Universität Stuttgart Institut für Mechanik

Prof. Dr.-Ing. W. Ehlers

www. mechbau . uni-stuttgart.de

Vector and Tensor Calculus

An Introduction

e3
∗ ∗
e3 e2

α22
α21 e2
e1 α11 ∗
e1

Last Change: 10 April 2018

Chair of Continuum Mechanics, Pfaffenwaldring 7, D - 70 569 Stuttgart, Tel.: (0711) 685 - 66346
Contents

1 Mathematical Prerequisites 1
1.1 Basics of vector calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Fundamentals of tensor calculus 9

2.1 Introduction of the tensor concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Basic rules of tensor algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Specific tensors and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Change of the basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Higher order tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 Fundamental tensor of 3rd order (Ricci permutation tensor) . . . . . . . . 28
2.7 The axial vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8 The outer tensor product of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.9 The eigenvalue problem and the invariants of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3 Fundamentals of vector and tensor analysis 36

3.1 Introduction of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Functions of scalar variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Functions of vector and tensor variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Integral theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 Transformations between actual and reference configurations . . . . . . . . 47
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1 Mathematical Prerequisites

1.1 Basics of vector calculus

(a) Symbols, summation convention, Kronecker δ

Single- or multiple subscripts

ui −→ u1, u2 , u3 , ...
ui vk −→ u1 v1 , u1 v2 , u1 v3 , ...
u2 v1 , u2 v2 , ...
...
tik −→ t11 , t12 , ...
...

Summation convention of Einstein

Definition: Whenever the same subscript occurs twice in a term, a summation over
that “double” subscript has to be carried out.

Example:
uj vj = u1 v1 , + u2 v2 , + ... + un vn ,
Xn
= uj vj
j=1

Kronecker symbol

Definition: It exists a symbol δik with the following properties


 0 if i 6= k
δik =
 1 if i = k

Example:
ui δik = u1 δ1k + u2 δ2k + ... + un δnk

 u1 δ11 =


u1
 u1 δ12 =
 0
with u1 δ1k = ··

 ·


 u δ = 0
1 1n
−→ ui δik = uk

If the Kronecker symbol is multiplied with another quantity and if there is a double
subscript in this term, the Kronecker symbol disappears, the “double” subscript can be
dropped and the free subscript remains.

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Rem.: Subscripts occuring two times in a term can be renamed arbitrarily.

(b) Terms and definitions of vector algebra

Rem.: The following statements are related to the standard three-dimensional (3-d)
physical space, i. e. the Euclidean vector space V 3 .
Generally, SPACE is a mathematical concept of a set and does not directly refer
to the 3-d point space E 3 and the 3-d vector space V 3 .
A: Vector addition
Requirement: {u, v, w, ...} ∈ V 3

The following relations hold:

u+v = v+u : commutative law

u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w : associative law
u+0 = u : 0 : identity element of vector addition
u + (−u) = 0 : −u : inverse element of vector addition

Examples to the commutative and the associative law:

u+v v u+v v v+w

u u w
u
v v+u u+v+w

B: Multiplication of a vector with a scalar quantity

Requirement: {u, v, w, ...} ∈ V 3 ; {α, β, ...} ∈ R

1v = v : 1: identity element
α (β v) = (α β) v : associative law
(α + β) v = α v + β v : distributive law (addition of scalars)
α (v + w) = α v + α w : distributive law (addition of vectors)
αv = vα : commutative law

Rem.: In the general vector calculus, the definitions A and B constitute the “affine
vector space”.

Linear dependency of vectors

Rem.: In V 3 , 3 non-coplanar vectors are linearly independent; i. e. each further vector
can be expressed as an multiple of these vectors.

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Theorem: The vectors vi (i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n) are linearly dependent, if real numbers

αi exist which are not all equal to zero, such that

αi vi = 0 or α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αn vn = 0

Example (plane case):

v1 + v2 + v3 6= 0
v2 α2 v 2
but: α1 v1 + α2 v2 + α3 v3 = 0
v3
α1 v 1 α3 v 3 −→ {v1 , v2 , v3 }: linearly dependent
v1
−→ {v1 , v2 }: linearly independent

Rem.: The αi can be multiplied by any factor λ.

Basis vectors in V 3

ex. : {v1 , v2 , v3 } : linearly independent

then : {v1 , v2 , v3 , v} : linearly dependent

Thus, it follows that

α1 v 1 + α2 v 2 + α3 v 3 + λ v = 0
−→ λ v = −αi vi
−αi
or v = vi =: βi vi
λ
( −αi
βi = : coefficients (of the vector components)
with λ
vi : basis vectors of v

Choice of a specific basis

Rem.: In V 3 , each system of 3 linearly independent vectors can be selected as a basis;

e. g.

vi : general basis
ei : specific, orthonormal basis (Cartesian, right-handed)

v e3 v
v3
v2 e2
v1 e1

Basissystem vi Basissystem ei

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Representation of the vector v:

(
βi vi
v=
γi ei

here: Specific choice of the Cartesian basis system ei

Notations
v = vi ei = v1 e1 + v2 e2 + v3 e3
(
vi ei : vector components
with
vi : coefficients of the vector components

C: Scalar product of vectors

The following relations hold:

u·v = v·u : commutative law

u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w : distributive law
α (u · v) = u · (α v) = (α u) · v : associative law
u·v = 0 ∀ u, if v ≡ 0
−→ u · u 6= 0 , if u 6= 0

Rem.: The definitions A, B and C constitute the “Euclidean vector space”. If instead
of u · u 6= 0 especially
u · u > 0 , if u 6= 0,
holds, then A, B and C define the “proper Euclidean vector space V 3 ” (physical
space).

Square and norm of a vector

√
v2 := v · v , v = |v| = v2

Rem.: The norm is the value or the positive square root of the vector.

Angle between two vectors

v u−v
<
) (u ; v) =: α
α
u

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Law of cosines

|u − v|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 − 2 |u| |v| cos α

u2 + v2 − (u − v)2
−→ cos α =
2 |u| |v|
u·v
=
|u| |v|

or u · v = |u| |v| cos α

Scalar products (inner products) in an orthonormal basis

Scalar product of the basis vectors ei :

(
90◦ if i 6= k : cos 90◦ = 0
<) (ei ; ek )
0◦ if i = k : cos 0◦ = 1
thus

ei · ek = |ei | |ek | cos <

) (ei ; ek )
= cos <
) (ei ; ek )

It follows with the Kronecker δ

(
1 if i = k
ei · ek = δik =
0 if i 6= k

Scalar product of two vectors:

u · v = (ui ei ) · (vk ek )
= ui vk (ei · ek )
= ui vk δik
= ui vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3

D: Vector or cross product (outer product) of vectors

One defines the following vector product
u × v = |u| |v| sin <
) (u ; v) n
with n: unit vector ⊥ u , v (corkscrew rule or right-hand rule, see page 7)
From the above definiton, the following relations can be derived
u × v = −v × u : no commutative law
u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w : distributive law
α (u × v) = (α u) × v = u × (α v) : associative law

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Scalar triple product (parallelepidial product):

u · (v × w) = v · (w × u) = w · (u × v)

Arithmetic laws for the vector product (without proof)

u×u = 0
(u + v) × w = u × w + v × w
u · (u × v) = v · (u × u) = 0

Expansion theorem:
u × (v × w) = (u · w) v − (u · v) w

Lagrangean identity (Jean Louis Lagrange: 1736-1813):

(u × v) · (w × z) = (u · w) (v · z) − (u · z) (v · w)

Norm of the vector product:

|u × v| = |u| |v| sin <
) (u ; v)

Vector product in an orthonormal basis

here: simplified representation in matrix notation
Calculation of
 
 e1 e2 e3 
 
 
u = v × w =  v1 v2 v3 
 
 w w w 
1 2 3

= (v2 w3 − v3 w2 ) e1 − (v1 w3 − v3 w1 ) e2 + (v1 w2 − v2 w1 ) e3

Rem.: u ⊥ v, w ; i. e. u · v = u · w = 0 holds
Example:
u · v = ui vi = (v2 w3 − v3 w2 ) v1 − (v1 w3 − v3 w1 ) v2 + (v1 w2 − v2 w1 ) v3 = 0 q. e. d.

Remarks on the products between vectors

• on the scalar product
Decomposition of a vector (example: in 2-d):
u2
u = u1 + u2
u with u1 = u1 e1 and u2 = u2 e2
u2 β
e2
α u1 , u2 : vector components
u1
e1
u1 u1 , u2 : coefficients of the vector components

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Projection of u on the directions of ei :

ui = u · ei

Verification of the projection law:

u · ei = (uk ek ) · ei
= uk δki = ui q. e. d.
Calculation of the projections:
u1 = |u| |e1 | cos α
= |u| cos α = u cos α
with u = |u|
u2 = u cos β
= u cos (90◦ − α) = u sin α

Note: For the values of the vector components, the following relations hold

u2 u u1 = u cos α
α u2 = u sin α
u1

• on the vector product

Orientation of the vector u = v × w:
u

w (1) u ⊥ v, w
(2) corkscrew rule (right-hand rule)
α
v
It is obvious that
w

α z = w×v
v −→ v × w = − w × v

z
Value of the vector product:
w
w sin α |v × w| = |v| |w| sin α
α = v (w sin α)
v

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Note: The vector v × w is perpendicular to v and w (corkscrew orientation); its

value corresponds to the area spanned by v and w.

Scalar triple product (parallelepidial product):

u · (v × w) =: [ u v w ]
z
with z = v × w
u follows u · z = |u| |z| cos γ
= z (u cos γ)
w with (u cos γ) : projection of u on the direction of z
v
γ
Rem.: The parallelepidial product yields the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by
u, v and w.

Remark: The preceding and the following relations are valid with respect to an
arbitrary basis system. For simplicity, the following material is restricted
to the orthonormal basis, whenever a basis notation occurs. Concerning
a more general basis representation, cf., e. g., de Boer, R.: Vektor- und
Tensorrechnung für Ingenieure. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1982.

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2 Fundamentals of tensor calculus

Rem.: The following statements are related to the proper Euklidian vector space V 3
and the corresponding dyadic product space V 3 ⊗ V 3 ⊗ · · · ⊗ V 3 (n times) of
n-th order.

2.1 Introduction of the tensor concept

(a) Tensor concept and linear mapping

Definition: A 2nd order (2nd rank) tensor T is a linear mapping which transforms
a vector u uniquely in a vector w:

w = Tu

 3 3 3
 u, w ∈ V ; T ∈ L(V , V )
therein:
 L(V 3 , V 3 ) : set of all 2nd order tensors or linear
mappings of vectors, respectively

(b) Tensor concept and dyadic product space

Definition: There is a “simple tensor” (a ⊗ b) with the property

(a ⊗ b) c =: (b · c) a

(
a ⊗ b ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 (dyadic product space)
therein:
⊗ : dyadic product (binary operator of V 3 ⊗ V 3 )

It follows directly that

a ⊗ b ∈ L(V 3 , V 3 ) −→ V 3 ⊗ V 3 ⊂ L(V 3 , V 3 )
Rem.: (a ⊗ b) maps a vector c onto a vector d = (b · c) a .

Basis notation of a simple tensor:

A := a ⊗ b = (ai ei ) ⊗ (bk ek ) = ai bk (ei ⊗ ek )

ai bk : coefficients of the tensor components
with
ei ⊗ ek : tensor basis

Tensors A ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 have 9 independent components (and directions);

e. g. a1 b3 (e1 ⊗ e3 ) etc.

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Introduction of arbitrary tensors T ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 :

T = tik (ei ⊗ ek )
 
t11 t12 t13 
matrix of coefficients of T with
with tik =  t21 t22 t23  :
9 independent quantities
t31 t32 t33

2.2 Basic rules of tensor algebra

Requirement: {A, B, C, ...} ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 .

(a) Tensor addition

A+B = B+A : commutative law

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C : associative law
A+0 = A : 0 : identical element
A + (−A) = 0 : −A : inverse element

Tensor addition with respect to an orthonormal tensor basis:

A = aik (ei ⊗ ek ), B = bik (ei ⊗ ek )

−→ C = A + B = (aik + bik )(ei ⊗ ek )

| {z }
cik

Rem.: A tensor addition carried out as an addition of the tensor coefficients requires
that both tensors have the same tensor basis.

(b) Multiplication of tensors by a scalar

1A = A : 1 : identical element
α (β A) = (α β) A : associative law
(α + β) A = α A + β A : distributive law (with respect to the addition of scalars)
α (A + B) = α A + α B : distributive law (with respect to the addition of tensors)
αA = Aα : commutative law

(c) Linear mapping between tensor and vector

The following definitions make use of the linear mapping (cf. 2.1)
w = Tu

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Rem.: In the literature, the multiplication of a vector by a tensor is also called “con-
traction”.
The following relations hold:
A (u + v) = A u + A v : distributive law
A (α u) = α(A u) : associative law
(A + B) u = A u + B u : distributive law
(α A) u = α (A u) : associative law
0u = 0 : 0 : zero element of the linear mapping
Iu = u : I : identity element of the linear mapping

Linear mapping in basis notation:

A = aik (ei ⊗ ek ) , u = ui ei
A u = (aik ei ⊗ ek ) (uj ej ) = aik uj (ei ⊗ ek ) ej
One obtains

i : free index (basis index)
w = A u = aik uj δkj ei = aik uk ei mit
| {z } k : silent index (double index of wi )
wi
e3
Rem.: In general, a linear mapping A causes both u
a rotation and a stretch of a vector u. 0
e2
Au
e1
Identity tensor I ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 :
I = δik ei ⊗ ek = ei ⊗ ei
Proof of the defining property:
u = I u = (ei ⊗ ei ) uj ej = uj (ei ⊗ ei ) ej = uj δij ei = ui ei q. e. d.
Rem.: Tensors built from basis vectors are called fundamental tensors, i. e.

I ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 is the fundamental tensor of 2nd order.

(d) Scalar product of tensors (inner product)

The following relations hold:
A·B = B·A : commutative law
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C : distributive law
(α A) · B = A · (α B) = α (A · B) : associative law
A · B = 0 ∀ A , if B ≡ 0
−→ A · A > 0 for A 6= 0

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Scalar product of A with a simple tensor a ⊗ b ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 :

A · (a ⊗ b) = a · A b

Scalar product of A and B in basis notation:

A = aik (ei ⊗ ek ), B = bik (ei ⊗ ek )
α = A · B = aik (ei ⊗ ek ) · bst (es ⊗ et ) = aik bst (ei ⊗ ek ) · (es ⊗ et )
One obtains
α = aik bst δis δkt = aik bik

Rem.: The result of the scalar product is a scalar.

(e) Tensor product of tensors

Definition: The tensor product of tensors yields

(AB) v = A (B v)

Rem.: With this definition, the tensor product of tensors is directly linked to the linear
mapping (cf. 2.1 (a)).

The following relations hold:

(A B) C = A (B C) : associative law
A (B + C) = A B + A C : distributive law
(A + B) C = A C + B C : distributive law
α (A B) = (α A) B = A (α B) : associative law
IT = TI = T : I : identity element
0T = T0 = 0 : 0 : zero element

Rem.: In general, the commutative law is not valid, i. e. A B 6= B A.

Tensor product of simple tensors:

A= a⊗b, B=c⊗d
It follows with the above definition
(A B) v = A (B v)
−→ [ (a ⊗ b) (c ⊗ d) ] v = (a ⊗ b) [ (c ⊗ d) v ]
= (a ⊗ b) (d · v) c
= (b · c) (d · v) a
= [ (b · c) (a ⊗ d) ] v

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Consequence:
(a ⊗ b) (c ⊗ d) = (b · c) a ⊗ d

Tensor product in basis notation:

A B = aik (ei ⊗ ek ) bst (es ⊗ et )

= aik bst (ei ⊗ ek ) (es ⊗ et )
= aik bst δks (ei ⊗ et )
= aik bkt (ei ⊗ et )

Rem.: The result of a tensor product is a tensor.

2.3 Specific tensors and operations

(a) Transposed tensor

Definition: The transposed tensor AT belonging to A exhibits the property

w · (A u) = (AT w) · u

The following relations hold:

(A + B)T = AT + BT
(α A)T = α AT
(A B)T = BT AT

Transposition of a simple tensor a ⊗ b:

It follows with the above definition
w · (a ⊗ b) u = w · (b · u) a
= (w · a) (b · u)
= (b ⊗ a) w · u
−→ (a ⊗ b)T = b⊗a

Transposed tensor in basis notation:

A = aik (ei ⊗ ek )
−→ AT = aik (ek ⊗ ei )
= aki (ei ⊗ ek ) : renaming the indices

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Note: The transposition of a tensor A ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 can be carried out by an

exchange of the tensor basis or by an exchange of the subscripts of the
tensor coefficients.

(b) Symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor

Definition: A tensor A ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 is symmetric, if

A = AT

and skew-symmetric (antimetric), if

A = −AT

Symmetric and skew-symmetric parts of an arbitrary tensor A ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 :

1
sym A = 2
(A + AT )

1
skw A = 2
(A − AT )

−→ A = sym A + skw A

Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric tensors:

w · (sym A) v = (sym A) w · v
v · (skw A) v = − (skw A) v · v = 0

Positive definite symmetric tensors:

• sym A is positive definite, if sym A · (v ⊗ v) = v · (sym A) v > 0

• sym A is positive semi-definite, if sym A · (v ⊗ v) = v · (sym A) v ≥ 0

(c) Inverse tensor

Definition: If A−1 inverse to A exists, it exhibits the property

v = Aw ←→ w = A−1 v

The following relations hold:

A A−1 = A−1 A = I
(A−1 )T = (AT )−1 =: AT −1
(A B)−1 = B−1 A−1

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Rem.: The computation of the inverse tensor in basis notation is carried out by intro-
ducing the “double cross product” (outer tensor product of tensors), cf. 2.8.

(d) Orthogonal tensor

Definition: An orthogonal tensor Q ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 exhibits the property

Q−1 = QT ←→ Q QT = I

(det Q)2 = 1 : orthogonality
Additionally
det Q = 1 : proper orthogonality

Rem.: The computation of the determinant of 2nd order tensors is defined with the aid
of the double cross product, cf. 2.8.
Properties of orthogonal tensors:
Q v · Q w = QT Q v · w = v · w
−→ Q u · Q u = u · u
Rem.: Linear mapping with Q preserves the norm of the respective vector.
Illustration:
u
in general: linear mapping with A ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3
causes a rotation and a stretch

Qu in special: linear mapping with Q ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3

Au
causes only a rotation

(e) Trace of a tensor

Definition: The trace tr A of a tensor A ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 is the scalar product

tr A = A · I

The following relations hold:

tr (α A) = α tr A
tr (a ⊗ b) = a · b
tr AT = tr A
tr (A B) = tr (BA)
−→ (A B) · I = B · AT = BT · A
tr (A B C) = tr (B C A) = tr (C A B)

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2.4 Change of the basis

Rem.: The goal is to find a relation between vectors and tensors which belong to dif-
ferent basis systems.
here: Restriction to orthonormal basis systems which are rotated against each other.

(A) Rotation of the basis system

Illustration:

e3
∗ ∗
e3 e2

{ 0, ei } : basis system
α22 ∗
α21 e2 { 0, ei } : rotated basis system
e1 α11 ∗
e1
{ αik } : angle between the basis vectors
∗
ei and ek

Development of the transformation tensor:

The following relations hold:
∗ ∗
ei = I ei and I = ej ⊗ ej
Thus,
∗ ∗ ∗
ei = (ej ⊗ ej ) ei = (ej · ei ) ej
∗ ∗
using ei = δik ek leads to
∗ ∗ ∗
ei = (ej · δik ek ) ej = (ej · ek ) (ei · ek ) ej
one obtains
∗ ∗ ∗
ei = (ej · ek ) (ej ⊗ ek )ei =: R ei with R = (ej · ek ) ej ⊗ ek

Rem.: R is the transformation tensor which transforms the basis vectors ei into the
∗
basis vectors ei .

Coefficient matrix Rjk :

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Rjk = ej · ek = |ej | |ek | cos <
) (ej ; ek ) = cos αjk with |ej | = |ek | = 1

Rem.: Rjk contains the 9 cosines of the angles between the directions of the basis
∗
vectors ej and ek .

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Orthogonality of the transformation tensor:

∗
Rem.: By R, the basis vectors ei are only rotated towards ei , thus, R is an orthogonal
tensor.
Orthogonality condition:

!
R RT = I = Rjk (ej ⊗ ek ) Rpn (en ⊗ ep ) = Rjk Rpn δkn ej ⊗ ep
= Rjk Rpk (ej ⊗ ep )

It follows with I = δjp (ej ⊗ ep ) by comparison of coefficients

Rjk Rpk = δjp (∗)

Rem.: (∗) contains 6 constraints for the 9 cosines (R RT = sym (R RT )), i. e. only 3
of 9 trigonometrical functions are independent. Thus, the rotation of the basis
system is defined by 3 angles.

(B) Introduction of “CARDANO angles”

Idea: Rotation around 3 axes which are given by the basis directions ei . This procedure
was firstly investigated by Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576).

Procedure: The rotation of the basis system is carried out by 3 independent rotations
around the axes e1 , e2 , e3 . Each rotation is expressed by a transformation
tensor Ri (i = 1, 2, 3).

Rotation of ei around e3 , e2 , e1 :

∗ ∗ ∗
ei = {R1 [R2 (R3 ei )]} = R ei with R = R1 R2 R3

Rotation of ei around e1 , e2 , e3 :

ēi = {R3 [R2 (R1 ei )]} = R̄ ei with R̄ = R3 R2 R1

Obviously,
∗ ∗
R 6= R̄ −→ e 6= ēi

Rem.: The result of the orthogonal transformation depends on the sequence of the
rotations.

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Illustration:
(a) Rotation around e3 , e2 , e1 (e. g. each about 90◦)

(e3 )
90◦ 3
e3
2

e2
1 90◦ (e2 )
e1 ∗
2 e1

∗
1 e2
3 ∗
e3
90◦
(e1 )

(b) Rotation around e1 , e2 , e3 (e. g. each about 90◦ )

with e3 2

e2 3
e1 90◦ (e2 )
1
90◦ ∗
(e1 ) e1
(e3 )
90◦ ∗
3 ē2 e2
ē3
∗
2 e3
1 180◦ ē
1

Definition of the orthogonal rotation tensors Ri

(a) Rotation around the e3 -axis
e2
◦ The following relations hold:
e2 ◦
e1 ◦
e1 = cos ϕ3 e1 + sin ϕ3 e2
◦
ϕ3 e2 = − sin ϕ3 e1 + cos ϕ3 e2
◦
ϕ3 e3 = e3
e1
e3

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In general,
◦
ei = R3 ei = R3jk (ej ⊗ ek ) ei = R3jk δki ej = R3ji ej
Thus, by comparison of coefficients
 
cos ϕ3 − sin ϕ3 0
R3 = R3ji (ej ⊗ ei ) with R3ji =  sin ϕ3 cos ϕ3 0 
0 0 1

(b) Rotation around the e2 - and e1 -axis

Analogously,
 
cos ϕ2 0 sin ϕ2
R2 = R2ji (ej ⊗ ei ) with R2ji = 0 1 0 
− sin ϕ2 0 cos ϕ2
 
1 0 0
R1 = R1ji (ej ⊗ ei ) with R1ji =  0 cos ϕ1 − sin ϕ1 
0 sin ϕ1 cos ϕ1

Rem.: The rotation tensor R can be composed of single rotations under consideration
of the rotation sequence.

(c) Definition of the total rotation R

(c1 ) it follows from rotation of ei around e3 , e2 , e1 that
∗
R −→ R = R1 R2 R3
= R1ij (ei ⊗ ej ) R2no (en ⊗ eo ) R3pq (ep ⊗ eq )
= R1ij R2no R3pq δjn δop (ei ⊗ eq )
= R1ij R2jo R3oq (ei ⊗ eq )
| {z }
∗
Riq
with
 
cos ϕ2 cos ϕ3 − cos ϕ2 sin ϕ3 sin ϕ2
∗  
Riq =  sin ϕ1 sin ϕ2 cos ϕ3 + cos ϕ1 sin ϕ3 − sin ϕ1 sin ϕ2 sin ϕ3 + cos ϕ1 cos ϕ3 − sin ϕ1 cos ϕ2 
− cos ϕ1 sin ϕ2 cos ϕ3 + sin ϕ1 sin ϕ3 cos ϕ1 sin ϕ2 sin ϕ3 + sin ϕ1 cos ϕ3 cos ϕ1 cos ϕ2

(c2 ) it follows from rotation of ei around e1 , e2 , e3 that

R −→ R̄ = R3 R2 R1
= R3ij R2jo R1oq (ei ⊗ eq )
| {z }
R̄iq

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with
 
cos ϕ2 cos ϕ3 sin ϕ1 sin ϕ2 cos ϕ3 − cos ϕ1 sin ϕ3 cos ϕ1 sin ϕ2 cos ϕ3 + sin ϕ1 sin ϕ3
 
R̄iq =  cos ϕ2 sin ϕ3 sin ϕ1 sin ϕ2 sin ϕ3 + cos ϕ1 cos ϕ3 cos ϕ1 sin ϕ2 sin ϕ3 − sin ϕ1 cos ϕ3 
− sin ϕ2 sin ϕ1 cos ϕ2 cos ϕ1 cos ϕ2

Orthogonality of “Cardano rotation tensors”:

∗
For all R ∈ {R1 , R2 , R3 , R, R̄}, the following relations hold
R−1 = RT , i. e. R RT = I and (det R)2 = 1 −→ orthogonality
Furthermore, all rotation tensors hold the following relation
det R = 1 : “proper” orthogonality

Rem.: A basis transformation with “non-proper” orthogonal transformations

(det R = −1) transforms a “right-handed” into a “left-handed” basis system.

Example:
here: Investigation of the orthogonality properties of R3 = R3ij (ei ⊗ ej )
 
cos ϕ3 − sin ϕ3 0
with R3ij =  sin ϕ3 cos ϕ3 0 
0 0 1
One looks at
R3 RT3 = R3ij (ei ⊗ ej ) R3on (en ⊗ eo )
= R3ij R3on δjn (ei ⊗ eo ) = R3in R3on (ei ⊗ eo )
where  
sin2 ϕ3 + cos2 ϕ3 0 0
R3in R3on = 0 sin2 ϕ3 + cos2 ϕ3 0  = δio
0 0 1
and one obtains
R3 RT3 = δio (ei ⊗ eo ) = I q. e. d.
Furthermore,
det R3 := det (R3ij ) = 1 −→ R3 is proper orthogonal

Description of rotation tensors:

◦
In general, the transformation between basis systems ēi and basis systems ei satisfies the
following relation:
◦
ei = R̄ ēi with R̄ = R̄ik ēi ⊗ ēk
T ◦ −1 T
−→ ēi = R̄ ei with R̄ ≡ R̄

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Otherwise,
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
ēi = R ei with R = Rik ei ⊗ ek
Consequence: By comparing both relations, it follows that
◦ T ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
R = R̄ , i. e., Rik ei ⊗ ek = (R̄ik )T ēi ⊗ ēk −→ Rik = R̄ki

In particular,
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
R = Rik (ei ⊗ ek ) = Rik (R̄ ēi ⊗ R̄ ēk )
◦ ◦ !
= Rik R̄ni ēn ⊗ R̄pk ēp = (R̄ni Rik R̄pk ) ēn ⊗ ēp = R̄pn ēn ⊗ ēp = R̄T

◦ ! ◦
−→ R̄ni Rik R̄pk = R̄pn ←→ R̄ni Rik = δnk

◦
Rem.: The coefficient matrices R̄ni and Rik are inverse to each other, i. e., in general,
◦ ◦
R̄ni Rik = δnk implies 6 equations for the 9 unknown coefficients Rik . Due to
−1 T −1
R̄ = R̄ , one has R̄ni = (R̄ni )T = R̄in , i. e.

◦
Rik = (R̄ik )T = R̄ki

(C) Introduction of EULER angles

Rem.: Rotation of a basis system ei around three specific axes.

∗
Introduction of 3 specific angles around e3 , ē1 , ẽ3 =e3
Illustration:

∗
e3∗
Idea: Given are 2 planes F and F with
∗ ∗
∗
e3 δ e2 ẽ2 δ in-plane vectors e1 , e2 and e1 , e2
∗
ψ ē2 and surface normals e3 and e3 .
ϕ e2 ∗ ∗
c e1
ψ c The basis systems ei and ei are
ē1 related to each other by the Eu-
ϕ
lerian rotation tensor R:
e1
∗
ei := R ei
F
∗
F

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Rotation of ei in plane F around e3 with the angle ϕ,

1st step: such that ēi is directed towards c – c. This yields the
rotation tensor
 
ē3 = e3 cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
R3 =  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0  ej ⊗ ek .
ϕ ē2 0 0 1
ϕ
e2 Then, the new system ēi is computed as follows
c c
ēi = R3 ei = R3jk (ej ⊗ ek ) ei = R3ji ej .
ē1
ϕ Thus,
e1
ē1 = R3j1 ej = cos ϕ e1 + sin ϕ e2
ē2 = R3j2 ej = − sin ϕ e1 + cos ϕ e2
ē3 = R3j3 ej = e3 .

2nd step: Rotation of ēi around ē1 with the angle δ, such that
∗
ẽ2 lies in the plane F , and ẽ3 is directed normal to the
∗
plane F . This yields the rotation tensor
ē3  
δ 1 0 0
ẽ3 ẽ2
δ R̄1 =  0 cos δ − sin δ  ēj ⊗ ēk .
ē2 0 sin δ cos δ

δ Then, the new system ẽi is computed as follows

c c
ẽ1 = ē1 ẽi = R̄1 ēi = R̄1jk (ēj ⊗ ēk ) ēi = R̄1ji ēj .

Thus,

ẽ1 = R̄1j1 ēj = ē1

ẽ2 = R̄1j2 ēj = cos δ ē2 + sin δ ē3
ẽ3 = R̄1j3 ēj = − sin δ ē2 + cos δ ē3 .

3rd step: ∗
Rotation of ẽi in plane F around ẽ3 with the angle ψ.
This yields the rotation tensor
∗  
e3 = ẽ3 e∗ 2 ψ cos ψ − sin ψ 0
ẽ2
R̃3 =  sin ψ cos ψ 0  ẽj ⊗ ẽk .
∗ 0 0 1
ψ e1
c ψ c ∗
Then, the new system ei is computed as follows
ẽ1
∗
ei = R̃3 ẽi = R̃3jk (ẽj ⊗ ẽk ) ẽi = R̃3ji ẽj .

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Thus,
∗
e1 = R̃3j1 ẽj = cos ψ ẽ1 + sin ψ ẽ2
∗
e2 = R̃3j2 ẽj = − sin ψ ẽ1 + cos ψ ẽ2
∗
e3 = R̃3j3 ẽj = ẽ3 .

Summary:
(a) Inserting ẽi = R̄1 ēi
∗
e1 = cos ψ ē1 + sin ψ (cos δ ē2 + sin δ ē3 )
∗
e2 = − sin ψ ē1 + cos ψ (cos δ ē2 + sin δ ẽ3 )
∗
e3 = ẽ3 = − sin δ ē2 + cos δ ē3
Result:
∗
e1 = cos ψ ē1 + sin ψ cos δ ē2 + sin ψ sin δ ē3
∗
e2 = − sin ψ ē1 + cos ψ cos δ ē2 + cos ψ sin δ ẽ3
∗
e3 = − sin δ ē2 + cos δ ē3
∗
−→ ei = R̃3 (R̄1 ēi ) =: R̄ ēi with R̄ = R̃3 R̄1
| {z }
ẽi

(b) Inserting ēi = R3 ei

∗
e1 = cos ψ (cos ϕ e1 + sin ϕ e2 ) + sin ψ cos δ (− sin ϕ e1 + cos ϕ e2 ) + sin ψ sin δ e3
∗
e2 = − sin ψ (cos ϕ e1 + sin ϕ e2 ) + cos ψ cos δ (− sin ϕ e1 + cos ϕ e2 ) + cos ψ sin δ e3
∗
e3 = − sin δ (− sin ϕ e1 + cos ϕ e2 ) + cos δ e3

Result:
∗
e1 = (cos ψ cos ϕ − sin ψ cos δ sin ϕ) e1 +
+(cos ψ sin ϕ + sin ψ cos δ cos ϕ) e2 + sin ψ sin δ e3
∗
e2 = (− sin ψ cos ϕ − cos ψ cos δ sin ϕ) e1 +
+(− sin ψ sin ϕ + cos ψ cos δ cos ϕ) e2 + cos ψ sin δ e3
∗
e3 = sin δ sin ϕ e1 − sin δ cos ϕ e2 + cos δ e3

∗
−→ ei = R̄ (R3 ei ) =: R ei with R = R̄ R3 = R̃3 R̄1 R3
| {z }
ēi
∗
Rotation tensors R and R:
For the total rotation the following relation holds:
∗
ei = (R̃3 R̄1 R3 ) ei =: R ei
= (R̃3 R̄1 ) (R3 ei ) = R̃3 (R̄1 ēi ) = R̃3 ẽi
| {z } | {z } | {z }
ēi ẽi ∗
ei

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Furthermore,
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
ei = R ei −→ ei = RT ei =: R ei −→ R = RT

∗
Analogously to the previous considerations −→ Rik = (Rik )T = Rki

Description:

 
cos ψ cos ϕ − sin ψ cos δ sin ϕ − sin ψ cos ϕ − cos ψ cos δ sin ϕ sin δ sin ϕ
 
R =  cos ψ sin ϕ + sin ψ cos δ cos ϕ − sin ψ sin ϕ + cos ψ cos δ cos ϕ − sin δ cos ϕ  ei ⊗ ek
sin ψ sin δ cos ψ sin δ cos δ

Combining rotation tensors with different basis systems:

Example: R̄ := R̃3 R̄1

∗
ei = R̃3 ẽi = (R̃3 R̄1 ) ēi
−→ R̄ = R̃3ik (ẽi ⊗ ẽk ) R̄1no (ēn ⊗ ēo )
= R̃3ik ( R̄1 ēi ⊗ R̄1 ēk ) R̄1no (ēn ⊗ ēo )
| {z }
R̄1si ēs ⊗ R̄1tk ēt

−→ R̄ = R̄1si R̃3ik R̄1tk (ēs ⊗ ēt ) R̄1no (ēn ⊗ ēo )

= R̄1si R̃3ik R̄1tk R̄1no δtn (ēs ⊗ ēo )
= R̄1si R̃3ik R̄1tk R̄1to (ēs ⊗ ēo )
| {z }
R̄so

Thus, the rotation tensor R̄ is given by

 
cos ψ − sin ψ 0
 
R̄ =  sin ψ cos δ cos ψ cos δ − sin δ  ēi ⊗ ēk
sin ψ sin δ cos ψ sin δ cos δ

Rem.: Concerning Cardano angles, all partial rotations (e. g. R = R3 R2 R1 with

∗
ei = R ei ) are carried out with respect to the same basis ei , i. e. the combination
of the partial rotations is much easier.

Rotation around a fixed axis:

Rem.: A rotation around 3 independent axes can also be described by a rotation around
the resulting axis of rotation:
−→ Euler-Rodrigues representation of the spatial rotation
The Euler-Rodrigues representation of the rotation is discussed later (see
section 2.7).

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2.5 Higher order tensors

Definition: An arbitrary n-th order tensor is given by

n
A ∈ V3 ⊗ V3 ⊗ · · · ⊗ V3 (n times)
3 3 3
with V ⊗ V ⊗ · · · ⊗ V : n-th order dyadic product space

Rem.: Usually, n ≥ 2. However, there exist special cases for n = 1 (vector) and n = 0
(scalar).

General description of the linear mapping

Definition: A linear mapping is a “contracting product” (contraction) given by

n s n−s
AB= C with n ≥ s

Descriptive example on simple tensors:

(a ⊗ b ⊗ c ⊗ d) (e ⊗ f ) = (c · e) (d · f ) a ⊗ b
| {z } | {z } | {z }
4
A B C

Fundamental 4-th order tensors

Rem.: 4-th order fundamental tensors are built by a dyadic product of 2nd order iden-
tity tensors and the corresponding independent transpositions.

One introduces:
I⊗I = (ei ⊗ ei ) ⊗ (ej ⊗ ej )
23
(I ⊗ I) T = ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ei ⊗ ej
24
(I ⊗ I) T = ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ej ⊗ ei

ik
with ( · ) T : transposition, defined by the exchange of the i-th and the k-th basis system

Rem.: Further transpositions of I ⊗ I do not lead to further independent tensors. The

fundamental tensors from above exhibit the property
4 4 4 4 13 24
A = AT with AT = (AT ) T

Consequence: The 4-th order fundamental tensors are symmetric (concerning an ex-
change of the first two and the second two basis systems).

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Properties of 4-th order fundamental tensors

(a) identical map

23
(I ⊗ I) T A = (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ei ⊗ ej ) ast (es ⊗ et )
= ast δis δjt (ei ⊗ ej ) = aij (ei ⊗ ej ) = A
4 23
−→ I := (I ⊗ I) T is 4-th order identity tensor

(b) “transposing” map

24
(I ⊗ I) T A = (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ej ⊗ ei ) ast (es ⊗ et )
= ast δjs δit (ei ⊗ ej ) = aji (ei ⊗ ej ) = AT

(c) “tracing” map

(I ⊗ I) A = (ei ⊗ ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ej ) ast (es ⊗ et )

= ast δjs δjt (ei ⊗ ei ) = ajj (ei ⊗ ei )
= (A · I) I = (tr A) I

with A · I = ast (es ⊗ et ) · (ej ⊗ ej ) = ast δsj δtj = ajj

Specific 4-th order tensors

4
Let A, B, C, D be arbitrary 2nd order tensors. Then, a 4-th order tensor A can be defined
exhibiting the following properties:
4 23 14
A = (A ⊗ B) T = (BT ⊗ AT ) T (∗)
4 23 23
AT = [(A ⊗ B) T ]T = (AT ⊗ BT ) T
4 23 23
A −1 = [(A ⊗ B) T ]−1 = (A−1 ⊗ B−1 ) T
Furthermore, following relation holds:
4 4 13 24
( · ) T = [( · ) T ] T

From (∗), the following relations can be derived:

23 23 23
(A ⊗ B) T (C ⊗ D) T = (AC ⊗ BD) T
23
(A ⊗ B) T (C ⊗ D) = (ACBT ⊗ D)
23
(A ⊗ B)(C ⊗ D) T = (A ⊗ CT BD)
and 23
(A ⊗ B) T C = ACBT
23 23
(A ⊗ B) T v = [A ⊗ (B v)] T

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4
Defining a 4-th order tensor B with the properties

4 24 13
B = (A ⊗ B) T = [(A ⊗ B) T ]T
4 24 24
BT = [(A ⊗ B) T ]T = (B ⊗ A) T
4 24 24
B −1 = [(A ⊗ B) T ]−1 = (BT −1 ⊗ AT −1 ) T

it can be shown that

24 24 23
(A ⊗ B) T (C ⊗ D) T = (ADT ⊗ BT C) T
23 24 24
(A ⊗ B) T (C ⊗ D) T = (AC ⊗ DBT ) T
24 23 24
(A ⊗ B) T (C ⊗ D) T = (AD ⊗ CT B) T
24
(A ⊗ B) T (C ⊗ D) = (ACT B ⊗ D)
24
(A ⊗ B)(C ⊗ D) T = (A ⊗ DBT C)

and
24
(A ⊗ B) T C = ACT B

Furthermore, the following relation holds:

4 4 4 4
(CD)T = D T C T

4 4
where C and D are arbitrary 4-th order tensors.

High order tensors and incomplete mappings

If higher order tensors are applied to other tensors in the sense of incomplete mappings,
one has to know how many of the basis vectors have to be linked by scalar products.
Therefore, a underlined supercript (·)i indicates the order of the desired result after the
tensor operation has been carried out.
Examples in basis notation:

4 3
(A B)3 = [aijkl (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek ⊗ el ) bmno (em ⊗ en ⊗ eo )]3

= aijkl bmno δkm δln (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ eo )

3
(A B)1 = [aij (ei ⊗ ej ) bmno (em ⊗ en ⊗ eo )]1

= aij bmno δim δjn eo

Note: Note in passing that the incomplete mapping is governed by scalar products
of a sufficient number of inner basis systems.

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2.6 Fundamental tensor of 3rd order (Ricci permutation tensor)

Rem.: The fundamental tensor of 3rd order is introduced in the context of the “outer
product” (e. g. vector product between vectors).

3
Definition: The fundamental tensor E satisfies the rule
3
u × v = E (u ⊗ v)

3
Introduction of E in basis notation:
There is 3
E = eijk (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek )

with the “permutation symbol” eijk

 
 1
 : even permutation  e123 = e231 = e312 = 1

eijk = −1 : odd permutation −→ e321 = e213 = e132 = −1

 0 
 all remaining e vanish
: double indexing ijk

3
Application of E to the vector product of vectors:
From the above definition,
3
u × v = E (u ⊗ v)
= eijk (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek ) (us es ⊗ vt et )
= eijk us vt δjs δkt ei = eijk uj vk ei
= (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) e1 + (u3 v1 − u1 v3 ) e2 + (u1 v2 − u2 v1 ) e3

Comparison with the computation by use of the matrix notation, cf. page 5
 
 e1 e2 e3 
 
 
u × v =  u1 u2 u3  = · · · q. e. d.
 
 v1 v2 v3 

3
An identity for E:
Incomplete mapping of two Ricci-tensors yielding a 2nd or 4th order object
3 3 3 3 23 24
(E E)2 = 2 I , (E E)4 = ( I ⊗ I ) T − ( I ⊗ I ) T
2.7 The axial vector

Rem.: The axial vector (pseudo vector) can be used for the description of rotations
(rotation vector).

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A
Definition: The axial vector t is associated with the skew-symmetric part skw T of
an arbitrary tensor T ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 via
A 3
1
t := 2
E TT

One calculates,
A
t = 21 eijk (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek ) tst (et ⊗ es )

= 21 eijk tst δjt δks ei = 12 eijk tkj ei

= 21 [(t32 − t23 ) e1 + (t13 − t31 ) e2 + (t21 − t12 ) e3 ]

It follows from 2.3 (b)

T = sym T + skw T
Thus, the axial vector of T is given by
A 3
1
t = 2
E (sym T + skw T)T

3 3
1
= 2
E (skw TT ) = − 12 E (skw T)

Rem.: A symmetric tensor has no axial vector.

Axial vector and linear mapping:

The following relation holds:
A
(skw T) v = t × v ∀ v ∈ V 3

Axial vector and the vector product of tensors:

Definition: The vector product of 2 tensors {T, S} ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3 satisfies

3
S × T = E (S TT )

Rem.: The vector product (cross product) of 2 tensors yields a vector.

In comparison with the definition of the axial vector follows

3 A
I × T = E TT = 2 t

Furthermore, the vector product of 2 tensors yields

S × T = −T × S

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Axial vector and outer tensor product of vector and tensor:

Definition: The outer tensor product of a vector u ∈ V 3 and a tensor T ∈ V 3 ⊗ V 3

satisfies
(u × T) v = u × (T v) ; v ∈ V 3

Rem.: The outer tensor product of vector and tensor yields a tensor.

The following relations hold:

u × T = −(u × T)T = −T × u
−→ i. e. u × T is skew-symmetric
3
u × T = [ E (u ⊗ T)]2
with ( · )2 : “incomplete” linear mapping (association)
resulting in a 2nd order tensor.

Evaluation in basis notation leads to

u × T = [(eijk ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek ) (ur er ⊗ tst es ⊗ et )]2
= eijk ur tst δjr δks (ei ⊗ et )
= eijk uj tkt (ei ⊗ et )

In particular, if T ≡ I, the following relation holds:

3
u × I = [ E (u ⊗ I)]2 = eijk uj δkt (ei ⊗ et ) = eijt uj (ei ⊗ et )

Furthermore, for the special tensor u × I follows

3
E (u × I) = −2 u
3 3
−→ u = − 21 E (u × I) = 1
2
E (u × I)T

Consequence: In the tensor u × I, the vector u is already the corresponding axial

vector.
Finally, the following relation holds:
3
u×I=−E u
3 3 3 3 3 !
−→ E (u × I) = − E (E u) = −(E E)2 u = −2 u
3 3
i. e. (E E)2 = 2 I

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Some additional rules:

(a × b) ⊗ c = a × (b ⊗ c)
(I × T) · w = T · Ω with Ω = w × I

Application to the tensor product of vector and tensor

Rotation around a fixed spatial axis

Rotation of x around axis e

ϕ
∗ ∗ ∗
u u x = a + u = a + C1 u + b
b 

 a = (x · e) e

∗
x a x with u=x−a



b = C2 (e × x)
e
and ϕ = ϕ e ; |e| = 1
O
Determination of the constants C1 and C2 :
∗
(a) For the angle between u and u, the following relation holds
∗
u· u ∗
cos ϕ = ∗ with |u| = |u|
|u| |u|
Furthermore, the following relation holds
∗
· b} = C1 |u|2
u · u = u · (C1 u + b) = C1 u · u + |u{z
= 0, da u ⊥ b
Thus,
C1 |u|2
cos ϕ = = C1 −→ C1 = cos ϕ
|u|2
∗
(b) For the angle between b and u, the following relation holds
∗
◦ b· u
cos(90 − ϕ) = sin ϕ = ∗
|b| |u|
Furthermore, the following relation holds
∗
· u} + b · b = |b|2
b · u = b · (C1 u + b) = C1 |b{z
= 0, da u ⊥ b
and
|b| = C2 |e × x| = C2 |e| |x| sin <) (e ; x) = C2 |u|
|{z} | {z }
1 |u|

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32 Supplement to Continuum Mechanics Research

Thus, leading to

|b|2 |b| C2 |u|

sin ϕ = = = = C2 −→ C2 = sin ϕ
|b| |u| |u| |u|

∗
Thus, x is given by
∗
x = (x · e) e + cos ϕ [x − (x · e) e] + sin ϕ (e × x)

Determination of the rotation tensor R:

For the tensor product of vector and tensor, the following relation holds:

(e × I) x = e × (I x) = e × x
Thus,
∗ !
x= (e ⊗ e) x + cos ϕ (I − e ⊗ e) x + sin ϕ (e × I) x = R x

−→ R = e ⊗ e + cos ϕ (I − e ⊗ e) + sin ϕ (e × I) (∗)

Rem.: (∗) is the Euler-Rodrigues form of the spatial rotation.

Example: Rotation with ϕ3 around the e3 axis

R = R3 = e3 ⊗ e3 + cos ϕ3 (I − e3 ⊗ e3 ) + sin ϕ3 (e3 × I)

The following relation holds:

3
e3 × I = [ E (e3 ⊗ I)]2
= [eijk (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ ek ) (e3 ⊗ el ⊗ el )]2
= eijk δj3 δkl (ei ⊗ el ) = ei3l (ei ⊗ el )
= e2 ⊗ e1 − e1 ⊗ e2

Thus, leading to

R3 = e3 ⊗ e3 + cos ϕ3 (e1 ⊗ e1 + e2 ⊗ e2 ) + sin ϕ3 (e2 ⊗ e1 − e1 ⊗ e2 )

= R3ij (ei ⊗ ej )
 
cos ϕ3 − sin ϕ3 0
 
with R3ij =  sin ϕ3 cos ϕ3 0  q. e. d.
0 0 1

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2.8 The outer tensor product of tensors

Definition: The outer tensor product of tensors (double cross product) is defined via

(A @@ B)(u1 × u2 ) := Au1 × Bu2 − Au2 × Bu1

As a direct consequence, one finds

A @@ B = B @@ A

Furthermore, the following relations hold:

(A @@ B)T = AT @@ BT
(A @@ B) (C @@ D) = (A C @@ B D) + (A D @@ B C)
(I @@ I) = 2 I
(a ⊗ b) @@ (c ⊗ d) = (a × c) ⊗ (b × d)
(A @@ B) · C = (B @@ C) · A = (C @@ A) · B

From the above definition, it is easily proved that

[(A @@ B) · C][(u1 × u2 ) · u3 ] = eijk (Aui × Buj ) · Cuk

The outer tensor product in basis notation

A @@ B = aik (ei ⊗ ek ) @@ bno (en ⊗ eo )

= aik bno (ei × en ) ⊗ (ek × eo )

 3
 ei × en = E (ei ⊗ en ) = einj ej
with
 3
 e × e =E (ek ⊗ eo ) = ekop ep
k o

−→ A @@ B = aik bno einj ekop (ej ⊗ ep )

Furthermore, it follows that

A @@ I = (A · I) I − AT
A @@ B = (A · I) (B · I) I − (AT · B) I − (A · I) BT −
−(B · I) AT + AT BT + BT AT
(A @@ B) · C = (A · I) (B · I) (C · I) − (A · I) (BT · C) − (B · I) (AT · C)−
−(C · I) (AT · B) + (AT BT ) · C + (BT AT ) · C

The cofactor, the adjoint tensor and the determinant:

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The following relations hold:

+
1
cof A = 2
A @@ A =: A , adj A = (cof A)T

1 (Au1 × Au2 ) · Au3

det A = 6
(A @@ A) · A = det |aik | =
(u1 × u2 ) · u3
In basis notation the following relation holds:
+ +
A = 21 (aik ano einj ekop ) (ej ⊗ ep ) = ajp (ej ⊗ ep )

+
Rem.: The coefficient matrix ajp of the cofactor cof A contains at each position ( · )jp
the corresponding subdeterminant of A
+
a11 = a22 a33 − a23 a32 etc.

The inverse tensor:

The following relation holds:
A−1 = (det A)−1 adj A ; A−1 exists if det A 6= 0

Rules for the cofactor, the determinant and the inverse tensor:

det (A B) = det A det B

det (α A) = α3 det A
det I = 1
det AT = det A
+
det A = (det A)2
det A−1 = (det A)−1
+ +
det (A + B) = det A + A · B + A · B + det B
+ + +
(A B) = A B
+ +
(A)T = (AT )

2.9 The eigenvalue problem and the invariants of tensors

Definition: The eigenvalue problem of an arbitrary 2nd order tensor A is given by

(
γA : eigenvalue
(A − γA I) a = 0 , where
a : eigenvector

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Formal solution for a yields

0
a = (A − γA I)−1 0 = adj (A − γA I)
det (A − γA I)
Consequence: Non-trivial solution for a only if the characteristic equation is fulfilled,
i. e.
det (A − γA I) = 0
With the determinant rule
1
det (A + B) = 6
[(A + B) @@ (A + B)] · (A + B)
1
= 6
(A @@ A) · A + 61 (A @@ A) · B + 31 (A @@ B) · A +
+ 31 (A @@ B) · B + 61 (B @@ B) · A + 61 (B @@ B) · B
+ +
= det A + A · B + A · B + det B
follows
+
det (A − γA I) = det A + A · (−γA I) + A · (−γA I)+ + det (−γA I)
= det A − γA 12 (A @@ A) · I + γA
2 1
2
A · (I @@ I) − γA
3
det I = 0
With the abreviations
1
IA = 2
(A @@ I) · I
1
IIA = 2
(A @@ A) · I
IIIA = 61 (A @@ A) · A
the characteristic equation can be simplified to
2 3
det (A − γA I) = IIIA − γA IIA + γA IA − γ A =0
Rem.: The abreviations IA , IIA and IIIA are the three scalar principal invariants of
a tensor A which play an important role in the field of continuum mechanics.

Alternative representations of the principal inavriants

Scalar product representation:
IA = A · I = tr A
1 2 1
IIA = 2
(IA − A A · I) = 2
[(tr A)2 − tr (A A)]
1
IIIA = 6
3
IA − 21 IA
2
(A A · I) + 13 AT AT · A =
1
= 6
[(tr A)3 − 3 tr A tr (A A) + 2 tr (A A A)] = det A
Eigenvalue representation:
IA = γA(1) + γA(2) + γA(3)
IIA = γA(1) γA(2) + γA(2) γA(3) + γA(3) γA(1)
IIIA = γA(1) γA(2) γA(3)
Caley-Hamilton-Theorem:
AAA − IA AA + IIA A − IIIA I = 0

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36 Supplement to Continuum Mechanics Research

3 Fundamentals of vector and tensor analysis

3.1 Introduction of functions

Notation:
  
 φ( · ) : scalar-valued function   scalar variables
  
exists v( · ) : vector-valued function of ( · ) vector variables

 
 

T( · ) : tensor-valued function tensor variables

Example: φ(A) : scalar-valued tensor function

Notions:

• Domain of a function: set of all possible values of the independent variable quantities
(variables); usually contiguous

• Range of a function: set of all possible values of the dependent variable quantities:
φ( · ); v( · ); T( · )

3.2 Functions of scalar variables

here: Vector- and tensor-valued functions of real scalar variables

(a) Vector-valued functions of a single variable

It exists:

 u : unique vector-valued function,
u = u(α) with range in the open domain V 3

α : real scalar variable

Derivative of u(α) with the differential quotient:

du(α)
w(α) := u′ (α) :=
dα
Differential of u(α):
du = u′ (α) dα

Introduction of higher derivatives and differentials:

d2 u(α) 2
d2 u = d(du) = u′′ (α) dα2 = dα etc.
dα2

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(b) Vector-valued functions of several variables

It exists:

u = u(α, β, γ, ...) with {α, β, γ, ...} : real scalar variable

Partial derivative of u(α, β, γ, ...):

∂u( · )
wα (α, β, γ, ...) := =: u,α
∂α
Total differential of u(α, β, γ, ...):

du = u,α dα + u,β dβ + u,γ dγ + · · ·

Higher partial derivative (examples):

∂ 2 u( · ) ∂ 2 u( · )
u,αα = ; u,γβ =
∂α2 ∂γ ∂β

Rem.: The order of partial derivatives is permutable.

(c) Tensor functions of a single or of several variables

Rem.: Tensor-valued functions are treated analogously to the above procedure.

(d) Derivative of products of functions

Some rules:
(a ⊗ b)′ = a′ ⊗ b + a ⊗ b′
(A B)′ = A′ B + A B′
(A−1 )′ = −A−1 A′ A−1

3.3 Functions of vector and tensor variables

(a) The gradient operator

Rem.: Functions of the position (placement) vector are called field functions. Deriva-
tives with respect to the position vector are called “gradient of a function”.
Scalar-valued functions φ(x)

dφ(x)
grad φ(x) := =: w(x) −→ result is a vector field
dx
or in basis notation
∂φ(x)
grad φ(x) := ei =: φ,i ei
∂xi

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Vector-valued functions v(x)

dv(x)
grad v(x) := =: S(x) −→ result is a tensor field
dx

or in basis notation
∂vi (x)
grad v(x) := ei ⊗ ej =: vi ,j ei ⊗ ej
∂xj

Tensor-valued functions T(x)

dT(x) 3
grad T(x) := =: U (x) −→ result is a tensor field of 3-rd order
dx

or in basis notation

∂tik (x)
grad T(x) := ei ⊗ ek ⊗ ej =: tik ,j ei ⊗ ek ⊗ ej
∂xj

Rem.: The gradient operator grad ( · ) = ∇( · ) (with ∇ : Nabla operator) increases the
order of the respective function by one.

(b) Derivative of functions of arbitrary vectorial and

tensorial variables
Rem.: Derivatives concerning the respective variables are built analogously to the pre-
ceding procedures, e. g.
∂R(T, v) ∂Rij (T, v)
= ei ⊗ ej ⊗ es ⊗ et
∂T ∂tst
Some specific rules for the derivative of tensor functions with respect to tensors
For arbitrary 2-nd order tensors A, B, C, the following rules hold:

∂(AB) 23
= (A ⊗ I) T
∂B
∂(AB) 23
= (I ⊗ BT ) T
∂A
∂(AA) 23 23
= (A ⊗ I) T + (I ⊗ AT ) T
∂A
∂(AT A) 23 24
= (AT ⊗ I) T + (I ⊗ A) T
∂A
∂(AAT ) 24 23
= (A ⊗ I) T + (I ⊗ A) T
∂A
∂(AT AT ) 24 24
= (I ⊗ AT ) T + (AT ⊗ I) T
∂A

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∂(ABC) 23
= (A ⊗ CT ) T
∂B
∂AT 24
= (I ⊗ I) T
∂A
∂A−1 23
= −(A−1 ⊗ AT −1 ) T
∂A
∂AT −1 24
= −(AT −1 ⊗ AT −1 ) T
∂A
+
∂A 24
= det A [(AT −1 ⊗ AT −1 ) − (AT −1 ⊗ AT −1 ) T ]
∂A
∂(α β) ∂β ∂α
= α +β
∂C ∂C ∂C
∂(α v) ∂α ∂v
= v⊗ +α
∂C ∂C ∂C
∂(α A) ∂α ∂A
= A⊗ +α
∂C ∂C ∂C
" ! # " #
∂(A v) ∂A 24T T
23
∂v 3
= v+ A
∂C ∂C ∂C
" ! # " ! #
∂(u · v) ∂u 13 ∂v 13
= T
v T+ T
u T
∂C ∂C ∂C
! !
∂(A · B) ∂A T ∂B T
= B+ A
∂C ∂C ∂C
" ! #! " ! # !
∂(AB) ∂A T 24 24
∂B T T 4 14
14
= B 4 T + A T
∂C ∂C ∂C
Furthermore,
∂A 23 4
= (I ⊗ I) T =: I
∂A
∂AT 24
= (I ⊗ I) T
∂A
∂(A · I) I
= (I ⊗ I)
∂A
A
∂ t(A) 3
= − 12 E
∂A

Principal invariants and their derivatives (see also section 2.9)

∂IA
= I with IA = A · I
∂A
∂IIA 1 2
= A @@ I with IIA = 2
(IA − A A · I)
∂A
∂IIIA +
= A with IIIA = det A
∂A

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(c) Specific operators

here: Introduction of the further differential operators div ( · ) and rot ( · ).

Divergence of a vector field v(x)

div v(x) := grad v(x) · I =: φ(x) −→ result is a scalar field

or in basis notation
div v(x) = vi ,j (ei ⊗ ej ) · (en ⊗ en )
= vi ,j δin δjn = vn ,n
∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
= + +
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Divergence of a tensor field T(x)

div T(x) = [grad T(x)] I =: v(x) −→ result is a vector field

or in basis notation

div T(x) = tik ,j (ei ⊗ ek ⊗ ej ) (en ⊗ en )

= tik ,j δkn δjn ei = tin ,n ei

Rem.: The divergence operator div ( · ) = ∇ · ( · ) decreases the order of the respective
function by one.

Rotation of a vector field v(x)

3
rot v(x) := E [grad v(x)]T =: r(x) −→ result is a vector field

or in basis notation

rot v(x) = eijn (ei ⊗ ej ⊗ en ) vo ,p (ep ⊗ eo )

= eijn vo ,p δjp δno ei = eijn vn ,j ei

Consequence: rot v(x) yields twice the axial vector corresponding to the skew-
symmetric part of grad v(x).
Rem.: The rotation operator rot ( · ) = curl ( · ) = ∇ × ( · ) preserves the order of the
respective function.

Laplace operator

∆( · ) := div grad ( · ) −→ analogical to the precedings

Rem.: The Laplace operator ∆( · ) = ∇·∇( · ) preserves the order of the differentiated
function.

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Rules for the operators grad ( · ), div ( · ), and rot ( · )

grad (φψ) = φ grad ψ + ψ grad φ

grad (φv) = v ⊗ grad φ + φ grad v

grad (φT) = T ⊗ grad φ + φ grad T

grad (u · v) = (grad u)T v + (grad v)T u

grad (u × v) = u × grad v + grad u × v

23
grad (a ⊗ b) = [grad a ⊗ b + a ⊗ (grad b)T ] T
23
grad (Tv) = (grad T) T v + T grad v
23 23
grad (TS) = [(grad T) T S]3 T + (T grad S)3
13 13
grad (T · S) = (grad T) T ST + (grad S) T TT

grad x = I

div (u ⊗ v) = u div v + (grad u) v

div (φ v) = v · grad φ + φ div v

div (Tv) = (div TT ) · v + TT · grad v

div (grad v)T = grad div v

div (u × v) = (grad u × v) · I − (grad v × u) · I

= v · rot u − u · rot v

div (φ T) = T grad φ + φ div T

div (T S) = (grad T) S + T div S

div (v × T) = v × div T + grad v × T

div (v ⊗ T) = v ⊗ div T + (grad v) TT

3 3 3 13 23
div (v ⊗ T) = v ⊗ div T + [(grad v) ( T T ) T ]3

div (grad v)+ = 0

div [grad v ± (grad v)T ] = div grad v ± grad div v

div rot v = 0

rot rot v = grad div v − div grad v

rot grad φ = 0

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rot grad v = 0

rot (grad v)T = grad rot v

rot (φ v) = φ rot v + grad φ × v

rot (u × v) = div (u ⊗ v − v ⊗ u)

= u div v + (grad u)v − v div u − (grad v)u

Grassmann evolution:

v × rot v = 12 grad (v · v) − (grad v) v = (grad v)T v − (grad v) v

3.4 Integral theorems

Rem.: In what follows, some integral theorems for the transformation of surface inte-
grals into volume integrals are presented.
Requirement: u = u(x) is a steady and sufficiently often steadily differentiable vector
field. The domain of u is in V 3 .

(a) Proof of the integral theorem

Z Z
u(x) ⊗ da = grad u(x)dv with da = n da
S V
(
da : surface element
and
n : outward oriented unit surface normal vector

u(x) da2
ū2
ū4
dx2

e2 da4 X dx1 da1

x ū1
e1 dx3
0 da3
e3 ū3
da5
ū5

Basis: Consideration of an infinitesimal volume element dv spanned in the point X

by the position vector x, and ūi , i. e. the values of u(x) in the centroid of the
partial surfaces 1 - 6.

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Determination of the surface element vectors dai :

da1 = dx2 × dx3 = dx2 dx3 (e2 × e3 )
= dx2 dx3 e1 = −da4 −→ e1 = n1 = −n4
Furthermore, one obtains
da2 = dx3 dx1 e2 = −da5 −→ e2 = n2 = −n5
da3 = dx1 dx2 e3 = −da6 −→ e3 = n3 = −n6

6
X
Rem.: The surface vectors hold the condition dai = 0 .
i=1

Determination of the volume elements dv:

dv = (dx1 × dx2 ) · dx3 = dx1 dx2 dx3

Values of u(x) in the centroids of the partial surfaces:

Rem.: The increments of u(x) in the directions of dx1 , dx2 , dx3 are approximated by
the first term of a Taylor series.
1 ∂u 1 ∂u
ū4 = u(x) + dx2 + dx3
2 ∂x2 2 ∂x3
∂u
ū1 = ū4 + dx1
∂x1
Furthermore, one obtains
∂u ∂u
ū2 = ū5 + dx2 , ū3 = ū6 + dx3
∂x2 ∂x3

Computation of the surface integral yields

Z X6
u(x) ⊗ da −→ ūi ⊗ dai = ū1 ⊗ da1 + ū4 ⊗ da4 + · · ·
| {z }
i=1
S(dv) ∂u
(ū1 − dx1 ) ⊗ (−da1 )
∂x1
Thus
6
X ∂u ∂u ∂u
ūi ⊗ dai = dx1 ⊗ da1 + dx2 ⊗ da2 + dx3 ⊗ da3
i=1
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
with
da1 = dx2 dx3 e1 , da2 = dx1 dx3 e2 , da3 = dx1 dx2 e3

yields
6  
X ∂u ∂u ∂u
ūi ⊗ dai = ⊗ e1 + ⊗ e2 + ⊗ e3 dx1 dx2 dx3
i=1
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
| {z }| {z }
∂ui dv
ei ⊗ ej = grad u
∂xj

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Thus
6
X
ūi ⊗ dai = grad u dv
i=1

Integration over an arbitrary volume V yields

Z Z
u(x) ⊗ da = grad u(x) dv q. e. d. (∗)
S V

(b) Proof of the GAUSSian integral theorem

Z Z
u(x) · da = div u(x) dv
S V

Basis: Integral theorem (∗) after scalar multiplication with the identity tensor

Z Z
I· u(x) ⊗ da =I· grad u(x) dv
S V
Z Z
−→ I · [u(x) ⊗ da] = I · grad u(x) dv
| {z } | {z }
S u(x) · da V div u(x)

Thus, leading to Z Z
u(x) · da = div u(x) dv (∗∗)
S V

(c) Proof of the integral theorem

Z Z
T(x) da = div T(x) dv
S V

Basis: Scalar multiplication of the surface integral with a constant vector b ∈ V 3

Z Z Z Z
T
b· T(x) da = b · T(x) da = [T (x) b] · da =: u(x) · da
S S S S

with u(x) := TT (x) b

It follows with the integral theorem (∗∗)

Z Z
b · T(x) da = div [TT (x) b] dv
S V

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In particular, with b = const. and a divergence rule follows

div [TT (x) b] = div T(x) · b

leading to
Z Z
b· T(x) da = div T(x) · b dv
S V

Thus
Z Z
T(x) da = div T(x) dv q. e. d.
S V

Rem.: At this point, no further proofs are carried out.

(d) Summary of some integral theorems

For the transformation of surface integrals into volume integrals, the following relations
hold:

Z Z
u ⊗ da = grad u dv
S V
Z Z
φ da = grad φ dv
S V
Z Z
u · da = div u dv
S V

Z Z
u × da = − rot u dv
S V
Z Z
T da = div T dv
S V
Z Z
u × T da = div (u × T) dv
S V
Z Z
u ⊗ T da = div (u ⊗ T) dv
S V

For the transformation of line into surface integrals the following relations hold:

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I Z
u ⊗ dx = − grad u × da
L S
I Z
φ dx = − grad φ × da
L S
I Z
u · dx = (rot u) · da
L S
I Z
u × dx = (I div u − grad T u) da
L S
I Z
T dx = (rot T)T da
L S

with da = n da

Rem.: If required, further relations of the vector and tensor calculus will be presented
in the respective context. The description of non-orthogonal and non-unit basis
systems was not discussed in this contribution.

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3.5 Transformations between actual and reference configurations

Given are the deformation gradient F = ∂x/∂X and arbitrary vectorial and tensorial field
functions v and A. Then, with

∂
 Grad ( · ) =
 (·)
reference configuration ∂X

 Div ( · ) = [Grad ( · )] · I or [Grad ( · )] I

∂
 grad ( · )
 = (·)
actual configuration ∂x

 div ( · ) = [grad ( · )] · I or [grad ( · )] I

the following relations hold:

Grad v = (grad v) F Grad A = [(grad A) F]3

grad v = (Grad v) F−1 grad A = [(Grad A) F−1 ]3

Div v = (grad v) · FT Div A = (grad A) FT

div v = (Grad v) · FT −1 div A = (Grad A) FT −1

Furthermore, it can be shown that

Div FT −1 = −FT −1 (FT −1 Grad F)1 = −(det F)−1 FT −1 [Grad (det F)]
div FT = −FT (FT grad F−1 )1 = −(det F) FT [grad (det F)−1 ]

Institute of Applied Mechanics, Chair of Continuum Mechanics