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In the Classroom

Case Studies as a
Basis for
Discussion Method
Teaching in
Introductory
Chemistry Courses
PAUL R. CHALLEN AND LINDA C. BRAZDIL
Department of Chemistry
John Carroll University
Cleveland, OH 44118
[email protected]

T
hree case studies that have been used as a framework
…students are
for discussion classes in Introductory Chemistry are
more motivated presented. When used as a supplement to lectures,
they serve to deepen student knowledge of a wide
and internalize range of material from the traditional curriculum including
material more empirical and molecular formulae, Lewis Structures, molecular
shapes, reaction enthalpies, gas laws, solubility products, and
effectively when colligative properties. The case studies also help to foster
they participate student appreciation of the interdependence of these topics and
allow students to apply their knowledge to realistic situations.
actively as Classroom techniques incorporating the cases are described.
Some student reaction to the approach also is included.
learners in the
classroom.
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Introduction
The case study/discussion method of teaching has been employed for many years and
with considerable success in the humanities, business, educational, legal, and medical
fields [1]. Practitioners of the art point to numerous studies [2] that indicate students are
more motivated, and internalize material more effectively when they participate actively
as learners in the classroom. While the more student-passive, lecture style of teaching
may be of greater efficiency in transmitting large amounts of information or in
elaborating complex and detailed arguments, the cost of this teacher-centered approach
is often an uncomfortably high percentage of students who are left unmotivated, unable
to reason for themselves, and for whom the material covered by the teacher remains
obscure and undigested. It usually is only through homework assignments or
examinations that teachers discover that they are the only ones for whom the material
has been covered.

Despite the drawbacks of totally lecture-based classes, these remain the almost
exclusive pedagogical tool in nonlaboratory science courses in universities throughout
the world. Interest in student-centered, active-learning approaches in science is,
however, on the increase [3]. While case studies sometimes have been used in chemistry
courses to examine societal, environmental, and ethical issues, their use in the teaching
of the technical curriculum in Introductory Chemistry (or, indeed, in higher level
courses) is extremely rare. There is to our knowledge no published source of cases
available for such purposes, although some have been disseminated at meetings [4] and
likely will become available in book form. In the meantime, we present here three case
studies which we have written and found to be of value in Introductory Chemistry. In
addition to the cases themselves, we describe some of the techniques we have found to
be effective in employing the cases as a framework for class discussion, and we relate
some classroom experiences and student feedback surrounding their use.

Case Studies
Case Study 1: Gases
Take a few minutes to read the following case. You may refer to your text book and do
any calculations that you think may be important.

A space agency is planning to send a balloon to a height of 20 km where the pressure is

76 mm Hg and the temperature is -50 °C. They are considering five possibilities:
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i. A balloon filled with 12 L of carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure and 25

°C.

ii. A balloon filled with 12 L of helium at atmospheric pressure and 25 °C.

iii. A balloon filled with a mixture of 6 L of nitrogen and 6 L of helium at

atmospheric pressure and 25 °C.

iv. A balloon filled with 20 L of helium at atmospheric pressure and 25 °C.

v. A balloon filled with 12 L of air heated to 50 °C and at atmospheric

pressure.

The balloon is made of a very elastic material that can allow it to stretch to a volume of
150 L without bursting. The agency comes to you as the local expert on gas behavior.
What advice would you give them concerning the relative merits of the five options?

Case Study 2: Nicotine

For today’s class we are going to divide into groups of about six students per group, in
order to examine some aspects of the important molecule, nicotine.

As you know, nicotine is present in cigarettes and other tobacco products. There is much
debate currently on the addictive nature of nicotine and on how nicotine acts in the
brains of smokers and others exposed to cigarette smoke or tobacco products. See the
recent article in Chemical & Engineering News [5].

The molecular formula of nicotine is C10H14N2.

Each group may ask for further information from the instructor to help with their
assignment, but should not receive information from other groups except for specific
information given in the instructions below.

Each group should elect one member to report the group’s findings to the class at
the end.

Read through the assignments for all groups before starting on your group’s
assignment.

Following are each group’s assignments:

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Group 1:
You will be given a structural formula for the nicotine molecule. Use this to help you
figure out the shape of the molecule (i.e. the geometry and angles around each atom).

Group 2:
You will be given a molecular model of the nicotine molecule. Use this to help you
figure out the Lewis Electron Dot Structure of the entire molecule.

Group 3:
A substance from tobacco smoke was analyzed and found to contain 74.1% C, 8.6% H
and 17.3 % N. Could this substance be nicotine? Report your finding to Group 4.

If you have time left over, help Group 4 with their assignments.

Group 4:
Group 3’s substance was studied in a mass spectrometer, and found to have a molecular
weight of 81.1. Could this substance be nicotine? If so, report your finding to Group 3. If
not, can you come up with a possible structure for Group 3’s substance, based on the
information both groups have available?

Group 5:
The standard enthalpy of formation of nicotine is +248.7 kJ mol-1. Write the chemical
equation that represents this enthalpy of formation of nicotine. Is the formation of
nicotine in this equation an exothermic or endothermic process?

A combustion of nicotine in an atmosphere of pure oxygen proceeded by the following

equation:

C10H14N2(g) + O2 → CO2(g) + N2(g) +H2O(g)

Balance the above equation. Report your findings to Group 6.

If you have time left over, help Group 6 with their assignments.

Group 6:
If nicotine is burned in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, what chemical products would
you guess might be formed? Check your answer with Group 5.
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If nicotine is burned in a limited supply of oxygen (such as when smoking a cigarette)

what products might then be formed?

Use the structural formula of nicotine to estimate the enthalpy change for the combustion
in pure oxygen, based on bond energies.

Calculate the enthalpy change for the above combustion reaction, based on enthalpies of
formation.

Why are the estimated and calculated enthalpies not exactly the same?

Case Study 3: Lead Pollution

Our class has been commissioned by a city to help solve a crisis in the quality of its
water. The city would like us to identify the pollutant and determine a method for
eliminating it from the city’s water. Time is short and so we will split up into groups,
each of which will be concerned with a specific aspect of the problem.

Your group number is the number at the top of this page. You will be told in which part
of the room your group will meet. Some background to the problem is given below, but
each group may ask for further information from the instructor to help with their
assignment.

Each group should elect one member to report the group’s finding to the class at the end.
These findings will be combined in order to report to the city.

Read through the assignments for all groups before starting on your group’s assignment.

Background:
The water coming into the city’s treatment plant is cloudy and contains high levels of
lead. The city has a regulation stating that the concentration of lead must be less than 5
ppb for the water to be considered safe. There are several places from which the lead
contamination can be coming. The three most likely places are a nearby chemical plant,
a paint plant that is close to the city, and water containing lead leached from
contaminated soil during recent floods. The pipes carrying the water contain lead and if
the water is too acidic it can dissolve high levels of this lead from the pipe. There is a
chemical company that may be improperly disposing of sulfuric acid in the lake near the
city. There is also a paint company near the town that has used the same reactors for
mixing paint for many years. Although their paints no longer contain lead, these reactors
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may be contaminated with lead. Water from washing these reactors with sodium
phosphate, if improperly disposed of would produce high concentrations of lead in the
water. Also, the river running along the freeway recently flooded several times. The soil
in the area is contaminated with lead from the time when gasoline contained tetraethyl
lead. The lead in the soil has previously been analyzed and was found to be mostly lead
hydroxide.

The city’s chemists have performed some tests on the water and information from these
tests can be obtained from your teacher on a need-to-know basis. The city has restricted
this information so that only those who really need it may have access to it. The
following tests have been performed: osmotic pressure determination, percent weight
analysis of lead and oxygen in a substance precipitated from the water, and the weight of
precipitate when sodium sulfide is added to filtered water. Ksp values for some lead salts
are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Ksp Values for Lead Salts.

Salt Ksp Salt Ksp

Pb3(AsO4)2 4.1 × 10-36 Pb(OH)2 2.8 × 10-16

PbBr2 6.3 × 10-6 PbI2 8.7 × 10-9
PbCO3 1.5 × 10-13 Pb3(PO4)2 3.0 × 10-44
PbCl2 1.7 × 10-5 PbSeO4 1.5 × 10-7
PbCrO4 1.8 × 10-14 PbSO4 1.8 × 10-8
PbF2 3.7 ×10-8 PbS 8.4 × 10-28

Group 1:
Your job is to determine the possible compounds of lead that are of no concern because
their solubility is so low that the lead concentration in water will not exceed the
acceptable limits. Use the background information to identify these compounds. Report
your findings to groups 2, 3, and 4. Help these groups with their calculations if you have
time.

Group 2:
Your job is to determine the counterion associated with lead and the chemical formula of
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the compound by using the osmotic pressure data. Once the counterion is determined,
you should be able to determine from where the lead originated from by carefully
reading the background material. Check your answer with Groups 3 and 4.

Group 3:
Your job is to determine (using the background material above and the percent weight
data) which of the possible counterions is associated with lead and what the formula of
the lead compound is. Once the counterion is determined, you should be able to
determine from where the lead originated by carefully reading the background material.
Check your answer with Groups 2 and 4. Help these groups with their calculations if you
have time.

Group 4:
Your job is to determine the Ksp of the lead compound assuming that the water is
originally saturated with the lead compound. Use the available data on the weight of
precipitate formed on addition of sodium sulfide to filtered water. From the table of Ksp
values (Table 1), determine which lead compound is likely to be the contaminant. Once
you have determined this, you should be able to determine from where the lead
originated by carefully reading the background material. Check your answer with
Groups 2 and 3.

Group 5:
It has been suggested that bubbling carbon dioxide through the water would lower the
lead content. Determine, from Henry’s law and the Ksp value for lead carbonate, if this
method will work. If it will, find the pressure of carbon dioxide that is needed to produce
enough carbonate to lower the lead content below the acceptable limits. The Henry’s
law constant for carbon dioxide in water at 25 °C is 4.45 × 10-5 M/mm Hg.

Group 6:
From the list of Ksp values (Table 1) determine what is the best common ion to lower the
concentration of lead in water. Are there other considerations that need to be taken into
account when determining which common ion to use? Decide what you will recommend
adding to the water to remove lead ions. Calculate the concentration of this compound
needed to lower the lead content below the acceptable limits.

Group 7:
Your job is to devise a test that can be used by the city to determine when the level of
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lead is below the acceptable limits. The city is interested in a quick and inexpensive test.
They prefer something that does not require instrumentation and that can be performed
by workers without chemical backgrounds. You may find the Ksp values in Table 1 front
helpful for this work.

Osmotic Pressure Laboratory Report

A solution of the water saturated in the lead contaminant was found to have an osmotic
pressure of 0.380 mm Hg. The data was collected at 25°C.

The gas constant is 0.08206 L atm K-1 mol-1

Weight Percent Analysis of Contaminant

The sample was found to contain the following: 85.9% lead

There is at least one other element present, the identity of other elements was not able to
be determined.

Weight Analysis of Precipitate Formed by Addition of Sodium Sulfide

Sodium sulfide was added to a 10.0 L sample of contaminated water until its
concentration was 0.01M. A black precipitate weighing 0.010g formed.

Discussion of the Case Studies

General techniques for use in scientific case study/discussion classes
Our purpose in incorporating case studies into Introductory Chemistry classes is to
provide a format in which students can apply newly acquired knowledge, thereby
consolidating and deepening their understanding of it. Additionally, they develop their
skills in communicating scientific information, exercise and strengthen their problem-
solving abilities, learn to appreciate the connections between apparently isolated chunks
of material, and see the utility of what they have learned in realistic situations. The
student-to-teacher and student-to-student dialogue that accompanies a good discussion
provides valuable feedback to the teacher on the status of student comprehension and is
particularly valuable in drawing out and exposing misconceptions, many of which would
otherwise remain buried, only to surface in later courses, if at all. While a detailed
account of discussion techniques is beyond the scope of this article (several of the
references contain excellent descriptions of the philosophy, methodology, and scope of
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case study/discussion teaching), we include some observations pertaining to promoting

discussion in science classes in general and with these three cases in particular.

It is important for the success of any discussion class that the instructor’s activity shift
from telling (lecturing) to questioning, probing, and facilitating student discussion [6].
True discussion is not to be equated with the Socratic method, for in the latter the
teacher leads the students to predetermined conclusions along a single path of reasoning,
whereas a genuine discussion is inherently unpredictable, and the instructor must be
prepared to relinquish some control. Student questions should, as far as possible, be
redirected to other students. In technical courses, however, there often are correct and
incorrect answers and modes of thinking that must still somehow be conveyed by the
instructor [7]. In the event that by the end of the discussion, important points remain
unresolved, divergent student opinions are not reconciled, or the relevant has not been
clearly distinguished from the irrelevant, the teacher may find it necessary to clarify and
settle these issues in a closing summary. Instructors may find that discussions involving
technical scientific material need to be more tightly focused and more highly structured
than discussions in nontechnical courses. They may discover that very specific and
unambiguous questions can guide the discussion to a deeper and more complete analysis
than broader, open-ended questions. Open-ended questions should be used with caution,
for unless they are carefully crafted in a fashion that encourages students to describe
their reasoning process they are apt to elicit shallow responses. For example, in Case
Study 1, if the first question asked is “Which is the best of the five balloons?” the
response likely will be unproductive (even if correct) because students have not been
challenged to think about the many issues involved in the problem. It might be better to
ask questions such as “What happens to air pressure as altitude increases?” or “Why
will the carbon dioxide balloon not float?” and other such questions that focus attention
on the core scientific material. Alternatively, students could be questioned as to how
they would determine which balloon is best. This can then lead to consideration about
what calculations and chemical principles come into play in analyzing the case.

The blackboard can be a valuable asset in directing and summarizing a technical

discussion. As major points emerge, judicious placement of student comments on the
board can lead, at the end of the session, to a written and logically organized case
analysis that leaves students with a sense of wonder and pride at what they have
achieved. Student comments that are correct, but tangential to the discussion, can be
acknowledged by placing them on a side board. Some practitioners of discussion
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teaching advocate the preparation of a blackboard outline prior to the class [8]. This may
be particularly important where extended numerical calculations are involved.

Case Study 1
This is a deceptively simple case. Depending on the available time and the degree of
preparation of the students, it can be explored at a number of levels of detail. We have
used this case to support both small-group and full-class discussions. Either way it is
important for the teacher to have a well thought out plan of questions to lead the students
into the desired areas, otherwise they may very quickly come to an ill-conceived
conclusion that misses much of the scientific content.

As illustration of the different levels of detail that can be explored, a question about
which balloons will get off the ground can be answered (1) simply by recourse to
students knowledge of which gases are more dense or less dense than air, (2) by
calculation of gas densities based on formula weights and the ideal gas equation (with
the additional complexities of gas mixtures in some of the balloons), or (3) by an even
more detailed examination of Archimedes’s Principle. We have found that students at
this level have little or no feel for the degree of precision to which a calculation need be
taken in order to answer a simple yes/no question of this kind; that is, they have not
developed an ability to estimate, or an understanding of where an estimate is called for
in a scientific context. This is especially the case for students who are accustomed to
routine problem solving exercises.

A following question may ask what will happen to the balloons as they rise into an area
of lower air pressure. It is by no means obvious to all students that diminishing
atmospheric pressure will cause the balloons to expand (in this regard, the demonstration
of a balloon in a vacuum desiccator expanding as the air is pumped out is useful) and
discussion of this point can lead to considerations of pressure equalization and Boyle’s
Law. Subsequently the effect of decreasing temperature on each balloon’s size can be
considered, and discussion of the relative magnitude of changes associated with
variations in pressure and temperature should indicate the need for some calculations.

A question asking if any of the balloons will burst can lead to use of the ideal gas
equations to estimate the size of the balloons when they reach the desired height. This
will lead to the conclusion that balloon (iv) has a volume of 149.7 L and is on the point
of bursting. At this point we have found that many students express the opinion that this
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is the best option, based on a spurious notion of optimization, again probably fostered by
numerous routine calculations in previous courses. The idea of uncertainty can now be
introduced into the discussion, both in terms of the significant figures in the calculations
in relation to the uncertainties in the numerical data for this real-world situation, and, if
desired, in terms of nonideal gas behavior. The requirement for a suitable margin-of-
error in a real life situation where numbers are uncertain should emerge from the
discussion.

We have found that some students raise the issue of chemical reactivity of the gases,
citing the inertness of helium as a relevant consideration. The likelihood and possible
nature of any chemical reactions can be discussed, and the relative importance of the
physical versus the chemical properties of the gases in this situation will, one hopes,
emerge.

Case Study 2
In this study the “case” is a molecule. Nicotine was chosen because of current concern
and debate relating to the tobacco industry [5], but other interesting molecules (aspirin,
AZT, etc.) could be substituted. Focusing on a molecule and its various physical and
chemical properties cuts across the traditional chapter organization of most General
Chemistry texts, and allows students to integrate their knowledge of chemical formulae,
molecular structure and shapes, thermochemistry, etc., in a single application. The
classes are organized as small group discussions, each group of four to six students
focusing on a different aspect of nicotine’s chemistry and sharing information with other
groups before finally reporting to the class as a whole. This models, in a rudimentary
way, the process in which groups of scientists investigate a problem and share
information before reporting their findings to the wider scientific community. We have
found this case study to be a useful form of review prior to a test or of value to assess
the retention of material from first semester Introductory Chemistry in second semester
students.

Case Study 3
The lead pollution case also allows students to integrate knowledge from various parts
of their Introductory Chemistry course and is conducted in small groups that need to
share information with other groups in order to make the problem simpler. Some groups
work on identifying the source of the lead pollution, others on lowering the levels of lead
in the water, and still others on a quality control test to determine when the lead level
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has been reduced to an acceptable level. This division of labor models, on a simple level,
the division of labor found in scientific laboratories. We have observed that students
charged with using their knowledge of solubility product constants to develop a quality
control test based on precipitation had a difficult time. This portion of the case requires
that students bring several different concepts and calculations together. An expanded
format may be helpful in enabling students to apply their knowledge to this problem. For
example, students can obtain information from outside of the classroom setting or in an
associated laboratory experience. The use of more case study/discussion experiences in
Introductory Chemistry should build students’ skills in approaching these types of
questions.

Conclusion
The cases we have described are amenable to adaptation, modification, and
embellishment according to the needs and interests of teacher and students. We offer
them not only for their direct utility in the classroom, but also as illustrations of different
case styles that we hope will stimulate and assist instructors in writing their own cases.

Student responses to each case study were examined through questionnaires in which
students were asked: (1) if the discussion was helpful to their understanding of the
material, (2) if the discussion was of value as a classroom activity, and (3) if the
discussion was of use in helping them to see how the material they learned can be used
in realistic situations. For all three questions the student responses were very positive;
almost all students reported that they found the activity to be of value and helpful to their
understanding. One trend we have noted is that in sections where more time is allotted to
the discussion activity, the responses are more favorable. A full 50-min class period is
recommended for case studies 1 and 2, and even more time (75–100 min) for case study
3. If discussion is brought to an end prematurely the students may be left confused and
frustrated. A 2–5 minute summary by the instructor can help to focus attention on what
has been learned and bring a sense of closure. In any event, a discussion class with its
inevitable false starts, dead ends, and back-and-forth flow is less time efficient than a
lecture. A successful discussion takes time to explore the nooks and crannies of the
subject “territory” rather than marching through in a linear fashion. The dialogue of
discussion teaching creates opportunities to focus on process in addition to content. It
also provides what lecture cannot—an insight into what the students are really thinking.
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REFERENCES

1. (a) Christensen, C. R.; Hansen, A. J. Teaching and the Case Method; Harvard Business School
Publishing Division: Boston, MA, 1987; (b) Barrows, H. S.; Tamblyn, R. M. Problem-Based
Learning: An Approach to Medical Education; Springer: New York, 1980; (c) McNair, M. P.;
Hersum, A. C. The Case Method at the Harvard Business School; McGraw-Hill: New York,
1954; (d) Barrows, H. S. Medical Education 1986, 20, 481.

2. (a) Astiv, A. W. Change 1985, 17(4), 35; (b) Welty, W. M. Change 1989, 21(4), 41;
(c) Whitehead, A. N. Essays in Science and Philosophy; Philosophical Library, Inc.: New York,
1947; (d) Gage, N. L. Phi Delta Kappan 1984, 66(2), 87.

3. (a) Herreid, C. F. Journal of College Science Teaching 1994, 23(4), 221; (b) Herreid, C. F.
Journal of College Science Teaching 1996, 25(6), 413; (c) Fasching, J. L.; Erickson, B. L. J.
Chem. Educ. 1985, 62(10), 842; (d) Doherty, M. P. J. Chem. Educ. 1994, 71(10), 860.

4. (a) Challen, P. R. “Examples of the Case Study/Discussion Method of Teaching as Used in

General Chemistry Courses at John Carroll University” Presented at the Cleveland ACS Meeting-
In-Miniature, Baldwin-Wallace College, Cleveland, OH, 1995; (b) Silverstein, T. P. and Brink, C.
P. “Spiral/Case Study Approach” Presented at the Project Kaleidoscope Workshop Revitalizing
Introductory Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, 1996.

5. C&EN 1994, 72(48), 8.

6. Garvin, D. A. in Education for Judgement; Christensen, C. R.; Garvin, D. A.; Sweet, A. Eds.;
Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA, 1991; Chapter 1.

7. Greenwald, B. In Education for Judgement ; Christensen, C. R.; Garvin, D. A.; Sweet, A. Eds.;
Harvard Business School Press: Boston, 1991; Chapter 11.

8. Welty, W. M. Presented at the Workshop on Case Study Teaching, John Carroll University, May
1994.