animals

Review
Communication in Dogs
Marcello Siniscalchi * ID
, Serenella d’Ingeo, Michele Minunno and Angelo Quaranta
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Section of Behavioral Sciences and Animal Bioethics, University of Bari
“Aldo Moro”, 70121 Bari, Italy; [email protected] (S.d.); [email protected] (M.M.);
[email protected] (A.Q.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-080-544-3948




Received: 30 June 2018; Accepted: 28 July 2018; Published: 31 July 2018


Simple Summary: Communication takes place between members of the same species, as well as
between heterospecific individuals, such as the long co-habitation process and inter-dependent
relationship present in domestic dogs and humans. Dogs engage in visual communication by
modifying different parts of their body; in tactile communication; and also in auditory and olfactory
communication, with vocalizations and body odours, respectively. The aim of this review is to
provide an overview of the recent literature about dog communication, describing the different nature
of the signals used in conspecific and heterospecific interactions and their communicative meaning.
Lateralized dog brain patterns underlying basic neural mechanisms are also discussed, for both
conspecific and heterospecific social communication.

Abstract: Dogs have a vast and flexible repertoire of visual, acoustic, and olfactory signals that allow
an expressive and fine tuned conspecific and dog–human communication. Dogs use this behavioural
repertoire when communicating with humans, employing the same signals used during conspecific
interactions, some of which can acquire and carry a different meaning when directed toward humans.
The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the latest progress made in the study of dog
communication, describing the different nature of the signals used in conspecific (dog–dog) and
heterospecific (dog–human) interactions and their communicative meaning. Finally, behavioural
asymmetries that reflect lateralized neural patterns involved in both dog–dog and dog–human social
communication are discussed.

Keywords: dog; communication; behaviour

1. Introduction
Communication occurs between members of the same species, as well as between heterospecific
individuals, as occurs between domestic dogs and humans [1]. Living in close contact with humans for
at least 30,000 years [2], dogs have developed specific skills enabling them to communicate flexibly with
humans [3]. There is now evidence suggesting that the dog–human relationship can be characterized
as an “attachment”, which closely resembles the one reported between infants and their primary
caregivers [4,5]. Specifically, the co-habitation process and the human–dog attachment caused both in
human and in dogs changes in their cross-species communicative abilities, the result of which is to
perceive and understand the other species’ signals and correctly respond to them [6].
Dogs show a flexible behavioural repertoire when communicating with humans, employing the
same signals used in intraspecific interactions (dog–dog), some of which can acquire and carry a
different meaning when used toward humans (e.g., eye contact, [7]). They use their whole body to
communicate, conveying information intentionally or otherwise [8]. Not all the signals, in fact, are
under voluntary control. When a dog experiences an emotional state, for example anxiety, it releases a

Animals 2018, 8, 131; doi:10.3390/ani8080131 www.mdpi.com/journal/animals

Animals 2018, 8, x  2 of 20 
specific body odour into the environment [8,9]. Despite being involuntary, this signal is received as a
communicative signal by other individual because it informs them about the sender’s inner state and
a communicative signal by other individual because it informs them about the sender’s inner state 
it can produce changes in the receiver’s behaviour [8].
and it can produce changes in the receiver’s behaviour [8].   
Dogs are engaged in visual communication by modifying different parts of their body, in tactile
Dogs are engaged in visual communication by modifying different parts of their body, in tactile 
communication, and in auditory and olfactory communication, with vocalizations and body odours,
communication, and in auditory and olfactory communication, with vocalizations and body odours, 
respectively. The aim 
respectively.  The  aim of 
of this 
this review 
review is 
is to 
to provide
provide  an
an  overview
overview  on
on  the
the  recent
recent  literature
literature  about
about  dog
dog 
communication, describing the different nature of the signals used in conspecific and heterospecific
communication, describing the different nature of the signals used in conspecific and heterospecific 
interactions and their communicative meaning.
interactions and their communicative meaning. 

2. Visual Communication
2. Visual Communication 
Dogs communicate visually with other individual modifying the position of different parts of
Dogs communicate visually with other individual modifying the position of different parts of 
their body (see Figures 1 and 2). Control by voluntary muscles allows dogs to display a wide range of
their body (see Figures 1 and 2). Control by voluntary muscles allows dogs to display a wide range 
postures and body part positions that convey different information about the signaler’s inner state and
of postures and body part positions that convey different information about the signaler’s inner state 
intentions [8]. However, humans, through artificial selection over many years, have produced changes
and intentions [8]. However, humans, through artificial selection over many years, have produced 
in dogs’ anatomy and morphology that have reduced the social signaling capacity of several breeds [10].
changes in dogs’ anatomy and morphology that have reduced the social signaling capacity of several 
For instance,
breeds  [10].  brachycephalic dog lost the flexibility
For  instance,  brachycephalic  in displaying
dog  lost  different
the  flexibility  facial expressions
in  displaying  andfacial 
different  dogs
with permanently
expressions  erected
and  dogs  with ears or with a erected 
permanently  very short tails
ears  lost part
or  with  of their
a  very  short behavioural repertoire
tails  lost  part  of  their 
expressed by these anatomical structures [10]. The long or dense fur of some breeds obscures
behavioural repertoire expressed by these anatomical structures [10]. The long or dense fur of some  several
visual
breeds  obscures  several  visual  signals,  like  piloerection,  or  even  entire  parts  of  dogs’  body [10,11].
signals, like piloerection, or even entire parts of dogs’ body (eyes, mouth, or legs) (eyes, 
Therefore, visual communication could be extremely challenging for some dogs, both
mouth, or legs) [10,11]. Therefore, visual communication could be extremely challenging for some  for correctly
delivering and for interpreting visual information.
dogs, both for correctly delivering and for interpreting visual information. 

 
Figure 1. The female is looking at the little red male, asking him to increase the distance. The little red 
Figure 1. The female is looking at the little red male, asking him to increase the distance. The little red
male is approaching in a curving but conflicting way; he has hackles and his face expresses tension. 
male is approaching in a curving but conflicting way; he has hackles and his face expresses tension.
May  be  he  is  testing  the  reaction  of  the  female,  asking  her  to  stand  up;  the  female  face  expresses 
May be he is testing the reaction of the female, asking her to stand up; the female face expresses threat
threat (she probably does not want to interact with him). 
(she probably does not want to interact with him).

Broadly speaking, individuals’ proximity and direct interactions are required during visual
communication [12]. In dogs’ encounters with other conspecifics, body size and body posture
are the first visual signals perceived, providing the very first information about other individuals’
intentions [10]. Dogs can communicate confidence, alertness, or threat by increasing their body
size, pulling themselves up to their full height, and increasing the tension of the body muscles [8].
The individual’s body size can be further increased by piloerection of the hackles (Figure 1). The
piloerection reflex occurs in several contexts related to the individual’s increase in arousal, indicating,
for example, fear or surprise, or to communicate aggression or stress [8]. It still remains a question to
be further investigated whether the location of the raised hackles on the dog’s body could be really
informative about dogs’ emotional states.
 
Figure  2.  The  two  dogs  have  a  very  strong  relationship.  The  Czech  wolf  needs  to  be  close  to  his 
“adoptive mother” while he is looking at something that catches his attention. The female is looking 
at something else with a body language that gives information; she is much more self‐confident. 
Animals 2018, 8, 131 3 of 20
 
Figure 1. The female is looking at the little red male, asking him to increase the distance. The little red 
On the other hand, dogs can reduce sizes perceived by other individuals by lowering their body
male is approaching in a curving but conflicting way; he has hackles and his face expresses tension. 
and their tailhe 
May  be  and flattening
is  testing  back their
the  reaction  ears
of  the  to avoid
female,  conflicts
asking  or during
her  to  stand  stressful
up;  the  female interactions [8,11]
face  expresses 
(Figure 3).
threat (she probably does not want to interact with him). 

Animals 2018, 8, x  3 of 20 

Broadly  speaking,  individuals’  proximity  and  direct  interactions  are  required  during  visual 
communication [12]. In dogs’ encounters with other conspecifics, body size and body posture are the 
first  visual  signals  perceived,  providing  the  very  first  information  about  other  individuals’ 
intentions [10]. Dogs can communicate confidence, alertness, or threat by increasing their body size, 
pulling themselves up to their full height, and increasing the tension of the body muscles [8]. The 
individual’s  body  size  can  be  further  increased  by  piloerection  of  the  hackles  (Figure  1).  The 
piloerection  reflex  occurs  in  several  contexts  related  to  the  individual’s  increase  in  arousal, 
 
indicating, for example, fear or surprise, or to communicate aggression or stress [8]. It still remains a 
question  to  be  further  investigated  whether  the  location  of  the  raised  hackles  on  the  dog’s  body 
Figure  2.  The  two  dogs  have  a  very  strong  relationship.  The  Czech  wolf  needs  to  be  close  to  his 
2. The two dogs have a very strong relationship. The Czech wolf needs to be close to his
Figurecould be really informative about dogs’ emotional states. 
“adoptive mother” while he is looking at something that catches his attention. The female is looking 
On the other hand, dogs can reduce sizes perceived by other individuals by lowering their body 
“adoptive mother” while he is looking at something that catches his attention. The female is looking at
at something else with a body language that gives information; she is much more self‐confident. 
and their tail and flattening back their ears to avoid conflicts or during stressful interactions [8,11] 
something else with a body language that gives information; she is much more self-confident.
(Figure 3). 

 
Figure 3. Free‐ranging dogs. (A) The black male displays courtship behavior. His expression shows a 
Figure 3. Free-ranging dogs. (A) The black male displays courtship behavior. His expression shows a
closing distance request. (A,B) The female is showing her intention to avoid a conflict, but also her 
closing distance request. (A,B) The female is showing her intention to avoid a conflict, but also her
firm intention to enhance distance to protect her puppy. 
firm intention to enhance distance to protect her puppy.