the ste-
response curves at Figure 2. However, the impulse response always returns to zero. Terms such
as decay ratio, period of oscillation, etc., may also be used to describe the impulse response.

SINUSOIDAL RESPONSE

If the forcing function applied to the second-order system is sinusoidal,

X ( t )= A sin ωt

Aω/τ 2
Y ( s )=
( s− jω )( s+ jω ) ( s−s 1 ) (s−s 2)
 Here is s1and s2 are roots of the denominator of the transfer function. For the case of an
underdamped system (ζ<1), the roots of the denominator are a pair of imaginary roots
contributed by the forcing function and a pair of complex roots

Higher Order System

Systems with higher than second-order dynamics are not uncommon in chemical
processes, there are the most often encountered classes of higher-order systems:

1. N first-order processes in series (multicapacity processes)

2. Processes with dead-time
3. Processes with inverse response

N CAPACITIES IN SERIES

It is found that two capacities in series, interacting or non-interacting, give rise to a

second-order system. If we extend the same procedure to N capacities (first-order systems) in
series, we find that the overall response is of n-th order, i.e. the denominator of the overall
transfer function is an n-th order polynomial,

a n sn +a n−1 sn−1 …+a o

A. NON-INTERACTING N CAPACITIES IN SERIES

 The response has the characteristics of an overdamped system, i.e. it is not

oscillatory and very sluggish.
 Increasing the number of capacities in series increases the sluggishness of the
response.

B. INTERACTING N CAPACITIES IN SERIES

 Interaction increases the sluggishness of the overall response. It is clear therefore,

that a process with N capacities in series will necessitate a controller which will
not only keep the final output at a desired value but will also try to improve the
speed of the system's response.