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N A S A C O N T R A C T O R~-
REPORT

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N
I

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, v

INTEGRATION OF
NASA-SPONSORED STUDIES
ON ALUMINUM WELDING

by Koichi Masubuchi . ,, , ' .

. . .
._ -.. .. .
Prepared by
, . .
MASSACHUSETTSINSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Cambridge, Mass.
f o r GeorgeC.Marshall SpaceFlightCenter

NATIONAL
AERONAUTICS
AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON, D. C. JUNE 1972
 - "

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

TECHNIC . REP 00b1150

- .. -
. ..
¶ REPORT NO. 2. GOVERNMENT
ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'SCATALOG NO.
NASA CR-2064
4. TITLE AND S U B T I T L E 5. REPORTDATE
INTEGRATION O F NASA-SPONSORED STUDES ON June 1972
ALUMINUM WELDING 6. PERFORMINGORGANIZATION COOE

~ ~~ ~~ ~~

7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT .

Koichi Masubuchi
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND'ADDRESS IO. WORK U N I T NO.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Dept. of Ocean Engineering 11. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO.

Cambridge,Massachusetts NAS 8-24364

13. 'TYPE OF REPORT k PERIOD COVEREI
12. SPONSORING AGENCY HAM€ AND ADDRESS Low Series
Contractor Report
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Washington, D. C. 20546 14. SPONSORINGAGENCYCODE

15. SUPPLEMENTARYNOTES

16. ABSTRACT G a s t u n g s t e n - a r ca n dg a sm e t a l - a r cp r o c e s s e s a r e used

extensivelyinthefabricationofhugefuelandoxidizer
tanksoftheSaturn V spacecraftusedinthe W p o l l ol u n a r
missions. The b u i l d i n go ft h e s et a n k sh a sr a i s e dp r o b l e m s
r e l a t e d t o w e l d i n g of h i g h - s t r e n g t h , h e a t - t r e a t e d aluminum
a l l o y sa n dh a v er e v e a l e d a needforbasicresearchleading
t ot h ed e v e l o p m e n t of new t e c h n i q u e s ; b o t h o f w h i c h w i l l be
of b e n e f i t t o t h e g e n e r a l i n d u s t r y .

T h i s i s t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n of t h e r e p o r t of a s t u d y t o
i n t e g r a t e results obtainedinnineteenindividualstudies
s p o n s o r e db y NASA onweldingaluminum. Subjects c o v e r e d
include:
Effects of p o r o s i t y o n w e l d - j o i n t p e r f o r m a n c e
S o u r c e so fp o r o s i t y
Weld t h e r m a l e f f e c t s
R e s i d u a l stresses a n d d i s t o r t i o n
M a n u f a c t u r i n gp r o c e s ss y s t e mc o n t r o l .
7. KEY WOROS STATEMENT
OlSTRlBUTlON 18.

Welding
Aluminum Alloys
Porosity
Thermal Effects

9. SECURITY CLASSIF. (d thb rmport) 20. SECURITY

CLASSIF.
I (of this WE=) 21. NO. OF PAGES 22. PRICE
$6.00
Unclassified Unclassified 322

For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151
 FOREWORD

This report is the documentation of the results of a program

to analyze and integrate data generated fromNASA-sponsored stud-
ies on welding aluminum alloys, especially 2014 and 2219 alloys.
Earlier work on this was published as NASA CR-61261, from George
C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center,
Alabama 35812. The earlier work was funded under a Department
of Army grant, DA-Ol-02I-AMC-14693(Z). The present work was
performed under NAS 8-24364 contract.

iii
 -~
". ".

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1-1

CHAPTER 2 Welding Fabricationof Fuel and

Oxidizer Tanksof Saturn V 2-1
2.1 Saturn V and It's Fuel and Oxidizer Tanks 2-1
2.2 Selection of Materials for Fuel and
Oxidizer Tanks 2-3
Brief
History
Prior
to
Saturn V 2-3
Saturn
2-4
S1-C
for
Alloy
2219
Alloy 2014 for Second and Third Stages 2-6
Characteristics of 2014 and 2219 Alloys 2-6
tion
Welding 2.3
Techniques Welding
2-11 Welds Requirements
for
Weld Defects,
Especially
Porosity 2-11
Jigging 2-14
Requirements
Joint
for
Mismatch
2-17

CHAPTER 3 WeldingProblemsandResearchEfforts 3-1

3.1 NASA-Sponsored Studies on Welding Aluminum 3-1

3.2 Welding Problems and Outline of
NASA-Sponsored Studies 3-7
Porosity 3-7
Effects Thermal
Materials and Welding Processes Studied 3-11

V
 Page
CHAPTER 4 on
E f f e c t s o fP o r o s i t y
Weld-Joint Performance 4-1
4.1 G e n e r a lD i s c u s s i o n so nt h e Effects of
Weld D e f e c t s on the Performance of
Welded S t r u c t u r e s 4-1
Stress Concentrations around Defects 4-2
Ductile Fracture 4-5
Unstable Brittle F r a c t u r e 4-0
4.2 P o r o s i t yE f f e c t so nW e l d - J o i n tP e r f o r m a n c e
u n d e r S t a t i c Loading 4-11
R e s u l t s of Some E x p e r i m e n t sS i m i l a r
t o NASA S t u d i e s 4-11
R e s e a r c hP r o c e d u r e so ft h e
MartinStudy 4-13
E x p e r i m e n t a lR e s u l t s 4-16
A n a l y s i sa n dE v a l u a t i o n of t h e
MartinStudy on P o r o s i t y E f f e c t s
o n Weld S t r e n g t h 4-21

4 . 3P o r o s i t yE f f e c t so nF a t i g u eS t r e n g t h 4-25

4.4 E f f e c to fR e p a i r Welds 4-28

CHAPTER 5
Weld P o r o s i t y , I t s SourcesandControl 5-1

5.1MechanismsofPorosity 5-2
R o l e of Hydrogen 5-2
EffectsofShielding G a s Dewpointand
Welding Parameters on P o r o s i t y 5-4
Nucleationand Growth of P o r o s i t y 5-6

5.2
Shielding-Gas
Contamination 5-10
The BoeingStudyonEffectsof
I n d i v i d u a l Gas Contaminants 5-11
5.3 Surface
Contamination 5-17
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S u r f a c e o f
Practical Joints 5-17
SurfaceAdsorption 5-20

vi
 Page
SurfaceTopography 5-23
P r o c e d u r e s of t h e I I T R I Study 5-27
R e s u l t s of t h e I I T R I Study 5-32

5.4 Composition of Base P l a t e and F i l l e r Metal 5-47

5.5 Methods f o rC o n t r o l l i n ga n dE l i m i n a t i n g
Porosity 5-50
S u r f a c e Hydrogen A n a l y s i s 5-50
TackWelds As a Source of
Surface Contamination 5-63
SurfacePreparation 5-68
M o n i t o r i n gS h i e l d i n g Gas P u r i t y 5-75
O t h e r P o s s i b l e Means 5-88

CHAPTER 6 Weld T h e r m a lE f f e c t s
6.1 Time-TemperatureEffect 6-3
S t r e n g t h vs WeldingEnergy 6- 10
6.2 Welding w i t h High D e n s i t y Power Sources 6-11
E x p e r i m e n t st oI n c r e a s e GTA
Power D e n s i t y 6- 11
E l e c t r o n Beam Welding 6-16
Nonvacuum E l e c t r o n B e a m Welding 6-19
P l a s m a E l e c t r o n B e a m Welding 6-22
6.3 Time-TemperatureControlby
CryogenicCooling 6-26
ExperimentalProcedures 6-26
ExperimentalResults 6-28

CHAPTER 7 R e s i d u a lS t r e s s e sa n d D i s t o r t i o n 7-1

7.1 A n a l y s i s of Thermal Stresses duringWelding 7-2

TechnicalBackground on Analysisand
C o n t r o l of Weld D i s t o r t i o n 7-2
DevelopmentofTechniques forAnalyzing
ThermalStressesand Metal Movement 7 -6

vii
 Paqe
Examples of Analytical Results 7-11
Effects of Welding Parameters 7-15
Effects of Material Propertieson
Residual Stress Distributions 7-23
Experimental Investigation 7-27

7.2 Reduction of Warpage and Residual Stresses

by Controlling Thermal Pattern
during Welding 7-33
Background and Phases of Study 7-33
Analytical Study 7-34
Experimental Work 7-34
Typical Thermal Patterns 7-37
Experimental Results 7-43
Discussion of Results 7-46

7.3 Development of Nondestructive Methods for

Determining Residual Stresses 7-48
Ultrasonic Stress Measuring Techniques 7-49
Investigation on Welded Plates 7-54
Application Technique Considerations 7-5 8
Detection of Fatigue Damage 7-61
Summary 7-62

CHAPTER 8 Manufacturing Process System Control 8-1

8.1 Transferability of Welding Parameters 8-2

Phases and Experimental Design 8-3
Welding Test Procedure 8-6
Welding Parameter Control Development 8-7
Statistical Analysisof Effects on
Welding Parameterson Weld Qualities 8-11
Analysis and Evaluation of the
Lockheed Study on Transferability of
Setup Parameters 8-20

viii

- ...... .
"
 Page

8.2 DevelopmentofWeldingProcess
C o n t r o l Sys tems 8-26
Prevention of Porosity by Monitoring
S h i e l d i n g - G a sP u r i t y and
SurfaceCleanliness 8-26
ComputerSimulationofWeldingProcesses
toT EPhfre
feerdm
citcastl 8-27

CHAPTER 9 Summary aPnrda c t i c a l Recommendations 9-1

REFERENCES 10-1

ix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

S p a c e e x p l o r a t i o n i s n o t accomplished by w i s h f u l
t h i n k i n ga n di n t e n s ed e s i r e alone. Artifacts, t o o l s , and
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n v e h i c l e s are b r o u g h t a b o u t b y s c i e n t i f i c a n d
t e c h n o l o g i c a la c t i v i t y . A s i no t h e re s c a p a d e s of c u r i o s i t y ,
man d e r i v e s b y - p r o d u c t s o f k n o w l e d g e i n t e c h n o l o g y t h a t are
b e n e f i c i a l i n r e s p e c t t o peacefulcoexistenceandbiosocial
well-being. The w e l d i n gt e c h n i q u e sa n de q u i p m e n tt h a t are
used t o p r o d u c e s p a c e v e h i c l e s of h i g h s t r u c t u r a l r e l i a b i l i t y
can a l s o beused t o make b e t t e r and more e c o n o m i c a l p r o d u c t s ,
necessary in our moremundane existence.
DuringthefabricationoftheSaturn V spacevehicles
used f o r t h e A p o l l o l u n a r m i s s i o n s , a n e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h
programon aluminum welding w a s conducted by the Welding
DevelopmentBranch i n t h e ManufacturingEngineeringLaboratory
o ft h e G . C . M a r s h a l lS p a c eF l i g h tC e n t e r , NASA. As a part
of t h ep r o g r a m , a s t u d y was conducted a t t h eM a s s a c h u s e t t s
I n s t i t u t e of TechnologyunderContract N o . NAS 8-24364 t o
i n t e g r a t e NASA-sponsored s t u d i e s onaluminumwelding.

Resultsdiscussedinthesereports are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
w e l d i n gf a b r i c a t i o no f t h e S a t u r n V. However, t h e ys h o u l d
b e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e w e l d i n g of aluminum a l l o y s u s e d i n
f u t u r es p a c ev e h i c l e sa n da e r o s p a c es t r u c t u r e s . Basic p r i n -
ciplesdescribedherecan be a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o s t r u c t u r e s i n
n o n - s p a c ei n d u s t r i e s .
Although t h i s r e p o r t i s c o n c e r n e dw i t ht h ew e l d i n g of
aluminum s t r u c t u r e s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h i s
i s onlyonephaseofthefabrication of a complex s t r u c t u r e
such as t h e S a t u r n V s p a c e v e h i c l e , a n d m u s t e v e n t u a l l y be
r e l a t e d t o a much g r e a t e r w h o l e . The S a t u r n V r e q u i r e s a v e r y
complexsystem of d e s i g n a n d f a b r i c a t i o n composed of many
p h a s e s .T h e s ep h a s e si n c l u d ed e s i g n , material s e l e c t i o n ,
stress a n a l y s i s ,c u t t i n g ,m a c h i n i n g ,f o r m i n g ,j o i n i n g ,a n d
i n s p e c t i o n .E a c hp h a s e i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o anddependent
upon t h eo t h e r s .F o re x a m p l e ,t h e material s e l e c t i o nm u s t
b e made n o t o n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s b u t
a l s o w i t hr e g a r dt of o r m i n ga n dj o i n i n g the material. The
design must be made so t h a t a s t r u c t u r e w i t h s u f f i c i e n t re-
l i a b i l i t y c a n be f a b r i c a t e d w i t h a t o l e r a b l e d i m e n s i o n a l
accuracy.There a r e also many f a c t o r sw i t h i ne a c hp h a s e of
d e s i g na n df a b r i c a t i o n .F o re x a m p l e ,t h eq u a l i t yo f a weld
depends upon s u c h factors a s t h e c l e a n l i n e s s of t h e metal
s u r f a c e , p u r i t y of t h e s h i e l d i n g g a s , a n d t h e w e l d i n g c o n d i -
tions. T o i m p r o v et h es t r u c t u r a lr e l i a b i l i t yo f a space
v e h i c l e , w e must know more a b o u t each p h a s e , t h e r e l a t i o n -
shipoffactorswithin i t , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of anyonephase
t oo t h e rp h a s e s ,a n du l t i m a t e l y ,t h ei m p o r t a n c e of eachphase
t ot h ef i n a lp r o d u c t . With t h i s knowledge, time and money
can be s p e n t m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y t o i m p r o v et h ep r o d u c t .

Weldinghas been u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n of
t h eS a t u r n V s p a c ev e h i c l e s . NASA h a ss e l e c t e dh i g h - s t r e n g t h
aluminum a l l o y s , p r i m a r i l y 2 0 1 4 and 2 2 1 9 , as t h e major s t r u c -
t u r a l materials f o r t h e huge f u e la n do x i d i z e rt a n k s . Gas
t u n g s t e n - a r c (GTA) andgas metal-arc (GMA) p r o c e s s e sh a v e
b e e nu s e df o rf a b r i c a t i n gt h e s et a n k s . However, f u s i o nw e l d -
ingofhigh-strengthheat-treated aluminum a l l o y s p r e s e n t s
thefollowingreliabilityproblems:

1) The p o s s i b i l i t yo fo b t a i n i n gd e f e c t si nw e l d s
2) U n d e s i r a b l et h e r m a le f f e c t sd u e t o w e l d i n gh e a t

Aluminum a l l o y s a r e s u b j e c t t o c e r t a i n t y p e s o f weld
d e f e c t s ,e s p e c i a l l yp o r o s i t y .E v e r ya t t e m p ts h o u l d be made
t o minimizeporosity,but i t h a s become e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t
becauseofthelimitedeffectivenessofpresentlyavailable

1- 2
inspection techniques. Among various nondestructive inspection
techniques, visual and X-ray (and sometimes ultrasonic) inspec-
tions are used to examine structural welds. However, none of
these techniques is completely satisfactory. The usefulness
of visual inspection is limited. X-ray inspection is usually
two-dimensional, and three-dimensional distributions of defects
are not determined.
The intense heat generated by the welding arc causes
various undesirable thermal effects. Metallurgical stiuc-
tures of the weld metal and the heat-affected zone differ
from thoseof the original base metal.A welded joint is
composed of many zones with different structures and mecha-
nical properties. It is known that the ultimate tensile
strength of a welded jointin high-strength heat-treated
aluminum alloy decreases with increasing heat input, that
is, the amount of heat energy supplied per of weld length.
inch
Welding heat also causes residual stresses and distortion.
Because there isno reliable nondestructive technique to deter-
mine the strength of a welded structure,it is essential to
control the manufacturing processso that the fluctuationin
behavior of welded structures can be minimized and limited to
a certain range.
The ultimate purpose of theNASA welding research program
is to improve the performance and reliability of space vehi-
cles. This can be done by investigating each of the problems
involved and then determining how best to utilize the infor-
mation obtained. Results obtained in someof the investigations
may be contradictory; for example, a welding process using a
certain set of parameters found to be very effective in re-
ducing porosity may be undesirable because of large thermal
effects. It is important, therefore, to integrate results
obtained in the individual investigations. Such integration
of data will provide a basis of recommendations for design
and fabrication of space vehicles.

1- 3
 The w e l d i n gp r o c e s s i s a d y n a m i cw h o l e ,a ne n t i r e t y . It
i s a series of i n t e r r e l a t e d ,i n t e r d e p e n d e n te v e n t s . We are
n o t able t o m i n u t e l y a n a l y z e the dynamic whole, b u t m u s t ar-
b i t r a r i l y select restricted areas f o r s t u d y , which might be
c o n s i d e r e df r a g m e n t so f t h e map of welding. The s t u d i e s
l i s t e d h e r e i n are s u c h f r a g m e n t s w h i c h c o l l e c t i v e l y r e p r e s e n t
a major p o r t i o n of w e l d i n gt e c h n o l o g y . The time comes, how-
e v e r , when t h e f r a g m e n t s m u s t be i n t e g r a t e d a n d t h e whole map
c o n s t r u c t e d , i f we are t o u n d e r s t a n d w e l d i n g a n d i f w e are
t o f o r m u l a t ep r o c e s sc o n t r o l . The p r e s e n tr e p o r t i s a first
s t e p i n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l , i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d i e s .

P r o c e s sc o n t r o l i s t h e f i n a lo b j e c t i v e :q u a n t i t a t i v e
1imit.s of t h e m a j o r variables whichcan be e x p r e s s e d i n manu-
f a c t u r i n gs p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Such s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w i l l s u p p l e -
ment i n s p e c t i o n i n t h e a s s u r a n c e o f w e l d - j o i n t r e l i a b i l i t y .

1- 4
 CHAPTER 2

Welding Fabrication of Fuel and Oxidizer Tanks of S a t u r n V

2.1 S a t u r n V and I t ' s Fuel and Oxidizer Tanks

Figure 2-1 is a s i m p l e i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e S a t u r n V.
I t s t a n d s 3 6 3 f e e t highwith its Apollo spacecraft in place,
and i t s maximum d i a m e t e r i s 3 3 f e e t . ( 1 , 2 )

The f i r s t s t a g e , which i s called S - I C , i s poweredby

f i v e F-1 e n g i n e s . The f i v ee n g i n e s ,w h i c hb u r nk e r o s e n ea n d
l i q u i d oxygen a t t h e r a t e of 1 5 t o n s p e r s e c o n d f o r a b o u t
2 1 / 2 m i n u t e s ,b o o s tt h eA p o l l oa s t r o n a u t st o an a l t i t u d e of
40 m i l e s .

The s e c o n ds t a g e ,S - 1 1 , i s poweredby f i v e J - 2 e n g i n e s ,
w h i c hb u r nl i q u i dh y d r o g e na n dl i q u i do x y g e n . The t h i r d
s t a g e , S - I V B , i s poweredby a s i n g l e J - 2 engine. The t h i r d
s t a g e accelerates t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e v e l o c i t y n e e d e d to
overcome t h e e a r t h ' s g r a v i t y .

A s f a r a s t h ew e i g h t i s c o n c e r n e d ,t h eS a t u r n V may be
c o n s i d e r e d as a na s s e m b l yo fh u g ef u e la n do x i d i z e rt a n k s .
The S a t u r n V f i l l e d w i t h f u e l and l i q u i d oxygenweighsabout
2 , 7 0 0 t o n s ,w h i l e i t s emptiedweight i s o n l y 1 7 0 t o n s .

The G . C. M a r s h a l l S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r w a s r e s p o n s i b l e
fortheoveralldesignandfabricationoftheSaturn V , and
many c o n t r a c t o r s h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n of d i f -
f e r e n t components. The Boeing A i r c r a f t Company, N o r t h Ameri-
canRockwellCorporation,andMcDonnellDouglasAircraft
Company, h a v e b u i l t t h e f i r s t , s e c o n d , a n d t h i r d s t a g e s ,
respectively.
B e c a u s eo ft h eg i g a n t i ct a s k of t h e l u n a r m i s s i o n a n d
theinvolvementofastronauts,everycffort w a s made t o b u i l d
t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h maximum r e l i a b i l i t y and minimum w e i g h t .
LAUNCH ESCAPE SYSTEM

\I\

Figure 2-1. Saturn V Space Vehicle

2- 2
2.2 Selection
______" of _
Materials
__~
___.
for Fuel and Oxidizer Tanks
. . . ~ .~

NASA has selected high-strength aluminum alloys

2014
and 2 2 1 9 as primary structural alloys
for fueland oxidizer
tanks becauseof their attractive strength-to-weight ratios
(3).
in the range of temperatures' to be encountered.

Brief History Prior to Saturn V

"
. .

The use of aluminum alloys in the Saturn V vehicles

evolved from long term usage in Redstone, Jupiter, and
Saturn I vehicles. A report by Hasemeyer ( 4 ) covers the
history of the use of aluminum alloys in various space
vehicles, which is summarized in the following pages.
Analuminum alloy similar to5 0 5 2 was used by the Germans
in their World War I1 missiles, because of its low density,
good strength at room temperature, and excellent strength at th
temperature of liquid oxygen.
The U. S. Army (predecessor of MSFC) used alloy 5052 in
the 70" diameter Redstone missile. Tanks were welded into
short cylinders and then joined into full-length containers.
Ring stiffeners were 6061-T6 aluminum and were resistance
welded to the inside of the tanks. For the 1 0 5 " diameter
Jupiter missile, the U. S. Army used alloy 5086 and 5456 in
work hardened tempers. These alloys were higher strength than
5 0 5 2 and were easily welded. When the Saturn I vehicle was
constructed by NASA, tooling and fabrication procedures were
simplified by clustering eight Redstone missiles around one
Jupiter. The same materials and welding techniques were
used here as on the individual Redstone and Jupiter missiles.
When the Satan V tas to be fabricated, several changes from
the Redstone and Jupiter were found to be necessary. The
first and second stages were designed tobe 3 3 ' in diameter.

2-3
The aluminum walls for a portion of the S-IC first stage we
almost one inch thick. Re-evaluation ofthe alloys to be
used was required because of the considerable increase in
thickness over the1/4" 5456 in the SaturnI.

Alloy 2 2 1 9 for SaturnS I - C ( 4 )

A test program to compare certain properties of alloys

5456-H343 and 2 2 1 9 - T 8 7 was conducted at MSFC to select the
material most suitable for the major structure of the
Saturn SI-C launch vehicle. The Boeing Company proposal for
the SI-C considered2 2 1 9 as the major structural alloy. After
an intensive study, NASA decided to use2 2 1 9 alloy for the
Saturn SI-C.
The choice of a structural alloy for the SI-C vehicle
was based on several factors.A summary of these considera-
tions is presented in Table
2-1.

It was determined that the length of welds necessary for

the 2 2 1 9 material would be approximately 300 feet less than
for 5456 due to the availabllity 2of2 1 9 in greater plate
widths. Approximately 3,000 lbs. of weight could be saved
in the propellant tanks by the of use2 2 1 9 over 5456.

Alloy 2 2 1 9 has a decided advantage where mating structural

components, such as extrusions, tubing and forgings are
concerned. These forms can be obtained in the same alloy,
whereas they couldnot be with the5456; thus, dissimilar
welds would not be necessary with 2219. No 2 2 1 9 castings
were to be used in the SI-C Structure.
Anadditional consideration in favor
of 2 2 1 9 is the
elevated temperature properties of the alloy. The alloy
was developed originally as a high temperature alloy and has
the best elevated temperature properties of any aluminum
alloy above the400' F range.

2-4
 TABLE 2-1. SUMMARYCOMPARISON OF 5456-H343AND 2219-T87

2219-T87 54564343

PROPERTIES
MECHANICAL ELON.(%) Y.S.(KSI) U.T.S.(KSI)ELON.(%) Y.S.(KSI) U.T.S.(KSI)
i
PARENT METAL - GUARANTEED MINIMUM I
! 64.0 5 2 .O - I
I 53.0 41.0 - I
I
- TYPICAL ROOM TEMP. I
56.3
I 68.0 10.212.0 I
44.4 56.1 ;
I I
- LOX TEMP. 68.2 ! 84.6 16.3
I
! 72.1 52.3 13.9
WELD - TIG/MIO - ROOM TEMP. I 43.1/41.4 26.7/26.1 4.3/3.6 41.6/39.1 26.3/25.6 6.5/4.5 1
-
TEMP. LOX
I
I 58.5/55.7 30.8/31.9 4.9/4.0
I
! 51.1/46.3 31.0/30.5 5.5/4.9 1
PARENTMETALNOTCHED / UNNOTCHED
1.03/0.92 0.95/0.85

-
TENSILESTRENGTHRATIO ROOM TEMP. / LOX

OTHERCONSIDERATIONS
I
LENGTH OF WELD (FT.1 I 2SOO I r L 2loa
VEHICLE WT. BASED ON 100% 5456-H343 I I
I (3000
98 LE. SAVING) 100
I
AND SIZE I 132" WIDE 84" WIDE
 A l l o y 2219 h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d by MSFC and
Boeing Company i n f a b r i c a t i n g t h e 3 3 f t d i a m e t e r S a t u r n V.
Its weldability has been proven, plates can be provided in
s i z e s up t o 132 i n c h e s w i d e a n d m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h a n d
other properties are w e l l known.

A l l o y 2219 a l s o h a s b e e n u s e d f o r t h e 1 2 0 - i n c h M u l t i p l e
DockingAdapter fortheSkylabvehicleand it i s favorably
c o n s i d e r e d by MSFC f o r t h e S p a c eS h u t t l e .

Alloy 2014 f o r t h e SecondandThirdStages

When m a t e r i a l s were t o be selected f o r t h e s e c o n d a n d

thirdstages of t h e S a t u r n V, t h ef a v o r a b l ee x p e r i e n c e by
the t w o contractorsinvolvedweighedheavilyinfavor of
a l l o y 2014. T h i sa l l o yh a d been used by Douglas f o r t h e
Thor missile. A l s o Martin-Denverhadsuccessfullyused
a l l o y 2014 i n t h e T i t a n missile. T h e r e were c e r t a i n advan-
t a g e s i n p r o c e s s i n g 2014 v s 2219. A l l o y 2014 c a nb es o f t e n e d
by quenching i n water, formed as desired, t h e n a g e d t o t h e
T6 temper.For i t s s t r e n g t h i n t h e T 8 7 t e m p e r ,a l l o y 2219
r e l i e s on 8 t o 1 0 % c o l d work. I fs o l u t i o nh e a t treatment
were performed by t h e c u s t o m e r , t h e o r i g i n a l T87 s t r e n g t h
would be l o s t . A s a r e s u l t a l l o y 2 0 1 4 was s e l e c t e d andsuc-
cessfullyusedforthesecondandthirdstagesoftheSaturn V.
Differencesinwelding of 2219 and 2014 d i d n o t p r o v e t o be
g r e a t l yd i f f e r e n t . I n t h i sr e p o r t , most comments onwelding
of 2219 c a n b e a c c e p t e d a s a l s o a p p l y i n g t o 2014.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c so f 2014 and 2219 Alloys

Tables 2-2 and 2-3 l i s t some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of 2014

and 2219 aluminum a l l o y s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . ( 5 1

2- 6
 TABLE 2-2. CHARACTERISTICS OF 2014 ALUMINUM ALLOY
. ". - ~ ~ ~~~ "_ . -

Wrought, heat treatable aluminum alloy

~ ~~ ~~ .

A1-4.4Cu-0.8Mn-0.8Si-O.4Mg

Availability Bare and clad sheet and plate, rod, bar,

wire, tube, extruded shapes, forgings and
forging stock
~~ ~ ~"~ - ~

Typical Density 2.815 g/cm3 at RT

physical Thermal 0.46 cal/cm sec O C (0 temper)
properties conductivity 0.37 cal/cm sec OC (T6 temper)
Thermal (20-100° C , 22.5 x 10-6in/in/°C
expansion
Specific 0.23 cal/g cm at 100°C
heat
Electrical 3.45 p ohm-cm at RT (0 temper)
resistivity 4.31 p ohm-cm at RT (T6 temper)
__ . ... . . -~ "

Typical Ultimate 27,000 psi (0 temper)

mechanical tensile 70,000 psi (T6 temper)
properties strength
0.2% tensile 14,000 psi ( 0 temper)
yield 60,000 psi (T6 temper)
strength
Elongation 18% (0temper)
(2-in) 13% (T6 temper)
Modulus of
elasticity
(tension)
. . ". - ~~
~~ __ -

Fabrication Weldability Good (fusion and resistance

characteristic methods) if proper procedures
are used
Formability Good in the annealed condition
difficult to form in T6 temper
Machinability Good in the T6 temper
A high-strength aluminum alloy which is often
used for heavy-duty structures

2- 7
 TABLE 2-3. CHARACTERISTICS OF 2219 ALUMINUMALLOY (5)

Wrought, heat treatable aluminum alloy

Nominal
~~~

Availability Bare and clad sheet, plate, forgings,

extrusions, drawn tube,rod and bar
Typical Density 2.82 g/cm3 at RT
physical Thermal 0.41 cal/cm sec OC (0temper)
properties conductivity 0.30 cal/cm sec OC (T62 temper)
Thermal (20-1OO0C), 22.3 in/in/Oc
expansion
Electrical 3.90 1.1 ohm-cm at RT(0 temper)
resistivity 5.23 ~ . lohm-cm at RT (T62 temper)

1 Typical
mechanical
Ultimate
tensile
strength
25,000 psi (0temper)
69,000 psi (T87 temper)

0.2% tensile 11,900 psi (0 temper)

yield 57,000 psi (T87 temper)
strength
Elongation 18% (0 temper)
(2-in) 10% (T87 temper)
Modulus of 10.6 x lo6 psi
elasticity
Fabrication Weldability Excellent (fusion and resistance
characteristics methods )
Formability Slightly superior to 2014 alloy
Machinability Good in annealed condition
Comments Alloy has good mechanical properties at cryoge-
nic temperatures and at elevated temperatures
up to 600'F. Recommended for applications re-
quiring high-strength weldments.

2- 8
 2.3 ” Welding
Fabrication (6r 7 )

Because of the gigantic size of the Saturn

V many of
the major structural components need to be fabricated by
joining smaller partsor segments. Gas tungsten-arc (GTA)
and gas metal-arc (GMA) processes have been used extensively
for the fabrication of fuel and oxidizer tanks. For example,
-

one S-IC vehicle has over3,000 feet of welds.

It became necessary to erect the fuel and oxidizer tanks

with the longitudinal axis in the vertical position. Welding
techniques hadto be extended to horizontal and vertical
modes, seldom used in high quality aluminum welding. The
size of SaturnV has created unique jigging and distortion
control problems.

Welding Techniques

Joint thicknesses of fuel and oxidizer tanks range

from 1/8 to 1 inch. Welding was done with gas tungsten-
arc and gas metal-arc processes using helium and argon re-
spectively as the shielding gases. Type 4043 and 2319 filler
wires 1/16 inch in diameter were used for welding 2014-T6
and 2219-T87 bare plate, respectively.
Tanks were constructed by attaching skin cylinders to
upper and lower head assemblies by means of a Y-shaped tran-
sition ring. The unit serves as a transition piece between
bulkheads and skins and between the thrust structure and
forward skirt. This design is illustratedin Figure 2-2.
Welding between the transition ring and cylindrical
section is probably the most critical onS-ICthestage.
Three vertical’joints are automatically gas metal-arc welded
to join three forged and rolled
billets. During final as-
sembly of the tanks, the transition ring
is joined to the
cylindrical section by a gas metal-arc or gas tungsten-arc
weld made from both sides in the horizontal position.

2- 9

L -
A-ACOMPLETEDWELD
B d 6 STRAP ALIGNMENT CLAMP

2- 10
I
I
Requirements f o r Welds

Table 2-4 summarizes i m p o r t a n t q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

welds i n aluminum o x i d i z e r and f u e l t a n k s o f t h e S a t u r n V.

Minimum u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s o f b u t t w e l d s were
set t ob e3 5 , 0 0 0p s if o ra l l o y 2219-T87 and 3 8 , 0 0 0 p s i f o r
alloy 2014-T6.
A l l butt welds were 1 0 0 % i n s p e c t e d r a d i o g r a p h i c a l l y w i t h
2% s e n s i t i v i t y .T a b l e 2-4 i n c l u d e sa c c e p t a b l e criteria
f o rc r a c k s( n o n ea c c e p t e d ) ,s i n g l ep o r e ,i n c o m p l e t ep e n e t r a -
t i o n ,u n d e r c u t t i n g ,l i n e a rp o r o s i t y ,a n ds c a t t e r e dp o r o s i t y .
Table 2-4 also i n c l u d e s c r i t e r i a f o rd i m e n s i o n a la n d
v i s u a lq u a l i t i e s . The maximum a c c e p t a b l em i s a l i g n m e n to r
o f f s e t w a s 5% o ft h ep l a t et h i c k n e s s . Lackof fill,skips,
or o t h e r v i s i b l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s are u n a c c e p t a b l e .

Weld D e f e c t s , E s p e c i a l l y P o r o s i t y

I ff l a w sa r ed e t e c t e d ,a n du n f o r t u n a t e l yt h e yo f t e n w e r e ,
r e p a i r s a r e made e i t h e r m a n u a l l y o r by mechanizedequipment.
Table 2-5shows d e f e c tf r e q u e n c yo b s e r v e di n 144,000 inches
of welds made on f o u rS a t u r n V f i r s t s t a g e s . I f d e f e c t s were
dispersedequally,only 0 . 0 2 3 of a d e f e c t w o u l d h a v e o c c u r e d p e r
inchofweld. Of t h e s ed e f e c t s ,p o r o s i t ya c c o u n t e df o r
79 p e r c e n to ft h et o t a l number of d e f e c t s . C r a c k s ranked
second a t 9 p e r c e n t . All w e l d sc o n t a i n i n gd e f e c t s were
repaired.
The t a b l e c l e a r l y shows t h a t w e l d p o r o s i t y i s o n eo ft h e
majorproblemswhichhavefacedengineersinthefabrication
o ft h es p a c e c r a f t .H i g h - s t r e n g t h aluminum a l l o y sa r eh i g h l y
susceptibletoweldporosity,andhydrogenhasbeenconsidered
t o be a p r i m e s o u r c e o f w e l d p o r o s i t y .

2- 11
 TABLE 2-4. SUMMARY OF WELD QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FORSATURN V.

1. Minimum ~ Tensile
Ultimate _ " Strength B uof
-I___.-
t t Welds
"

Alloy 2 2 1 9 - T 8 7 35,000 psi

~ 1 1 0 1 7 2014-TG 38 ,000 psi

2. Radiographic Quality (100% Inspection with 2 % film sensitivity)

, or
Cracks (transverse, longitudinal crater): None acceptable

Single Pore s i z e : 1/2 t h i c k n e s s (maximum)

Incomplete penetration: Not acceptable
Undercutting: 1/10 thickness (maximum)
Linear porosity: Acceptable limits, average diameters between
3 / 6 4 " and 1/16" maximum within 3 linear inches
of weld (thickness over0.250")
Scattered porosity: Reference radlographs
3. Dimcnsiond- and Visual Qualities
Misalignment or offset: 1/20 thickness (maximum)
Lack of fill, skips, or other visible irregularities: Unacceptable

2- 12
 TABLE 2-5. DEFECT FREQUENCY.

_" .of
Tvue
.& .
Defect - . of Dc-?fect.s
Number
. "
P e r c e n t a c r e of Total

Arc burn 5 0.15%

Underfill. 15
b

- 0.46%

Inclusion 46 1.40%

Miscellaneous 117 3.57%

Mismatch 206 6.28%

Crack 287 8.75%

Porosity 2604 79.40%

T o t a l Defects = 3280 Total Defects

____- -
- .023
Inches of Wcld

2- 13
 Several of NASA-sponsored studies listed
in Table1 are
aimed at studying various subjects related
to weldporosity.

f o r the
Figure 2-3 shows a jigging system most often used
fabrication of a thin-walled cylindrical vessel. The jig,
which has a round-cut ring and rigid clamping members, serves
a two-fold purpose: to support the molten weld puddle (often
to control solidification), and to forcefully maintain align-
ment of the parts being welded.
However, there is a limit to the size of welded to tank
which this conventional approach can be applied easily and
economically. The sizes of fuel and oxidizer tanks of the
Saturn Vwereobviously greater than the limit. Since the
number of Saturn V space vehiclesto be built was rather
small, it was not economically justifiable to build a large
and strong clamping system. The fixturein Figure 2-3 is an
indirect way of mating components, that
is, the cylinders are
first forced into roundness. The requirements for welding,
however, are that the two parts assume similar shape.
NASA and aerospace companies employed what is called
a soft jigging system. Although
we do not discuss in this
paper the details of the system actually used,
it isessen-
tially as shown in Figure
2-4. A number of strap clamps are
applied at intervals around two cylinders
to be joined.

A simple compressive mechanical device, with the two

basic parts locatedon opposite sides of a welded joint,
is
drawn together by tightening the thin band until the work
pieces are aligned. Alignment is maintained during welding
by tack welds, made before removing the strap clamps. The
combination of strap-clamps, tack welds, and precision weld

2- 14
 U
DETAIL A

Figure 2-4. Strap Clamps.

equipment constitutesa joining method thatis economical,
versatile, and accurate.

Requirements for Joint Mismatch

The following is an example of requirements for joint

offset. When welding is performed in tationary rigid type
tooling, utilizing continuous length hold-down clamps and
backup bars, the offset between parts of a butt joint shall
not exceed 0.020 inch or 10 percent of the thinnest member
for a3 inch length to each side of that area subsequently
to become a butt intersection.

2- 17
2- 18
 CHAPTER 3
WeldingProblemsand Research Efforts

3.1 NASA-Sponsored
"- .
"Stu-dies
"~
~~ ~ on Welding
Aluminum

AlthoughtheSaturn V hasperformedsuccessfullyduring
recentlunarmissions, it d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e r e were no
problems i n t h ef a b r i c a t i o no ft h es p a c e c r a f t . The b u i l d i n g
ofspacecraftstructureshasraisedproblemsrelatingto the
q u a l i t yo fw e l d sa n dt h er e l i a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e .M a j o r
problemsinclude:
1) Weld d e f e c t s ,e s p e c i a l l yp o r o s i t y
2) U n d e s i r a b l e thermal e f f e c t s due t ow e l d i n gh e a t .
To m i n i m i z e t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e p r o b l e m s , a groupof
p r o c e scso n t r om l easures were developed andused
during
f a b r i c a t i o n .T h e s em e a s u r e sc o v e rt h ec l e a n i n go ft h esur-
f a c e so fb a s em e t a la n d f i l l e r w i r e , chemicalcompositions
ofbase metal and f i l l e r w i r e , and p u r i t y of t h e s h i e l d i n g
g a s ,j i g g i n ga n df i x t u r e , etc.

These p r o b l e masl sroe v e a l e d a n e efdobra s i c

research to rationally establish weld-quality requirements
andproduction-controlmeasures. The M a r s h a l lS p a c eF l i g h t
C e n t e ir n i t i a t e d a research program involving a wide
v a r i e t yo fs t u d i e s on weldingaluminum. Some s t u d i e s w e r e
conducted a t M . S . F . C . , whileotherstudies w e r e conducted
f o r t h e M.S.F.C. by a e r o s p a c ec o m p a n i e s ,r e s e a r c hi n s t i t u t i o n s ,
and universities.

Each s t u d y a t t a c k e d a d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t o f o r t o o k a
d i f f e r e n ta p p r o a c ht o these p r o b l e m s .D i f f e r e n tt a s k s were
assignedtodifferentorganizations by c o n t r a c t , as shown
i n T a b l e 3-1.
 The u l t i m a t e
p u r p o s eo f NASA welding research i s t o
improve t h e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f s p a c e v e h i c l e s .
T h i s can be d o n e b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g e a c h of the problemsin-
volved and then integrating results obtained in the individual
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Such i n t e g r a t i o no fr e s u l t sp r o v i d e s a basis
f o r recommendations f o r d e s i g n a n d f a b r i c a t i o n of s p a c e
vehicles.
B a t t e l l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e , Columbus L a b o r a t o r i e s , w a s
assigned thetask of i n t e g r a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s of t h e n i n e
s t u d i e s l i s t e d i n P a r t l o f Table 3-1. D r . KoichiMasubuchi,
who was t h e n a t B a t t e l l e , was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n
study. The f i n a l r e p o r t of t h e B a t t e l l ei n t e g r a t i o ns t u d y
has been published from the RedstoneScientificInformation
C e n t e r as RSIC-6 70. ( 5 ) The RSIC-670 c o v e r s r e s u l t s i n c l u d e d
i nr e p o r t sa v a i l a b l eb e f o r eF e b r u a r y 1 5 , 1 9 6 7 . These r e p o r t s
a r e l i s t e d as R e f e r e n c e s ( 8 ) through ( 1 9 ) .

The c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the integrationstudy has beencon-

d u c t e ds i n c e May, 1 9 6 9 , a t the M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of
T e c h n o l o g yu n d e rt h es u p e r v i s i o n of ProfessorKoichiMasubuchi
of t h e Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering.
The M . I . T . integration study covers all of t k 1 9 s t u d i e s l i s t e d
i n P a r t s 1 and 2 of Table 3-1. F i n a lr e p o r t so ft h e s es t u d i e s
are l i s t e d a sR e f e r e n c e s ( 8 ) through (30).

3- 2
 TABLE 3-1. NASA-SPONSORED STUDIES OF WELDING ALUMINUM

P a r t 1 S t u d i e s Covered i n t h e First I n t e g r a t i o n Study

"
!I
'I Title
;
Contractor i' Objective
I

i
'I
!I I ~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~

Gas AnalysisStudy Boeing A i r c r a f t Company To s t u d y t h e r o l e o f g a s

contaminants as a source I

of defects in welds.
I
Base and F i l l e r B a t t e l l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e To s t u d y e f f e c t s of chemistry,/
Metal Study Columbus L a b o r a t o r i e s i n t e r n a l and external
i m p u r i t i e s , andhydrogen
content of base metal on
p o r o s i t y i n welds.
w Mechanisms of McDonnell Douglas A i r c r a f t An e f f o r t t o f i n d methods o f
I
w Porosity Company porosity arrest andinhibi-
t i o n t h r o u g h a s t u d y of how
p o r o s i t y n u c l e a t e s andgrows.

Gas ScavengerStudy SouthernResearch Institute A study seeking an element

with affinity for porosity-
forming gases that would t i e
them up i n a harmless way o r
wash them out of the molten
pool.

Defect v s J o i n t Martin Marietta Company T o formulate r e a l i s t i c weld

Performance q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s by q u a n t i -
tatively analyzing the effect
o f d e f e c t s on weld strength.
 TABLE 3-1. (Continued)

Part 1 Studies Covered in the First Integration Study

No. Title Contractor Objective

I
Harvey Aluminum, Inc. To formulate methods of
producing and controlling
time-temperature gradients
during fusion welding that
will yield optimum properties,
I that is, ultimate strength,

7
)

! Data Transfer tI Lockheed Company

elongation, X-ray quality,etc.
To (1) arrange welding varia-
bles in order of their impor-
tance and (2) devise instru-
w
I
cp i
1 mentation and control to
accurately transfer the find-
i ings from laboratory to
I
production.
I
8 : Arc Shapes and :1 Air Reduction Company of
To increase power density
; Molten Puddle the GTA arc and agitation of
I
Stirrer the molten puddle.
I
I
I

9
i
Material
Preparation i Illinois Instituteof
Technology
Research Institute
To (1) identify contaminants
on the surface of material to
be welded, thatis, organic 1 1
material, hydrogen, etc., ( 2 ) i
determine the best methods of
surface preparation for
welding. !
 TABLE 3-1. (Continued)

I
Part 2 Studies Added in the Second Integration Study
i I I I
! No.
I

I
1 Contractor
Title
'I
I,
;I
Objective
/ _ I 10
I I Welding Power Supply 1 Air Reduction Company
I
I To study effects of AC, DC,
Shape
1I Wave j Output
'

I
Effect on Weld
Joint
Performance
i
1
I
1
and a combination of AC and
DC, and various wave shapes
and frequencies on the
weld joint.

r1;
~ ~~ ~ _ _ ~ ~~ ~
~ ~~ ~

11 : Nonvacuum Electron- Yestinghouse Electric Analysis of welding parameters

: Beam Welding Corporation energy input, and shielding
gas with defect level and
w
i mechanical propertiesas
I
ul
I ij major responses.
Illinois Instituteof To establish the significance
Technology of material preparation and
Research Institute surface property effects on
porosity.
13 of Harvey Aluminum, Inc. I
Reduction
To determine feasibility of
Distortion by
Cryongenic Cooling I
I
using cryogenic cooling for
controlling
residual
distortion
stress.
and

I 14 I Power Density Study

Lockheed Palo Alto
Research Laboratory
To analyze and characterize
the gas-tungsten arc and

l l perform experiments to in-

crease GTA power density.
 TABLE 3-1. (Continued)

Part 2 Studies Added in the Second Integration Study

T
Title Contractor Objective

Plasma Welding General Electric Company To study feasibility of

developing a miniaturized,
battery powered plasma
electron beam system for
use in an earth orbiting
vehicle.
-c
16 Residual Stress Benson Associates To develop non-destructive
Study methods f o r determining
residual stresses and fatigue
damage in metals.
w
I
Q, 1 Boeing Aircraft Company To quantitatively define
porosity and weld quality
resulting from variations in
joint and torch configuration,
18 1~ Analysis of Thermal Battelle Memorial Institute (1) Literature survey on ther-
1 Stress and Metal Columbus Laboratories mal stresses during welding
1' Movement, I and buckling after welding,
1 and (2) develop computer pro-
grams to calculate thermal
stresses during welding.
Analysis of Thermal Massachusetts Instituteof To (1) improve computer pro-
Stress
and
Metal
Technology grams developed at Battelle,
Movement, I1 ~

and (2) compare experimental

'II 1
I:
results with analytical
results.
3.2 "" .
" . . ."
Welding Problems and -
Outline
. . . . . . of NASA-Sponsored Studies

Porosity

High-strength aluminum alloys are highly susceptible to

weld porosity, which adversely affects their strength.
Figure 3-1 illustrates the porosity that may develop in
an aluminum weld. Figure 3-la shows a transverse section
through a bead-on-plate weld and Figure 3-lb shows a longi-
tudinal section through the same weld. Although various non-
destructive techniques including visual, X-ray, and sometimes
ultrasonic are used to detect porosity in structural welds,
none of these techniques are entirely Satisfactory. Because
porosity cannot always be detected,it is necessary to be
completely certain that the welding process is not creating
it. This means finding the factors in the welding process
that affect porosity and then finding ways of modifying these
factors to reduce or eliminate porosity. Studies to accom-
plish these ends comprised a large of the NASA research
part
effort. Factors studied for their effect on porosity included
shielding gas, surface conditions, base-metal and filler-
metal composition, and welding parameters. Other studies
investigated ways of reducing the effects of these factors.

Thermal Effects

The Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory of MSFC conducted

a research programon the effects of welding heat input on the
mechanical properties of aluminum welds.(31) Figure 3-2 sum-
marizes the test results and shows the relationship between
the following two variables:

3- 7
 . .
;..- .. .. ..

2ox Transverse Section

2 0:;

3-8
 55

52.5
LEGEND
50

47.5
-O
ELECTRON BEAM 1/2 IN.
ONE PASS ONE SIDE
TWO PASS ONE SIDE
ONE PASS EACH SIDE
MIG 0.270
TIG 0.224
O TIG 0.250

0 TIG 0.270
@ TIG 0.359
o MIG 0.359 0 TIG 0.406
0 MIG 0.406
I
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE 8 TIG 0.464
45
IN INCHES 0 TIG 0.608
@ TIG 0.700
w
42.5
I
W

40

37.5 I-
--- --------- """_
35 L I I

L
20 40
I

60
1

80
I
I

100140 120
I , I

180 160
I

240
JOULES PER INCH x-1ooo
PLATE THICKNESS
HEAT INPUT

Figure 3-2. Effects of welding heat input on the ultimate tensile strength of transverse weld specimens of
2219-T87 and T8 1 aluminum alloys.
 (1) Welding heat input per unit plate thickness

x I x 6 o = joules/in 2
s x T
when :
V = arc voltage,v
I = welding current, amp
s = arc travel speed, ipm
T = plate thickness, in.

(2) Ultimate tensile strength of transverse weld

specimens prepared from weldments in 2219-T81
and 2219-T87 alloys0.224 to 0 . 7 0 0 in. thick
made by theGTA, GMA, and electron-beam welding
processes.
Figure 3-2 indicates that higher weld strengths were
obtained by using lower heat input. This held true regard-
less of the material thickness or welding process used. The
Marshall investigators felt this was caused(1)bya reduced
thermal effect, and (2) the favorable geometry
of a narrow
weld. When heat input is reduced, a higher-strength metallur-
A joint
gical structure in the heat-affected zone results.
with a heat-affected zone that has lower strength than the
base metal, but with a very narrow weld-metal area, can sti
have nearly the same ultimate tensile strength as the base
metal. This is because surrounding base metal restricts plas-
tic deformationin the weld metal and the heat-affected zone.
NASA is conducting further research to determine the mechanism
by which weld-joint strength increases as heat input decreases
MSFC has also conducted a limited investigation
on
electron-beam welding as a means of improving weld strength.
Satisfactory electron-beam welds in aluminum alloys require
much lower heat input than do GMA and GTA welds. Consequently

3- 10
much h i g h e ru l t i m a t es t r e n g t h s are a t t a i n a b l e . However, s i n c e
electron-beam welds must be made i n a vacuum, t h e p r o c e s s i s
r e s t r i c t e d t o small components.Westinghouse E l e c t r i c Corpora-
t i o n c o n d u c t e d a NASA program t o d e v e l o p a nonvacuum e l e c t r o n -
beam-welding u n i t c a p a b l e of p e n e t r a t i n g l - i n c h t h i c k 2219
aluminum alloy, which would make t h e p r o c e s s v e r s a t i l e as w e l l
as e f f i c i e n t .
The e f f e c t of w e l d i n g h e a t o n r e s i d u a l stresses and
d i s t o r t i o n i s a n o t h e ri m p o r t a n tp r o b l e m .D i s t o r t i o na n d
mismatch have plagued the fabrication of S a t u r n V f u e l a n d
o x i d i z e rt a n k s . (See T a b l e 3-1)

M a t e r i a l sa n dW e l d i n gP r o c e s s e sS t u d i e d

The primary materials and p r o c e s s e s u s e d i n t h e NASA-

s p o n s o r e d s t u d i e s were :
Base P l a t e :
2014-T6 and 2219-T87 s u p p l i e d by
NASA-MSFC
Plate Thickness: 1 / 4 , 1 / 2 , and 3/4 i n c h
WeldingProeess: GTA p r o c e s s e s , D-C, s t r a i g h t
polarity
F i l l e r Wire (when u s e d ) : 4 0 4 3 f o rw e l d i n g
2014-T6 and 2319 f o r w e l d i n g 2219-T87;
1/16 inch indiameter
S h i e l d i n g Gas: helium.

3- 11
3- 12
 CHAPTER 4
Effects of Porosity onWeld-JointPerformance

C o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t s were made t o d e t e r m i n e e f f e c t s o f w e l d
p o r o s i t y onweld-jointperformance. The m a j o r e f f o r t s w e r e
placedonporosityeffects on s t a t i c s t r e n g t h , w h i l e l i m i t e d
s t u d i e s were made on f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . D i s c u s s i o n s i n t h i s
c h a p t e r covers :
(1) G e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o no nt h ee f f e c t so fw e l dd e f e c t s
on theperformance of w e l d e d s t r u c t u r e s
(2) P o r o s i t ye f f e c t s on w e l d - j o i n tp e r f o r m a n c eu n d e r
staticloading
(3) P o r o s i t ye f f e c t s on f a t i g u es t r e n g t h
(4) E f f e c t so fr e p a i rw e l d s .

4.1 G e n e r a l D i s c u s s i o n s on t h e E f f e c t s o f Weld D e f e c t s on
. ~~~~

the Performance of Welded S t r u c t u r e s

~-
. "

Weld d e f e c t ss u c ha sp o r o s i t y ,s l a gi n c l u s i o n s ,i n c o m p l e t e
p e n e t r a t i o n , a n dc r a c k sc a u s er e d u c t i o ni nm e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r -
t i e s o fw e l d e dj o i n t sf o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h ep r e s e n c e
o ft h ed e f e c t sc a u s e sd e c r e a s e si ns e c t i o n a la r e a s .S e c o n d ,
stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s take p l a c ea r o u n dt h ed e f e c t s . The
e x t e n t t o whichwelddefectsaffectthestrengthofstructures
dependsupon thefollowingfactors:
1) N a t u r ea n de x t e n o
t fd e f e c t s S
. h a r pc r a c k st h a t
c a u s e severe stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h a v e more s i g -
nificant effects than do p o r o s i t y o r s l a g i n c l u -
sionswhichcauseratherminor stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
The e f f e c t o f t h e d e f e c t s o n t h e s t r e n g t h becomes
more severe a s t h e s i z e and number of d e f e c t s
increase.
 2) P r o p e r t i e s of t h e material. The p r o p e r t i e s of a
material are s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s t h a t d e t e r m i n e
the effects of w e l d d e f e c t s o n t h e s t r e n g t h of
w e l d e ds t r u c t u r e s . When a material i s d u c t i l e ,
t h e r e d u c t i o n of s t r e n g t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o -
p o r t i o n a l t o the r e d u c t i o n o f c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
area, as d e s c r i b e d l a t e r . For less d u c t i l e mate-
r i a l s , t h e e f f e c t s of d e f e c t s become more s e r i o u s .
When t h e material i s b r i t t l e , t h e a b s o l u t e s i z e
of a d e f e c t is i m p o r t a n t . When t h ed e f e c t s i z e
e x c e e d st h ec r i t i c a l s i z e , u n s t a b l ef r a c t u r ec a n
take p l a c e f r o m t h e d e f e c t .

3) Type o fl o a d i n g . When t h es t r u c t u r e i s subjected

toimpact or repeated loading, the effects of
defects on t h e s t r e n g t h become more s e r i o u s t h a n
when t h e s t r u c t u r e i s s u b j e c t e d t o s t a t i c l o a d i n g .

Stress C o n c e n t r a t i o n s Around D e f e c t s

The shapeof i t s o r i e n t a t i o n t o the

a d e f e c ta n d
direction ofloadingsignificantlyaffect stress c o n c e n t r a -
tionsaroundthedefect. (32,331

F i g u r e4 - l a , b , and c show stress d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r o u n d

a generaltri-axial,ellipsoidalcavityin a homogeneous,
i s o t r o p i c , e l a s t i c body o f i n f i n i t e l e n g t h w h i c h i s under a
u n i f o r mt e n s i l e stress, 0, a t i n f i n i t y . I t i s assumed t h a t
the stress a t i n f i n i t y i s a c t i n g p a r a l l e l t o one of t h e
majoraxes of the c a v i t p ( z - a x i s ) , as shown i n F i g u r e 4-la.
The i m p o r t a n t stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o c c u r a l o n g t h e ”equator”
ABA’B’A. The c u r v e si nF i g u r e 4 - l a show how r a p i d l y t h e
t e n s i l e stresses d r o p t o t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e CI w i t h i n t h e

material.

4- 2
 OA=OA'=a
OB =OB' = b
OC=OC'= E

I l l 1 1
uz = (T AT INFINITY
a. ELLIPSOIDAL CAVITY IN AN INFINITE BODY UNDER UNIAXIAL TENSILE STRESS

P2 =*
7- V = 0.3
bNlb
II
+
Y
d
0
I-
U V= 0.3
a 12
L
11
Z
-
0 10
I-
4 9c \
I-
z
W
U
Z
0
U
v) 0.4
v)
w 05
e 0.6
I- -0.7
v)
-0 8
-0.d
*l.o
3
b
PI=-;
c ax ATPOINT B

Figure 4-1. Stress concentrations around an ellipsoidal cavity in an infinite

body under uniaxial tensile stress.

4-3
 The s e v e r i t y of stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d
frequentlyin terms o f t h e s t r e s s - c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r , Kt,
which i s d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o o f t h e stress a t a p o i n t
concernedandthe stress a t i n f i n i t y , 0. Figures4-lband
CT CT
4 - l c show v a l u e s of -
CT
Z
and -
CT
X
(OY
= 0 a t P o i n t B) a s a

functionoftheshaperatios p1 = b/aand p 2 = c/b.

(33) The

v a l u e of P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o i s assumed t o b e 0.3.

The c u r v e s f o r p2 = 1 applytocavityintheshape of a
p r o l a t es p h e r i o d( c i g a r - s h a p e dc a v i t y ) . The l i m i t i n gc a s e of
p1 = 0, p 2 = 1 c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d g e o m e t r i c a l l y i n two ways.
I f b i s f i x e da n da p p r o a c h e si n f i n i t y ,t h es h a p eo ft h ec a v i t y
a p p r o a c h e st h a to f a circularcylinderofinrfinitelength;if
a i s f i x e da n d b and c a p p r o a c h z e r o , t h e c a v i t y a p p r o a c h e s
a l i n ec r a c k . The c u r v e s f o r p1 = 1 a p p l y t o a c a v i t yi nt h e
shape of a no b l a t es p h e r o i d( b u t t o n - s h a p e dc a v i t y ) . The case
of p1 = p 2 = 1 a p p l i e s t o a s p h e r i c a l c a v i t y . A s shown i n
F i g u r e s 4 - l b and 4 - l c , t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are m i l d f o r
(5
Z
cigar-shapedcavities,thevalueof -
0
rangingbetween 2.05
( f o r a s p h e r i c a lc a v i t y )a n d 3 ( f o r a l o n gc y l i n d r i c a lc a v i t y ) .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , h i g h stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o c c u r a r o u n d a
t h i n , b u t t o n - s h a p e dc a v i t yh a v i n g i t s s u r f a c ep e r p e n d i c u l a r
tothedirection of l o a d i n g .

P o r o s i t y i n weldmetals i n aluminum a l l o y s i s s p h e r i c a l
i n many c a s e s ,a s shown i n F i g u r e 3-1. The p o r o s i t y may be
worm s h a p e d : e l o n g a t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of w e l d m e t a l s o l i d i -
fication. Weld p o r o s i t yw i t ht h es h a p eo fa no b l a t es p h e r o i d
i s r a r e l yf o u n d :p o r o s i t yr a r e l yc o n t a i n ss h a r pn o t c h e s . Con-
s e q u e n t l y , s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n sa r o u n d w e l d p o r o s i t y u s u a l l y
are n o tv e r y severe. The v a l u e so fs t r e s s - c o n c e n t r a t i o n
factorsaroundporosityappeartobe i n thecross-hatched

4-4
areas (p, > 0 . 5 ) o r more o f t e n i n t h e d o u b l e c r o s s - h a t c h e d
areas (p, > 0.5 , p 2 > 0.5) .
Ductile Fracture

L e t u sc o n s i d e r a case i n which a f l a t p l a t e ( w i d t h , B,
a n dt h i c k n e s s , t) containing a c i r c u l a rh o l eo f diameter, d ,
i s under a t e n s i l e l o a d , P , as shown i n F i g u r e 4 - 2 . The
a v e r a g e stress,
-0 , a n dt h en e t stress, anet, are d e f i n e d as
follows:

- = -P
a
'net
-
""
p - AO '-
Anet
where
A. = B t is theoriginalsectionarea

Anet = ( B - d ) t is thenetsection area.

When B/d i s sufficientlylarge,the leastic stress-concentra-

t i o nf a c t o r , K t , i s c l o s e t o 3. S and Su are t h ey i e l d
Y
strengthandtheultimatetensilestrengthofthematerials,
respectively.
Curve 1 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g l i n e Af a t t h e

S
stress l e v e l a = 2 . The magnitude of s t r e s s a t P o i n t A
Kt
r e a c h e st h ey e i l ds t r e n g t h of t h e m a t e r i a l . I f themagnitude
S
o fa p p l i e d stress exceeds - , p l a s t i cd e f o r m a t i o nt a k e sp l a c e
Kt
in the highly stressed regions as shown by t h e c r o s s - h a t c h e d
areas i n F i g u r e 4-2, a n d f i n a l l y f r a c t u r e o c c u r s . (34)

It would be quite unrealistic t o assume t h a t f r a c t u r e

o c c u r s a t a na v e r a g e stress o f
sU
-
K,L.
. When t h ea v e r a g e stress

su , t h e stress d i s t r i b u t i o n would be
is - as shown by Curve 2
Kt

4- 5
 P

"i

P
u= -
A

Figure 4 2 . Effect of defect on behavior of ductile material under tensile loading.

4-6
ki

i n s t e a d of b e i n g shownby Curve 2', e l a s t i c stress d i s t r i b u -

t i o n . (35) The stresses i n t h e p l a s t i c r e g i o n ( d e p t h , 6 * ) are
i n t h e neighborhoodof the y i e l d stress, S a n dc o n s i d e r a b l y
Y'
lower t h a n Su.
The stress d i s t r i b u t i o n a t f r a c t u r e would be a s shown
by Curve 3, a v e r a g e stress a t f r a c t u r eb e i n g zf. The p l a s t i c
r e g i o ne x t e n d s t o a d e p t h of 6 3 . Curve 3 ' i s t h e imaginary
e l a s t i c stress d i s t r i b u t i o n a t the a v e r a g e stress of
- The zf.
maximum stress a t P o i n t A , Kt, of, i s much h i g h e r t h a n Su.
I f t h e material i s d u c t i l e ( u n d e r g o e s l a r g e p l a s t i c deforrna-
tionbeforefractureoccurs), t h e p l a s t i c r e g i o n se x t e n da n d
t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e d e f e c t are reduced.

However, s i n c e t h e s e c t i o n area a l o n g P l a n e e f g h i s less

t h a n the o r i g i n a l s e c t i o n a r e a , f r a c t u r e u s u a l l y o c c u r s when
t h e n e t stress approaches Su. I no t h e rw o r d s , the average
f r a c t u r e stress Zf is:

- -
= A net
of AO sU

stress of a specimen w i t h a h o l e ,
The a v e r a g e f r a c t u r e
-
o f , i s o b v i o u s l y lower t h a n t h e a v e r a g e f r a c t u r e stress of a
specimen w i t h a h o l e , o r d e f e c t , Su. The p e r c e n t a g e l o s s i n
s t r e n g t h due t o a h o l e i s :

.
N
= 1 - -n e t (4-3)
AO

4-7
The l o s s o f s t r e n g t h d u e to a hole o r a defect is proportional
t o t h e r e d u c t i o n of a s e c t i o n a l area.

Unstable B r i t t l e F r a c t u r e
*

Unstablerapidpropagationoffracturehasbeenexperienced
i n a number of welded s t r u c t u r e s . ( 3 8 ’ 3 9 ) The f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s
theorydevelopedbyIrwin (40r41) a n do t h e ri n v e s t i g a t o r s has
b e e n a p p l i e d t o t h e s t u d y of u n s t a b l e f r a c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y o f
t h o s e i n h i g h - s t r e n g t h materials f o r a e r o s p a c e a p p l i c a t i o n s . (42,431

Figure 4-3 i l l u s t r a t e s t y p i c a l b e h a v i o r when a sheet con-

taining a transversecentral crack i s subjected t o uniform
t e n s i l el o a d i n g . For small cracks, f r a c t u r es t r e n g t he x c e e d s
y i e l ds t r e n g t h . Gross y i e l d i n g i s observed i n the load-
d e f l e c t i o nd i a g r a m ,a n de x t e n s i v ep l a s t i cd e f o r m a t i o n i s ob-
s e r v e di nt h ef r a c t u r es u r f a c e . However, f r a c t u r e fromlong
cracks o c c u r s a b r u p t l y w i t h negligibleplasticdeformation.
The o b s e r v e d f r a c t u r e s t r e s s d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g crack
l e n g t h .U n s t a b l ef r a c t u r eo c c u r s when t h e s t r e s s - i n t e n s i t y
f a c t o r , K , r e a c h e s a v a l u e , KC, which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r
t h e material.

where
0 = a v e r a g ef r a c t u r e stress
a = h a l f crack l e n g t h .
K i s c a l l e d t h e c r i t i c a l stress i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r or fracture
C
toughnessof the material. The c r i t i c a l crack l e n g t h , k c ,

*
The e f f e c t o f w e l d d e f e c t o n u n s t a b l e f r a c t u r e i s a com-
p l e x subject a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n h e r e o n l y c o v e r s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
o ft h e crack s i z e on u n s t a b l ef r a c t u r e . Detailed discussions
of the e f f e c t s o f d e f e c t s on b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e of welded s t r u c -
t u r e s are g i v e ni nR e f e r e n c e s ( 3 6 ) and ( 3 7 ) .

4-8
 t t t t

2a
00 0
my 0 \
"\- IO ---

I- DUCTILE -1
I
1-
I
BRITTLE - --
I I
I I
I I
-% P C A
a =% P (CRACK HALF-LENGTH)

Figure 4-3. Unstable fracture, high-strength materials containing a central

crack-effect of crack length on stress at fracture.

4- 9
a l s o may be used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e b r i t t l e b e h a v i o r of t h e
material: when the p r e e x i s t i n g crack i s s h o r t e r t h a n kc,
f r a c t u r e stress, a, e x c e e d s t h e y i e l d stress a n d f r a c t u r e i s
ductile. The ASTM Committeeon F r a c t u r e T e s t i n g of High-
S t r e n g t h S h e e t Materials ( 4 2 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d m e t h o d s of measur-
i n gf r a c t u r et o u g h n e s so fh i g h - s t r e n g t h sheet metals ( f e r r o u s
andnonferrous materials having a s t r e n g t h - t o - d e n s i t y r a t i o
ofmore than 700,000 p s i / l b / i n 3) . Kc can be determined by
f r a c t u r e tests of notchedspecimens.

An i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n unstablefracture is that
t h e a b s o l u t e s i z e o f a f l a w i s the c o n t r o l l i n gf a c t o r . If
t h e material c o n t a i n s a crack l a r g e r t h a n the critical s i z e ,
t h e crack can grow under low a p p l i e d stress eventhough the
loss o f s e c t i o n a l area due t o t h e crack i s minor.
I t i s known t h a t metals w i t h a body-centered cubic
lattice,suchas s t e e l s a n dt i t a n i u ma l l o y s , are s e n s i t i v e
tounstablefracture, w h i l e metals w i t h a f a c e - c e n t e r e d c u b i c
l a t t i c e , s u c h as aluminum a l l o y s a n d a u s t e n i t i c s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l s , are n o t .U n s t a b l ef r a c t u r e i s n o t a majorproblem
f o r s t r u c t u r e s made i n 2014-T6 and 2219-T87 a l l o y s u n l e s s
t h e y are subjected t o c r y o g e n i c t e m p e r a t u r e s .

4- 10
 4.2 P o r o s i t yE f f e c t s onWeld-JointPerformance
under S t a t i c Loading

I n t h e NASA r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on welding aluminum,

e f f e c t s ofporosityonweld-jointperformanceunder static
l o a d i n g were i n v e s t i g a t e d i n Study 5 a t t h e M a r t i n Company. (141
T h i s s u b j e c t was a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t i n
Study 1 a t the Boeing Company. C8 1

S i n c e a number of r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d
o u t t o determineexperimentallytheeffectsofdefectson the
s t a k i c s t r e n g t h ofweldments invariousmaterials,thefollow-
ingpagesfirstpresentresultsof some e x p e r i m e n t s s i m i l a r
t o t h e NASA s t u d i e s . Then d i s c u s s i o n s w i l l begivenon
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e NASA researchprogram.

R e s u l t so f Some ExDeriments S i m i l a r t o NASA S t u d i e s

T h e o r e t i c a l l ys p e a k i n g ,t h er e d u c t i o n of s t r e n g t h i n a
d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l due t o p o r o s i t y s h o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o -
portionaltothereduction of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , a s d i s -
c u s s e di nC h a p t e r 4-1. T h i sg e n e r a lt r e n dh a sb e e nc o n f i r m e d
byanumber ofinvestigators.
Forexample,Kihara, e t a l . (44) havesummarizedexperi-
mentalresultsobtained from a l a r g e number ofspecimens to
show t h e generaltendencyof t h e effectsofwelddefects on
the static tensile strength ofaluminumwelds(Figure 4-4).
The u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h d i d n o t d e c r e a s e a p p r e c i a b l y when t h e
r e d u c t i o no fs e c t i o n a la r e a due t o d e f e c t s was less t h a n
about 1 0 p e r c e n t . From t h a t p o i n tt h es t r e n g t hd e c r e a s e d
g r a d u a l l ya st h er e d u c t i o n of s e c t i o n a la r e ai n c r e a s e d .F o r
example, a 4 0 p e r c e n t d e c r e a s e i n s e c t i o n a l a r e a c a u s e d b e -
tweenabout 20 and 4 0 p e r c e n t d e c r e a s e i n t h e ultimate
tensile strength.

4- 11
 Chemical Composition of the Aluminum Alloy

Chemical ComDosition (70,

-I
Specification Mn Mg Zu Cr Ti A1

ANP-0 0.56 4.3 0.02 0.19 Nil. Bal.

0.16 0.09 I I I 1

h(
E s?
2 30 -/
E
IO0
25
I / 80
z 20 -
-
Z 60
W
oi
I- 40
10
W
-I
c A1 ALLOY 20
cn
z 0- I 1 I I I I
0
W
I- 0 20 40 60
R A T E O F D E F E C T I V E A R E A (%)

Figure 4-4. Relationshipbetween rate of defectiveareaandultimate tensile strength butt welds in aluminum
alloy.
 WeldingResearchCouncilBulletin 1 5 2 p r e p a r e d by
PenseandStout (37) i s an i n t e r p r e t i v e r e p o r t on i n f l u e n c e
ofwelddefectsonthemechanicalpropertiesof aluminum
alloyweldments. I t c o v e r si n f l u e n c e on mechanicalproper-
t i e s of p o r o s i t y a n d o t h e r d e f e c t s .
F i g u r e 4 - 5 shows r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Shore ( 3 8 ) who
studiedporosityeffectsin1/2-inchthick 7039-T6151 a l l o y
weldedwith 5039 f i l l e r wire by t h e GMA p r o c e s s .T e n s i l e
specimenshad no w e l d r e i n f o r c e m e n t , a n d p o r e s as s m a l l as
1/250 i n c h i n d i a m e t e r were c o u n t e d .T e n s i l es t r e n g t ho f a
welddecreasedlinearlywithincreasing loss o f s e c t i o n a l
a r e a .S h o r eo b s e r v e da b o u t 1 8 % loss i n s t r e n g t h f o r 10%
porosity.

ResearchProcedures of t h eM a r t i nS t u d y (5,141

Experimentalweldswere madeby addingmoistureor

hydrogen t o t h e s h i e l d i n g g a s t o p r o d u c e p o r o s i t y o f t h e
desired level.

P r o d u c t i o no fD e f e c t i v e Welds. Welds were made i n two

m a t e r i a l s ( 2 2 1 9 - T 8 7 and 2 0 1 4 - T 6 ) , two t h i c k n e s s e s ( 1 / 4 and
3 / 4 i n c h ) , and t h r e e w e l d i n gp o s i t i o n s( f l a t ,h o r i z o n t a l , and
v e r t i c a l ) . F i l l e r w i r e used was 2 3 1 9 w i t h t h e 2 2 1 9 - T 8 7 mate-
r i a l , and 4 0 4 3 w i t h t h e 2 0 1 4 - T 6 m a t e r i a l . Arcwelding was
GTA, D-C, s t r a i g h tp o l a r i t y w i t h h e l i u ms h i e l d i n g . Welds
had t o b e i n t e n t i o n a l l y c o n t a m i n a t e d t o p r o d u c e p o r o s i t y .
This was done by m e t e r i n g a d d i t i o n s of hydrogenand/or mois-
t u r et ot h es h i e l d i n gg a si nt h et u n g s t e nt o r c h . However,
e x t e n s i v ea d d i t i o n so fh y d r o g e nt e n d e dt of o r m a l a r g e number
o fv e r yf i n ep o r e s ,r e l a t i v et ot y p i c a lp o r o s i t ys i z e - f r e -
quency d i s t r i b u t i o ni np r o d u c t i o nw e l d i n g .I n some i n s t a n c e s ,
t h e p o r o s i t y was s o f i n e t h a t t h e X-rayswouldhavebeen

4- 13
70 I I I 35

7039-T6151/5039
60 - b"Plate GMA Welded 0 Average Fbints - 30
Naturallyoged X)days min. - -Scatter
Bands
"Leust Squares fit d
Average hints - 25

"
-\
e o
""

1 I I *O
OO IO 20 30 40
hrosity %Lr>ss in Area of FractureSurface

Figure 4-5. Loss of tensile strengthandpercentelongationin I-inch

gage due to porosity in high-strength aluminum welds (46).

4-14
a c c e p t a b l e by m o s t c u r r e n t s t a n d a r d s ; a n d y e t t h e s t r e n g t h of
t h e s e w e l d s w a s a p p r e c i a b l yr e d u c e d .

A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y was changes i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c -
teristics of t h e a r c which were induced by c o n t a m i n a t i o n of
t h e a r c atmosphere.Specimensweldedwithheavycontamination
had poor o r nontypical bead geometry.

D e f e c tC l a s s i f i c a t i o n System. C l a s s i f i c a t i o no fd e f e c t s
was p e r f o r m e d b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r d e s t r u c t u v e t e s t i n g of
t h e s p e c i m e n .N o n s p e c i f i ca n da r b i t r a r y l e v e l of p o r o s i t y
were assLgned by comparison with an adopted s e r i e s of s t a n d a r d s .
F i v e l e v e l s , 0 through 4 , f r o m w a t e r c l e a r t o q u i t e b a d , were
adoptedastargetporositylevelsforspecimenproduction
purposes.

M e c h a n i c a lP r o p e r t yE v a l u a t i o n . The d e f e c t i v e welds
were e v a l u a t e d by l o n g i t u d i n a l a n d t r a n s v e r s e t e n s i l e t e s t i n g
and by t r a n s v e r s ef a t i g u et e s t i n g . The specimenwidth of
thetransversetensile t e s t w a s thestandard1-inchwide
specimen f o r t h e 1 / 4 - i n c h s t o c k , and 1 l / 2 - i n c hw i d ef o rt h e
3/4-inchstock. The d i m e n s i o n sf o rt h el o n g i t u d i n a ls p e c i m e n
were chosen t o i n s u r e t h a t w e l d m e t a l , h e a t - a f f e c t e d z o n e , a n d
p a r e n t m e t a l were i n c l u d e d i n t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c r o s s s e c t i o n
of t h e specimen. The o b j e c t i v e w a s t os i m u l a t et h e stress
p i c t u r e w h i c h a weld sees i n t h e g i r t h o r i e n t a t i o n of a p r e s -
s u r ev e s s e l .I nt h i so r i e n t a t i o n , t h e b a s ep l a t ea d j a c e n tt o
t h ew e l d i s c a p a b l e of c a r r y i n g t h e l a r g e r p a r t o f t h e l o a d ,
a 5l o n ga s t h e ( p o s s i b l yd e f e c t i v e )w e l dm e t a l is ableto
elongateandtransferthisloadto t h e a d j a c e n tb a s em e t a l .
Fatiguespecimens were c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g t o a M a r t i n Company
s t a n d a r d ( 0 . 3 i n c hw i d ei n the weld).

4-15
Experimental Results

Static Tensile Tests on Transverse Welds. Figure 4-6

shows relationships between the porosity level and mechanical
(14) Shown in the
properties of transverse-weld specimens.
ordinate are thehigh, medium, and low values for each poro-
sity level, and the" 2 minimum'' values of the following:
1) Ultimate tensile strength
2) Yield strength
3) Elongation for 0.4-, 1-, and 2-inch gage length.
Different curves are shown for data obtained with specimens
with and without weld reinforcement.
Figure 4-6 shows that the ultimate strength decreased
markedly as porosity increased.
(5 '14) Elongation, especially
with a short gage length, also was affected by the porosity
level. The porosity level had the least effect on the yield
**
strength.
Attempts were then made to determine quantitative
relationships between the porosity level and the ultimate
strength. After specimens were fractured, fracture surfaces

**
Similar results were obtained in Study 1 at the Boeing
Company. (8) A statistical analysis was made of the effects of
shielding-gas contamination levels on mechanical properties of
welds. Among the six properties analyzed, the ultimate strength
of transverse welds had the most significant correlation with
the contamination level. The following lists the six properties
with the most significant to the least significant correlation:
1) Most significant: Transverse-weld ultimate tensile
strength
2) Transverse-weld elongation
3 ) Longitudinal-weld elongation
4 ) Longitudinal-weld ultimate tensile strength
5) Longitudinal-weld yield strength
6 ) Transverse-weld yield strength.
The yield strength was least affected by the contamination
level.

4-16
 7H1TO -BEAD ON
CODE 7HITS "---
BEAD OFF
AVE. CURVES SHOWN
40

35

30

I
4 a

25

20

15 " I

10
\

4
5

LEVEL
0
2 0 1 3 4 >4

Figure 4-6. MechanicalProperties of 2219-T87,1/4-in.aluminumalloycontaining

increasing levels of porosity, transverse horizontal position, D-C GTA
weld 23 19 Filler Metal.
were examined t o d e t e r m i n e the loss of s e c t i o n a l area due t o
porosity. All p o r e sl a r g e rt h a n 1 / 6 4 i n c h i n diameter were
countedtodeterminethe loss of s e c t i o n a l area.
F i g u r e 4-7 shows d a t a f o r 1/4-inch thick transverse
welds i n 2219-T87 ( h o r i z o n t a lp o s i t i o n ) . Data for specimens
w i t h a n dw i t h o u tw e l dr e i n f o r c e m e n t are shown. Shown i n t h e
a b s c i s s a are t h e t o t a l p o r e areas i n terms o f e q u i v a l e n t
numbers of 1/64-inchdiameterporesand t h e r e d u c t i o n of
***
sectional area in percent. Good c o r r e l a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d
b e t w e e nt h er e d u c t i o n of s e c t i o n a l a r e a a n d t h e loss ofstrength.
Marked d e c r e a s e s i n t h e s t r e n g t h were observedonspecimens
w i t h s m a l l loss o fc r o s s - s e c t i o n a la r e a . The M a r t i ni n v e s t i -
g a t o r s s t a t e d t h a t mostspecimens t h a t showed s i g n i f i c a n t loss
o f s t r e n g t h had many f i n e p o r e s b u t p o r e s s m a l l e r t h a n 1/64 inch
i n diameter were n o t c o u n t e d .

was made of how e x i s t i n g a e r o s p a c e i n d u s t r y

A study also
specificationsrateasinstrumentsforpredictingmechanical
p r o p e r t i e s .F i g u r e 4-8 i l l u s t r a t e sr a n g e s of u l t i m a t es t r e n g t h
f o u n d w i t h i n welds o f g i v e n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n l e v e l s a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e ABMA-PD-R-27A, i n 2219 and 2014 w e l d m e n t s ,r e s p e c t i v e l y . (5,141
A l a r g e amountof s c a t t e ri nd a t a is noticed. The v e r y low
v a l u e su n d e rC l a s s I were all takenfromsamples which c o n t a i n e d
l a r g e n u m b e r so fv e r yf i n ep o r e s .

L o n g i t u d i n a l Welds. The t e n s i l es t r e n g t h of l o n g i t u d i n a l
specimensdecreased as loss i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s due t o
i n c r e a s e dp o r o s i t y .S i n c e a specimencontained t h e weld metal
and t h e b a s e p l a t e , the porositycausedratherminorreduction
i ns e c t i o n a la r e a . Even s p e c i m e n sc o n t a i n i n ge x t e n s i v ep o r o -
s i t ym a i n t a i n e ds t r e n g t ho v e r 40,000 psi. The e f f e c t ofporo-
s i t y on elongation and yield strength were minor.

***
Forexample,onepore w i t h 1/32 i n c h diameter andone
w i t h 1 / 1 6 i n c h diameter are considered t o be e q u i v a l e n t t o
4 and 1 6 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , of 1 / 6 4 - i n c h - d i a m e t e rp o r e s .

4-18
 40 CODE: 7HlTO (WITH WELD REINFORCEMENT)

30

- V
20 -
I

--
c
0 PERCENTOFFRACTUREAREA
z
w
0
E
5 10
- (5) (15) (10)
I I
(20)
I
(25)
1
(30)
1
(35)
1
(40)
W I I I I t
i, 0 100 200 300 400 500
Y, .-
z,"
W-
TOTAL
PORES)PORE
(1/64 AREA
c
w
c
4 CODE: 7HlTS
REINFORCEMENT
MACHINED)
(WELD

4
40

.
30

20
PERCENT OF FRACTURE A R E A V
II

(5) (15) (10)

I I
(20) .
(25)
I
(30)
I .
(35)
I
(40)
1
0 100 200 300 400 500
TOTAL PORE AREA (1/64 PORES)

Figure4-7. Strength VersusPoreArea, 2219-T87, horizontalweld, 1/4 in.

Transverse Test.

4- 19
 INDIVIDUAL DATA POINTS TAKEN AT
RANDOM FROM CONTAMINATED WELDS
X
c
tl
Z
W
cz 40
z
W

zCrZ-
zs
W

20 I I I I
-I
0 1 2 3 4 5

50-

I
c
0
Z
W
40-
z
W

W
30-
-x
I-
4
3

20 - --
I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5
POROSITY CLASS
Figure 4-8. Transverse tensilestrength Versus ABMA scatteredporosity
classification, 1/4 in., bead on and bead off, mixed together.

4-20
A n a l y s i s a n d E v a l u a t i o n of t h e M a r t i n S t u d y on
Porositv Effects on Weld S t r e n a t h

An i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g o b t a i n e d i n theMartinstudy is
the s i g n i f i c a n c eo f small p o r e s . If t h er e d u c t i o n of s t r e n g t h
due t o a p o r e i s determined by i t s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area, a
poresizewhichgivesthe least r a t i o o f c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area
to volume i s t o b ed e s i r e d .F o r a s p h e r i c a lv o i d ,t h er a t i o
o fc r o s s - s e c t i o n a la r e at ov o l u m e , a, i s

a = - 3 1
(4-5)
4 3
-3- E
7 'ITR
J

The v a l u eo f c1 i n c r e a s e s when R d e c r e a s e s .T h u s , a given

volume of c o n t a m i n a n t g a s i n a f r e e z i n gp u d d l ec a nc a u s e
m o r e damage i n t h e form of small p o r e s t h a n l a r g e p o r e s .
Experimental r e s u l t s showed t h a t s m a l l p o r e s d i d c a u s e
significant reduction i n strength.
However, t h e r e d u c t i o n o f s t r e n g t h due t o a s m a l l
amount of p o r e s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t h e M a r t i n s t u d y was v e r y
g r e a t ,a s shown i n F i g u r e 4 - 7 . The r e s u l t sc a u s e d a consi-
d e r a b l ea t t e n t i o nd u r i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o ns t u d y . Two p o s s i b l e
reasons for the drastic reduction in strength are:

1) The specimenscontained many f i n ep o r e sw h i c h were

n o tc o u n t e d
2) The i n t e n s i o n a lc o n t a m i n a t i o no fs h i e l d i n gg a s
adopted i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t c a u s e d some m e t a l l u r g i c a l
d e g r a d a t i o n of t h e material.

In an effort to clasify the relationship ofporosityto

t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of a weld,Martin-Denverconducted an addi-
t i o n a l t o create a r t i f i c i a l d e f e c t s . I t w a s found t h a t t h e
actualchangeinstrengthofdrilledwelds was s l i g h t l y less
t h a n p r e d i c t e d on a l i n e a r b a s i s , as i n d i c a t e d by Equation
(4-3)
 Further attempts w e r e made t o i m p r o v e t h e t e c h n i q u e f o r
c o u n t i n gp o r e s . I t w a s f o u n dt h a tv e r yg o o dc o r r e l a t i o n
c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d when p o r o s i t y area f r a c t i o n was determined
by t h e g r i d i n t e r c e p t method. The g r i d i n t e r c e p t method is
illustrated in Figure 4 - 9 showing 10 X p h o t o g r a p h s o f f r a c t u r e
s u r f a c e so f a s e r i o u s l yc o n t a m i n a t e ds p e c i m e n .S u p e r i m p o s e d
onthesefracturesurfaces i s a r o u g hg r i d ,w i t h 36 i n t e r -
c e p t i o n sb e t w e e nl i n e s A t o F and 1 t o 6 f o r F i g u r e 4-9a,
and 4 2 (A t o F , 1 t o 7) f o rF i g u r e 4-9b. Thenumber of
i n t e r c e p t s . w h i c hf a l lo v e r a pore(obviousexample, D-4 i n
Figure 4 - 9 a ) , d i v i d e d by t h e number o f t o t a l p o s s i b l e i n t e r -
c e p t s , i s t h ep o r o s i t y area f r a c t i o n .C a r e f u lc o u n t i n gg a v e
2 0 p o r ei n t e r c e p t s f o r ( a )a n d 1 8 f o r ( b ) . C o n v e r t i n gt o
p o r o s i t y ,r e d u c t i o n s of s e c t i o n a l area are:

20/36 = 5 7 % f o r t h e s e c t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 4-9a

18/42 = 43% f o r t h e s e c t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 4-9b.

F i g u r e 4 - 1 0 shows d a t a f o r t r a n s v e r s e t e s t s of 2 0 1 4 - T 6
welds i n 1 / 4 i n c h p l a t e s p r e p a r e d i n t h e f l a t (downhand)po-
sition. The f i g u r e shows two sets o f - v a l u e s f o r t h e loss of
sectionalarea due t o p o r o s i t y :

1) C o u n t i n gp o r e sl a r g e rt h a n 1/64 i n c hi nd i a m e t e r
2) Counting a l l p o r e s by t h e g r i d i n t e r c e p t method.

The p o i n t s X and Y i n F i g u r e 4 - 1 0 r e p r e s e n te x a m p l e s shown

i nF i g u r e s 4 - 9 a and 4 - 9 b , r e s p e c t i v e l y .F i g u r e 4-10 shows
that the loss o f s t r e n g t h d u e t o p o r o s i t y i n aluminum welds
was p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r e d u c t i o n o f s e c t i o n a l a r e a a s l o n g
as all pores w e r e counted.

4- 22
 .* ..

..
1' c I F 4 6 C D E F

( a ) FRACTURE SURFACE,
POIKT x, F I G m 7
576
NOTE: GRID IS SUPERIMPOSED TO ALLOWMEASURE
OF PORE AREA PERCENT USING

PORE INTERCEPTS
X 100 = PORE
AREA
PERCENT.
TOTAL INTERCEPTS

Figu;e 4-9. Fracturesurfaces of porous welds.

 h -+
'5; 50
Y
U Counting Pores by Grid intercept
f
rn
C
r" 40
@
@
Largerthan 1/64"
m-v
e
a,
30 -
I
I\
VLV
@

0
E
.- (O/O of F r a c t u r e A r e a )
-
t
(5) (IO) (15) (20) ( 2 5 ) (30)(35) (40) (45) (50)
= 20- I
I
I I I I I I I
I
I I

IO0 200 300 400 500

TotalPoreAreaFoundinFractureSurface
Expressed in Equivalent Number of 1/64"pores

NOTE: TESTED WITH REINFORCEMENT.

Figure 4-1 0. Strength Vs Pore Area for 2014-T6, Flat Welds, 1/4 inch Transverse Test.
 4 . 3P o r o s i t yE f f e c t so nF a t i g u eS t r e n g t h

I n t h e NASA r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on welding aluminum,

l i m i t e d e f f o r t s w e r e made on t h e p o r o s i t y e f f e c t s o n f a t i g u e
s t r e n g t h . ( 1 4 ,8)
F i g u r e 4-11 summarizes r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a t the M a r t i n
Company. ( I 4' 4 5 ) Shown h e r e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n r e d u c -
t i o n of s e c t i o n a l area due t o p o r o s i t y a n d c y c l e s to failure
of w e l d e d j o i n t s i n 2219 and 2 0 1 4 a l l o y p l a t e s 1 / 4 i n c h
thick. The r e i n f o r c e m e n t w a s removed,and t h es p e c i m e n s were
c y c l e d i n a x i a l t e n s i o n ( z e r o t o a g i v e nv a l u e , or R = 0 ) .
F i g u r e 4-11 shows c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e u n d e r t h r e e stress l e v e l s :
10, 15,and 20 k s i .

The r e s u l t s shown i n F i g u r e 4-11 c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n

several ways.Forexample, 1 0 % p o r o s i t yc a u s e s :

1) Reduction i n f a t i g u es t r e n g t hf o r 100,000 cycle

l i f e from over 20 k s i to 12 k s i ( a b o u t 1/8 t h a t of
sound weld)
2) Reduction i n t h e number o fc y c l e st of a i l u r e
under 2 0 k s i : from over l o 4 t o around l o 3 (1/10
that of the sound weld)
under 1 0 k s i : from over l o 6 t o around 5 X lo4
(1/20 t h a t of t h e s o u n d w e l d ) .
F i g u r e 4-12 shows s i m i l a r r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a t t h e Ohio
State University. (46) Although t h i s s t u d y w a s n o t a p a r t o f
t h e NASA-sponsored s t u d i e s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s i n t e g r a t i o n s t u d y ,
t h e r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e dh e r e for comparison. Welds were
made i n 7039-T6151 p l a t e s 1 / 2 i n c h t h i c k u s i n g 5039 f i l l e r
wire. The r e i n f o r c e m e n t w a s removed,andthespecimens were
c y c l e d t o 25 k s i (R = 0 ) .

4- 25
 Porasitiy o / O L o s s i n h of FhctureSurface
Figure 4-1 1. Fatigue Life Versus FracturePoreCountfor
1/4 inch thick 2219 and 2014 (14, 45).

4-26
 " -
1 I ~~~
I I I 1
I

7039-T6151/5039
Naturally oged 3Odoys min.
lo5 GMA welded $ plate
R=O
O k ~ 2K 5si

0 0
0
Bead Off
3
0
v)
0

0
0

0
0
0
-
--
L

o-l
I I I I 1 I I I I
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Porosity '?Xob s s inArea of Rocture Surfoce

Figure 4-1 2. Tension-TensionfatiguelifecyclesVersus

Porosity in 7039/5039(46).

4-27
 The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e t w o s t u d i e s were q u i t e
s i m i l a r .I nt h eb o t hs t u d i e s 1 0 % p o r o s i t yr e d u c e st h e
f a t i g u e l i f e b ya no r d e r of m a g n i t u d e , t h a t i s , t o 1/10
t h a t of t h e s o u n d w e l d .

4.4 E f f e c t of R e p a i r Welds ( 4 )

Inconsideringthedatawhichrelatedexpectedmechanical
properties t o the porosity in aluminum w e l d s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
to recognizethatthealternative t o a c c e p t i n gt h ep o r o u s
weld i s e i t h e r r e p a i r o r s c r a p . The s c r a p p a g ea l t e r n a t i v e
becomes less a t t r a c t i v e , i f n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y close t o i m -
p o s s i b l e , as l a u n c h v e h i c l e t a n k a g e i n c r e a s e s i n size.
Figure 4-13 i s a p l o t of r e d u c t i o n i n t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
w i t hi n c r e a s i n g number o f r e p a i r s i n 2014-T6 welds. ( 4 ) It
i s necessary t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of m u l t i p l e r e p a i r s
b e c a u s er e p a i rw e l d i n g i s notalwayssuccessfulthefirst
time. R e c e n tp r o d u c t i o ne x p e r i e n c ei n d i c a t e st h a t 1 / 4 of
f i r s t r e p a i r s are unacceptable and must be r e p a i r e d a g a i n ;
1 / 2 o ft h e s es e c o n dr e p a i r s a r e u n a c c e p t a b l e ,a n da p p r o x i -
mately 2/3 of t h et h i r dr e p a i r sa x eu n a c c e p t a b l e .T h u s ,
there is considerable risk that the repaired welds w i l l ul-
t i m a t e l y b e lower i n m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s t h a n t h e d e f e c t i v e
weld which was i n i t i a l l y r e j e c t e d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note
t h a t a t h i r dr e p a i r( F i g u r e 4-13 - t y p i c a ls t r e n g t ho f 36 k s i )
hasthemechanicalpropertiesequivalent t o a weld which has
s u f f i c i e n t p o r o s i t y t o be w e l l o u t s i d e o f s t a n d a r d s o f a c c e p t a -
b i l i t y , t h a t i s , t o a w e l dc o n t a i n i n g 25 t o 35 area % p o r o s i t y .
Thus more damage may be doneby r e p a i r t h a n i s r e p a i r e d b y i t .

A n o t h e ra s p e c t of p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l
r u l e of p e r c e n t s t r e n g t h loss e q u a l i n g p e r c e n t area l o s s , i s

4-28
 50.0

48.0

46.0

44.O

42.0

40.0

38.0

36 .O
H

34.0
to
E-4
P IDEAL MEAN CURVE
32.0

30.O

28.0

26.0

24 .O
2.33 - SIGMA LIMIT
22 .o

20.0
3-00 - SIGMA LIMIT

NUMBER OF REPAIRS

Figure 4-13. Weld Strength Versus Number of Repairs on 2014T6

aluminum, 1/4 inch thick stock (4).

4- 29
consideration of the denominatorin the arealoss fraction.
1.n a uniaxial tensile specimen the denominator is simply the
area of the tensile specimen. In a real pressure vessel the
incremental or base line area is notso straight-forwardly
assigned. Thus direct use of strength loss predictions should
be.verified on real parts,or simulated part destructive tests,
prior to use.

4-30
 CHAPTER 5

Weld Porosity, Its Sources and Control

It has been known for sometimes that hydrogen is the

primary cause of porosityin aluminum welds. Research on
porosity in aluminum casting provided some insight into the
mechanisms of porosity in welds, which are essentially small-
scale castings. However, the problem of eliminating
or mini-
mizing porosity in welds is far from solved. There are a
number of possible sources of hydrogenin welding, and the
thermodynamics of welding reactions are more complex than
casting.
In the NASA-sponsored studies
on welding aluminum,
to identify sources of hydro-
considerable efforts were made
gen causing porosity. Studies were made of effects
on poro-
sity of:
1) Shielding-gas contaminations
2) Surface cleanliness
3) Base metal and filler-metal compositions and
internal hydrogen.
Efforts were also made on developing methods for controlling
and eliminating porosity.
The following pages discuss:
5.1 Mechanisms of porosity
5.2 Shielding-gas contamination
5.3 Surface contamination
5.4 Composition of base plate and filler metal
5.5 Methods of controlling and eliminating porosity
 5.1 Mechanisms o fP o r o s i t y (47)

Hydrogen i n t h e weld metal h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d to a

number of p o s s i b l es o u r c e s .I n f a c t , t h e many p o s s i b l e
sourcesofhydrogen are one of t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e c o n f u -
sionandcontroversyoverthemechanismsofporosityforma-
t i o n i n welds. I n v e s t i g a t o r sh a v ep o s t u l a t e dc e r t a i n
mechanisms of f o r m a t i o n b a s e d on c o n t r o l l i n g some v a r i a b l e s
b u tn o to t h e r s . The i m p o r t a n c eo fc e r t a i nv a r i a b l e s may b e
underestimated.

The l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e o f t h e k i n e t i c s o f r e a c t i o n s in
t h e weld environment i s a n o t h e r m a j o r r e a s o n why t h e p o r o s i t y
mechanism i s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d .

Role of Hydrogen ( 4 1

Table 5-1 shows t h e s o l u b i l i t y ofhydrogen a t one

a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e in 99.9985%aluminum. (48) The s o l u b i -
l i t y of hydrogen i n s o l i d aluminum i s v e r y low, a b o u t
0 . 0 3 6 cc/100gr o r 8 . 1 x a t o m ipc e r c e njtu sbt e l o w the
m e l t i n gp o i n t . A t 6 6 0C' , t h e s o l u b i l i t y of hydrogen i n
moltenaluminumincreases 6 0 times t o a b o u t 0 . 7 c c / 1 0 0 g ro r
1.55 x a t o mpi ce r c e n t . The s o l u b i l i tfyu r t h ei rn c r e a s e s
w i t hi n c r e a s i n gt e m p e r a t u r e s .

A s t h e moltenweld metal s o l i d i f i e s , e x c e s s h y d r o g e n ,
above the s o l u b i l i t y l i m i t , i s r e j e c t e d as t i n y p o r e s o f
hydrogengas scattered t h r o u g ht h e aluminum. A s t i m e p e r m i t s ,
t h e s en u c l e i w i l l j o i n o r c o a l e s c e t o f o r ml a r g ep o r e s . If
p e r m i t t e d ,h y d r o g e nm i g h t grow s o l a r g e t h a t some p o r o s i t y
w i l l f l o a t o u t of t h e moltenaluminum.

5- 2
 TABLE 5-1. SOLUBILITY OF HYDROGEN AT ONE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
(48)
IN 99.9985 % ALUMINUM

Solid state Liquid s t a t e

cc/lOO g At. % Temperature cc/100 g At. %

OC OC
300 0.001 2.2 x 10-7 660 0.69 1 . 5 5 x 10-4
400 0.005 1.1 x 1 0 - 6 0.92 700 2.07 x
500 0.0125 2.8.x 725 1 .O? 2.40 x 10-4
600 0.026 5.85 x 750 1.23 2.77 x 10-4
660 0.036 8.1 x 800 1.67 3 . 7 6 x 10-4
850 2.15 4 . 8 4 X 10-4
E f f e c t s of Shielding-GasDewpointand
Welding Parameters o n P o r o s i t y

S a p e r s t e i n , e t a1 ( 4 9 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d e f f e c t s o n p o r o s i t y
ofvariousfactorsincludingmoisturecontentofhelium-argon
s h i e l d i n gg a s ,t r a v e ls p e e d ,a n d a r c l e n g t h .B e a d - o n - p l a t e
welds were made on p l a t e s i n t y p e 3 0 0 3 a l l o y by t h e GMA
process.
F i g u r e 5-1 shows t h e e f f e c t o fs h i e l d i n g - g a sd e w p o i n t
o np o r o s i t yf o r m a t i o n , as d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y . (49)

Each d a t a p o i n t r e p r e s e n t s a s i n g l e t e s t w e l d , e x c e p t where
otherwise n o t e d . The d e w p o i n tt h r e s h o l df o rp o r o s i t yf o r -
mation was a p p r o x i m a t e l y - 4 0 ' F for both t r a v e l s p e e d s .
Porositycontent seemed t o i n c r e a s e e x p o n e n t i a l l y as t h e
dewpointincreasedabove -4OO F.

An e f f o r t was made t o c o r r e l a t e w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s to
porosity. The m a t h e m a t i c a la n a l y s i s of h e a t f l o wi nw e l d -
ments developed by Rosenthal ( 5 0 ) and A d a m s (51) was used.
Adams d e v e l o p e d e x p r e s s i o n s f o r w e l d - c o o l i n g rates i n t h e
case of two-dimensional heat flowfrom a point heat source
moving l i n e a r l y w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y i n a flatplate. The
coolingrateatthefusioninterface(on the solidside) is
g i v e n by t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n :

P = cooling rate parameter = [ 3 ~ t

1EI
0 l2 [w,ii:n] (5-1)

The c o o l i n g r a t e on the s o l i d s i d e o f the f u s i o n - l i n e i n t e r -

f a c e i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n time p e r
u n i t volumeon t h el i q u i ds i d e .( S o l i d i f i c a t i o n t i m e is the
e l a p s e d t i m e b e t w e e nt h el i q u i d u sa n ds o l i d u st e m p e r a t u r e ) .
S i n c ep o r e sf o r md u r i n gs o l i d i f i c a t i o n ,t h ec o o l i n g - r a t e
parameterrepresents a c o n v e n i e n tm e a s u r eo fp o r o s i t y .

5-4
 WELDING CONDITIONS:
A
A 2 5 - i p m TRAVEL SPEED
O 4 0 - i p m TRAVEL SPEED
ARC CURRENT ='220* 5 am1
ARC VOLTAGE = 30 f 1 v
ARC LENGTH = 3 / 8 f 1 / 1 6 i r
-
65%He 35%A GAS SHIELD

t
0
0
5 28

20 60
/
SHIELDING GAS DEW POINT (-OF)

Figure 5-1.Effect of shielding-gas dewpoint on porosityformation.

5-5
 Many t e s t welds were made t o establish a c o r r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e nt h ec o o l i n g - r a t ep a r a m e t e ra n dp o r o s i t y .F i g u r e 5-2
shows a t y p i c a l d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n p e r c e n t p o r o s i t y a n d t h e
c o o l i n g - r a t e p a r a m e t e r . (491
A t l o w v a l u e s of t h e p a r a m e t e r ( l o n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n
t i m e ) , the p o r o s i t y l e v e l i s low.Thefew p o r e sp r e s e n ti n
t h e w e l d are l a r g e . A t h i g hv a l u e so ft h ep a r a m e t e r ,o rw i t h
briefsolidification t i m e s , the p o r o s i t y l e v e l i s also low,
a n dt h ep o r e st e n dt o be v e r yf i n e . Between these two e x t r e m e s ,
theporositylevel reaches a maximum, exceeding 2 5 p e r c e n t .
Pore s i z e s a t t h e maximum l e v e l r a n g e f r o m medium t o l a r g e .

Nucleationand Growth o f P o r o s i t y

The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s shown i n F i g u r e 5-2 can be

e x p l a i n e d i n terms of t h e n u c l e a t i o n a n d g r o w t h p r o c e s s e s .
A f t e r n u c l e a t i o n , time i s r e q u i r e d f o r h y d r o g e n t o d i f f u s e
i n t op o r e sa n df o rs u b s e q u e n tc o a l e s c e n c e t o occur. Thus,
a r a p i d l y c o o l i n g weld i s e s s e n t i a l l y f r e e of p o r o s i t y , o r
it containsonlymicro-porosityorhydrogen i n super-saturated
s o l i ds o l u t i o n . A s l o w e rc o o l i n g weld, c o n t a i n i n g t h e same
h y d r o g e nc o n c e n t r a t i o n ,e x h i b i t ss e v e r ep o r o s i t y . However,
once maximum p o r o s i t y i s reached, t h e l e v e l a g a i n d e c r e a s e s
a s t h e c o o l i n g r a t e d e c r e a s e s .V e r ys l o wc o o l i n gr a t e se v i -
d e n t l y a l l o w enough t i m e f o r o u t - g a s s i n g of thehydrogencon-
t a i n e d i n the pores.

In the NASA r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on weldingaluminum,an

a t t e m p t was made t o s t u d y the nucleationandgrowthmechnisms
o fp o r o s i t yi n aluminum welds. I nS t u d y 3 a t t h e McDonnell
Douglas A i r c r a f t Company, e f f o r t s were made t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p o r o s i t y i n aluminumwelds in
terms of m e t a l l u r g i c a l phenomena a s w e l l a s w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s .

5- 6
 23 27
18
WELDING CONDITIONS:
-
65%Hc 35%AGAS SHIELD
DEW POINT = -25t3'F
ARC LENGTH = 3/8 2 1/16 in
15

-
C COARSE
12

6
OF"
OM
FF
eOF OF
OF 00 OF F"
OF OF F g
3
OM
s"
OF
OF F ~ M

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "8

COOLING RATE PARAMETERS (AT)

El
',)-( in.2 2

Figure 5-2. Dependence of porosity formationon cooling-rate parameter, Helium/Argon welds.

 ResearchProcedures of the DouglasStudy.Experiments
were made i n t w o p h a s e s .I nP h a s e 1, a n arc w a s produced f o r
a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p e r i o d a t t h e c e n t e r of a 2 - i n c h d i a m e t e r
d i s k .I nP h a s e 11, a weldbead w a s l a i d on a r e c t a n g u l a r
specimen 4 by 1 8i n c h e s . The specimens i n Phase I and I1
were p r e p a r e d i n 2219-T87 and 2014-T6 a l l o y s 1 / 4 - and
3 / 4 - i n c ht h i c k .

Welds were made by t h e GTA p r o c e s s , DC s t r a i g h t p o l a r i t y

intheflatposition. Specimens were welded i n a c o n t r o l l e d
atmosphere i n a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d d o u b l e c h a m b e r .

Temperaturechanges i n areasin o r c l o s e t o t h e weld

puddle were m e a s u r e du s i n gt h e r m o c o u p l e s .A f t e rw e l d i n g ,
t h ep o r o s i t yl e v e l was determined i n t h r e e ways:radiographic,
p o r ec o u n t i n g ,a n dg r a v i m e t r i ct e c h n i q u e s .

S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s were u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e d e s i g n
o fe x p e r i m e n t a lp r o g r a m sa n dt h ea n a l y s e so fe x p e r i m e n t a l
data. The followingmodel was u s e df o rs t e p w i s er e g r e s s i o n
analysis:

Yi = bo + b x
1 1
+ b2x2 + ... + bnXn

+ b12X1X2
+ ... + (n-1)
nxn-lxn

+ bllXl + .. . + bnnxn
2
(5-2)

where,

xll x2 , ..., xn = i n d e p e n d e n tv a r i a b l e s

Yi = d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s .

Independentvariablesinvestigatedincludeatmospherecon-
t a m i n a n t l e v e l , w e l d i n gc u r r e n t , arc v o l t a g e , arc t i m e (or
t r a v e ls p e e d ) ,a n d material t h i c k n e s s .D e p e n d e n tv a r i a b l e s
investigatedincludeporosity,hydrogencontentintheweld
metal, a n d t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n t i m e of a weld.

5- 8
 Duringthecourse of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t u d y , h o w e v e r ,
questions were r a i s e d a b o u t t h e way c o n c l u s i o n s were drawn
from e x p e r i m e n t a ld a t a .A p p a r e n t l y the mechanisms of p o r o s i t y
formation and effects of w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s are morecomplex
than those anticipated by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s .

5-9
 5.2 Shielding-Gas Contamination

It has been known that moisture in the shielding gas is

a major cause of porosity. Collins(52) stated that shielding-
gas contamination is especially likely when the arc is
unsteady. (47)
Saperstein(49) showed that welds deposited using shield-
ing gas with dew points below -40' F were virtually free from
porosity (Figure 5-21, while porosity concentration increased
exponentionally-with increasing dew-point temperature above
- 4 O O F.

Among the NASA-sponsored studies listed in Table 3-1,

Studies 1, 2, 3 , and 5 covered effects of shielding-gas
contamination on porosity. In all of these programs, it
was found that the shielding-gas contaminationa had much more
significant effect on porosity than did the other factors in-
vestigated.
It has been found that shielding-gas contamination can
be one of the major sources of porosity in aluminum weldments.
However, it also has been found that commercial shielding gas
is normally acceptably pure as received. In the NASA-sponsored
programs conducted at Boeing, ( 8 ) Battelle, (9'10) Douglas, (11)
and Martin, investigators reported that it was always
necessary to intentionally contaminate the shielding gas to
produce an appreciable amountof porosity. Welds made in the
laboratory did not contain appreciable amounts of porosity
when they were made with proper procedures,is, that
when
plates were cleaned properly and commercially pure shielding
gas was used.

5- 10
The
~- BoeinT S t u i on E f f e c t s o f I n d i v i d u a l G a s Contaminants

The e f f e c t s of i n d i v i d u a l g a s c o n t a m i n a n t s were s t u d i e d
bymakingwelds i n an atmospheric-controlchambercontaining
v a r i o u sl e v e l so fg a sc o n t a m i n a t i o n . The s t u d y w a s performed
i n two p h a s e s :
Phase I : D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h er a n g e sf o rw h i c h a
r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s betweencontaminants
(02, N 2 , H2, and H20) i n a r c - s h i e l d i n g
helium and weldment defects.
Phase 11: A q u a n t i t a t i v ed e t e r m i n a t i o no ft h es h i e l d i n g -
g a sc o n t a m i n a t i o ne f f e c t so np o r o s i t y , mecha-
n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , and m e t a l l u r g i c a l c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s of 2219-T87 aluminum weldments.

WeldingProcedures. The m e t a ls t u d i e d w a s 1/4-inch

t h i c k 2219-T87 aluminum a l l o y . Welds w e r e made i n t h e
h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n by t h e GTA p r o c e s s , DC s t r a i g h t p o l a r i t y
u s i n g 2319 aluminum-alloy f i l l e r wire. The chamber was
vacuum-purgedand then filled with helium containing pre-
determinedamountsofcontaminantgases.

Weldment E v a l u a t i o n .F o l l o w i n gr a d i o g r a p h i ca n a l y s i s ,
each weldment panel w a s machined t o o b t a i n two g r a v i m e t r i c ,
two t e n s i l e , and t h r e e f a t i g u e s a m p l e s a n d o n e m e t a l l o g r a p h i c
sample.

S t a t i s t i c a lA n a l y s e s .S t a t i s t i c a la n a l y s e s were used
extensivelyinthedesign of experimentalprogramsandthe
a n a l y s i so fe x p e r i m e n t a ld a t a . The 2 4 f a c t o r i a la n a l y s i s
w a s usedtodesignexperimentalprogramsforstudying effects
o ft h ef o u rc o n t a m i n a t i n gg a s e s( o x y g e n ,h y d r o g e n ,n i t r o g e n ,
a n dw a t e rv a p o r ) .E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w e r e a n a l y z e d on t h e

5-11
b a s i s of t h e f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s . The d a t a were t h e na n a l y z e d
t o obtainregressionequationsrelatingthe levels ofcon-
t a m i n a t i o n t o each measure of w e l d q u a l i t y .

Findings. The f o l l o w i n gr e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d :

1) I n c r e a s i n gh y d r o g e nc o n c e n t r a t i o ni n c r e a s e dp o r o s i t y .
2) I n c r e a s i n g water v a p o ri n c r e a s e dp o r o s i t y .
3 )I n c r e a s i n go x y g e nd i dn o ti n c r e a s ep o r o s i t y :i n
some cases, a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n p o r o s i t y was
observed.
4) I n c r e a s i n gn i t r o g e nh a d little e f f e c t o np o r o s i t y .

The B o e i n g i n v e s t i g a t o r s p r e s e n t e d F i g u r e 5-3 as a g u i d e
f o rc o n t r o l l i n gs h i e l d i n g - g a sc o n t a m i n a t i o n . (*) The conta-
m i n a t i o n l e v e l s shown i n d i c a t e w h e r e o c c u r r e n c e o f a weld-
q u a l i t yc h a n g e is i n i t i a l l yo b s e r v e d . The f i g u r ei n d i c a t e s
t h a t 250 ppm o f e i t h e r h y d r o g e n o r water v a p o r w a s n e c e s s a r y
b e f o r es i g n i f i c a n tq u a l i t yc h a n g e s were observed. A s shown
i n F i g u r e 5-3, s h i e l d i n g - g a sc o n t a m i n a t i o nc a u s e dv a r i o u s
e f f e c t si n c l u d i n gs u r f a c ed i s c o l o r a t i o n ,u n d e r c u t ,a n d re-
d u c t i o ni na r cs t a b i l i t y . Suchphenomena also were o b s e r v e d
(9,10~, 11,141
i n o t h e r programs.

F i g u r e 5-4 g i v e s t h e c a l c u l a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , as d e t e r -
minedby theBoeinginvestigators,betweenpercentof water-
s a t u r a t e d a i r i n t h e base g a s a n d r e s u l t i n g h y d r o g e n c o n -
centration. (*) The f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a t 70" F , f o r
example,anadditionof 0.6 percentsaturated a i r to pure
heliumwould r e s u l t i n 250 ppm hydrogen i n t h e s h i e l d i n g g a s .

On t h e b a s i s o f e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h e c u r r e n t p r o g r a m s ,
it is b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o c h a n g e t h e p r e s e n t
NASA s p e c i f i c a t i o n (MSFC-364A) f o rs h i e l d i n gg a s . Normal
commercial gaseswhich meet t h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n are believed
t o have sufficient purity.

5- 12
2000 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED

1750
BEADDEVELOPSDULL APPEARANCE

1500 ARC STABILITY REDUCED TO ERRATIC STATE

1250

1000

ARC BEGINS TO WAVER

750 UNDERCUT BEGINS TO EFFECT SCHEDULE

FATIGUE LIFE BEGINS TO REDUCE

500
= SURFACEDISCOLORATIONBEGINSTO
SCALY SURFACE BEGINSTO OCCUR
POROSITY BEGINS TO OCCUR WITH H 2
OCCUR

ADDITION AND DENSITY DECREASES

250 H20 Hz0 BEGINS TO CAUSE DENSITYDECREASE

02 BEGINS TO INCREASE DENSITY
OXIDE SPOTS BEGIN TO APPEAR

0 BASE GAS

Figure 5-3. Contaminationconcentration levels at which

significant changes occur in weld quality.

5- 13
 n
7 50

PL 250

100
I 1 .
BECOMES SIGNIFICANT)
1
-(POINT WHERE H 2 0 BEGINS
I

TO
REDUCE
DENSITY) i
I I I I I I I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1

AIR AT SATURATION IN BASE GAS (%)

Figure 5-4. Volume of water available to weldmentfromsaturated air contamination.

 However, g a s c o n t a m i n a t i o n c a n occur w i t h i n the b o t t l e ,
o r sometimesbetween t h eb o t t l ea n dt h et o r c hn o z z l e . Con-
t a m i n a t i o n c o u l d occur i n a p a r t i a l l y empty b o t t l e , f o r
instance. O r , it c o u l do c c u rd u et od e f e c t i v ec o n n e c t i o n s
in the tubing system. An e f f o r t w a s made i n S t u d y 1 7 t o
d e v i s e means o f i n s t a n t l y c h e c k i n g t h e p u r i t y o f s h i e l d i n g
g a s a t t h et o r c hn o z z l e .T h i s subject w i l l b ed i s c u s s e di n
a later partofthischapter.
The B o e i n g i n v e s t i g a t o r s f u r t h e r e x t e n d e d t h e a n a l y s i s
t o c a l c u l a t e t h e amount of hydrogen gas available by decom-
p o s i t i o n of hydrocarbonontheweldgroove. I t i s assumed
t h a t h y d r o c a r b o n w i l l decomposecompletely t o g a s e s by t h e
weldingarcandthey w i l l become gascontaminants.
According t o t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n , i t r e q u i r e s less t h a n
1 mg o f h y d r o c a r b o n p e r i n c h o f w e l d t o c o n t i n u o u s l y g e n e r a t e
250 ppm hydrogen i n t h e s h i e l d i n g g a s . I t i s e s t i m a t e dt h a t
a s i n g l e f i n g e r p r i n t would r e s u l t i n a 750-ppm hydrogenin-
c r e a s ei nt h ea r e ac o n t a m i n e d . By comparingFigures 5-3
a n d5 - 5 ,t h eB o e i n gi n v e s t i g a t o r se s t i m a t e dt h a t a single
fingerprintwouldcause a significant increase in porosity.
The e s t i m a t i o n w a s based on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t h y d r o c a r b o n s
on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e weld j o i n t wouldhavethe same e f f e c t
a s a n e q u i v a l e n t amount of h y d r o g e n b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d a s a
contaminantintheshieldinggas.

5- 15
750 1 I 1 1 I f I

(APPROXIMATE LEVEL OF HYDROGEN AVAILABLE

FROM A SINGLE FINGERPRINT)
/

r
(LEVEL WHERE POROSITY
BEGINS TO OCCUR WITH /
HYDROGEN)
/
2 50

100

HYDROCARBON PER INCH OF WELDMENT (mg)

(CHOLESTEROL USED AS A BASIS FOR CALCULATION)

Figure 5-5. Calculatedvolume of hydrocarbon available to weldmentfrom hydrocarboncontamination.

 5.3 Surface Contamination

Many investigators believe that the surface condition

of the base plate and welding wire is the most important
( 4 7 ) Aluminum oxidizes
factor contributing to porosity.
rapidly and may contain water
in the adsorbed form or the
chemically combinedform.
The Boeing investigators, for example, reported that a
single fingerprint could cause three times the minimum level
of hydrogen necessary to cause porosity (Figure
5-5). A
thorough evaluationof surface condi'tions capable of pro-
ducing weld defects was undertaken in Study
9 at IITRI
(Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute).

Characteristics of Surfaces
of Practical (4,201
Joints

From a practical standpoint, all surfaces which are

prepared for welding are "contaminated" to some degree. The
extent of contamination will be dependent upon a host of
factors which include but are not necessarily limited to the
following:
(a) initial as-received surface condition,
(b) machining variables,
(c) environmental conditions,
(d) chemical treatments,
(e) solvent treatments,
(f) storage durations.
The effects of these factors may be generalized in terms of
more directly measurable surface factors which include the
following:
(a) surface topography,
(b) surface plastic deformation,
(c) oxide thickness,
(d) oxide crystalline structure,

5- 17
 (e) adsorbed gases, vapors, or liquids (particularly
hydrogen-bearing substances such as water organic
solvents, lubricants, etc.) ,
(f) foreign metallic and nonmetallic particulate matter
(such as tool fragments, paper or cloth fibers, skin
particles, etc.) ,
(9)miscellaneous residuals (i.e., F, C1, Na, etc., in
combined or free form resulting from various pre-
paration treatments).
The problem that confronts the aluminum welding fabricator
is
that of establishing surface preparation specifications which,
despite the contamination, will not degrade weld quality to
some unacceptable level.
Since an ideally clean surface is virtually impossible
to achieve for normal welding fabrication, it is imperative
to consider various factors that may determine the "real"
surface condition. The ability to control such factors will
ultimately determine our ability to minimize weld damage
produced by surface contamination. Aluminum is such an active
metal that an aluminum/air interface must of necessity include
a barrier layer of some kind--usually the oxide. It is pos-
sible to produce a perfectly clean metallic surface by cleav-
-10
ing or fracturing a metal within an ultra high (10 vacuum
torr or better). However, surface adsorption of gases
occurs on the freshly fractured surfaces almost immediately
after fracture. At a pressure of torr a monolayer of
gas will form within 1 second. If it were possible to weld
only freshly cleaned surfaces then the surface defect poten-
tial would be an absolute minimum. This, of course, is a
virtual impossibility. However, it would appear necessary to
approach this condition so as to minimize defect potential.

5- 18
 In a paper entitled "What
is a Clean Surface?" it was
pointed out that there are three common types of impurities
(53)
present on a metal surface:
Substances derived from the base metal, comprising
generally oxides of the metal, but also including
various compounds formed by corrosion or other
surface reactions.
Substances not chemically associated with the base
metal, such as water, oils, greases, solvents,
drawing compounds, buffing and polishing compounds,
and miscellaneous dirt picked up in manufacturing,
handling, or shipping. Such substances may be
attached very looselyor in either a physical or
chemically adsorbed state. The latter condition
may be most difficult to remedy.
Substances due to an altered base-metal surface
layer. The surface of the base metal itself may
of a film
be physically unsound because it consists
of stressed, distorted, broken, or disordered base
metal. Alternatively, such metal may be readily
converted to oxides, hydroxides, or other oxidation
products of the altered metal.
the light of the foregoing, the surface chemistry and
physics of aluminum immediately after the preparation of the
surface for welding may be expectedto have significant effects
on the structure and kineticsof formation of the oxide film
which forms at room temperature. The degree of moisture ad-
sorption, or hydration, would also probably be highly sensitive
to variations in surface activity related to different methods
of surface preparation for welding.

5- 19
Surface AdsorPtion( 4 , 2 0 1

Probably the most detrimental surface condition, with

respect to weld-defect potential, is that related to surface
adsorption. Adsorbed hydrogen-bearing contaminants would be
expected to be the principal causeof porosity-type de.fects.
The preparation of a "good" weld joint surface should be one
that is relatively free of adsorbed hydrogen-bearing contami-
nants. The objective of this section is to describe some of
the important adsorption phenomena and their relevance to
this program.
Two types of surface adsorption are distinguished:
physical adsorption and activated adsorption (generally
termed chemisorption). Physical adsorption is characterized
by the concentration of molecules on the surface of the metal
at comparatively low temperatures. Physical adsorption in-
volves the attractionof molecules to surfaces by the same
forces that are responsible for the liquefication of gases.
Hence physical adsorption is essentially a rapid and reversibl
process because very low activation energy is required for th
phenomenon. The surface concentration of the adsorbate de-
creases with increasing temperature, and increases with in-
creasing partial pressure. Theoretically, physical adsorption
reaches a saturation equilibrium level at or near a monomole-
cular layer thickness at a very rapid rate. However, in
practice, especially with porous adsorbents (such as porous
oxide films), considerable time may be required to establish
an equilibrium saturation because of the slowness of diffusion
of the adsorbate through the pores and crevices in the adsor-
bent. Considering the surface preparationof aluminum for
welding, physical adsorption could conceivably have an impor-
tant effect on subsequent weld quality. For example, if a
thick fragmented oxide were produced as a result of joint

5-20
preparation, considerable water adsorption may occur during
exposure in the ambient atmosphere. Moisture from the at-
mosphere could be "sponged" up by the porous oxide.
No
known data are available on the rate of physical aasorption
of water (from the ambient atmosphere) on oxidized aluminum.
The second, and potentially more damaging, type of
adsorption is that termed "chemisorption."In chemisorption
the adsorbed molecule or molecular fragment
is held to the
surface or surface oxide by strong bonds characteristic'of
covalent, ionic, or metallic bonding. The interaction of an
adsorbate with a surface is much more specific than in the
case of physical adsorption where any adsorbate may be
readily "sponged" up. The reason for this is the specific chemi-
cal changes that take place between the surface adsorbent and
the specific adsorbate. The rate of adsorption may be slow
due to the need for acquiring an activation energy before the
chemisorption process can take place. But once adsorption has
taken place, it is not easily reversed, and the application
of comparatively high temperatures may be needed before desorp-
tion can occur. In some cases even the application of very
high temperatures will not bring about a reversal of the
original adsorption process because a chemical change takes
place involving breakdown of the adsorption complex into new
products.
The bulkA1203-H20 system is characterized by chemisorp-
tion reactions. The trihydrate, A1203-3H20, is very stable
up to 280' F (140' C). Above this temperature the alpha
monohydrate (boehmite) is formed and is stable to approxi-
mately 760' F (400' C). Beyond this temperature alumina tends
to become dehydrated if heated in an absolutely dry atmosphere.
The simple desorption of physically adsorbed water can be
rapidly achieved at approximately 212' F (100' C) at ambient

5-21
pressures, whereas much higher temperatures are required to
desorb chemically adsorbed water. Of course, the crucial
questions from a practical standpoint are: (a) to what ex-
tent does the chemisorption of water occur on an aluminum/
aluminum oxide surface as a result
of weld joint preparation
and (b) what effect does such adsorption on havethe ultimate
weld quality? These questions constitute an important part
of this program.
Constituents other than water (such as solvents, lubri-
cants, etc.) may also be adsorbed
on aluminum/aluminum oxide
surfaces, and they may be equally or more important than
water. Irreversible adsorption can occur with a large number
of simple organic molecules (including benzene, ethyl alcohol,
and carbon tetrachloride) on various oxide surfaces (CuO, NiO,
ZnO, and MgO). In the case of ethyl alcohol there was evidence
that chemisorption had occurred because various breakdown pro-
ducts of the molecule were formed when the surfaces were
heated.
Adsorption of pure nonpolar liquid compounds (including
benzene, toluene, xylene, and carbon tetrachloride) on polished
surfaces of Pt, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, W, Cr, Sn, and Cd was very
pronounced. "In past investigations of cleaning, friction,
adhesion, corrosion prevention, and other studies or uses of
the surface properties of metals, it usually was assumed that
a final solvent cleaning or degreasing of a surface was
satisfactory provided that a sufficiently pure or volatile
solvent was used. Our results prove that this supposition
'

is incorrect, even if the solvent is nonpolar, and is capable

of greatly confusing or interpreting the experiments. Where
complete freedom from adsorbed organic material is desired,
it is better to avoid using any organic solvent in the last
stage of cleaning the solid surface." The implications of
this conclusion as related to the surface preparation for

5-22
welding are quite obvious. The adsorption of chemical reagents,
particularly those that are capable of liberating hydrogen,
must also be considered. For example, 4.4 x mm3 of
fiydrogen may be adsorbed on 1 cm2 pf aluminum surface in the
form of a monatomic layer. Hydrogen evaluation during chemical
cleaning may, thereby, produce significant amounts of ad-
sorbed hydrogen, which is exceedingly harmful to weld quality.
Finally, adsorption of the common gaseous constituents
of air (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.) should be
considered. Oxygen, of course, is abundant in the oxide form.
The other gases may be adsorbed to the detriment of weld
quality. However, it is probable that the adsorption of I

nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc., will be of negligible impor-

tance compared to the adsorption of hydrogen-bearing con-
stituents.

Surface ( 4 ,20)
Topography

The topography of the aluminum/aluminum oxide surface

may have important effects on weld-defect formation. Several
factors must be considered.A brief discussion of some of
these factors and their potential relationship to weld-
defect formation is presented in the following pages.
Although a majority of surfaces appear to have random
topographies and consist of many irregular, jagged protrusions,
there are definite patterns which characterize
a surface
(Figure 5-6a). These patterns can generally be classified
according to their respective wavelengths. This is possible
because the surface irregularities are actually periodic in
nature, although they may be complicated in waveform and
difficult to interpret. The irregularities of the longest
wavelength can be considered as errors
of form described by
Figure 5-6b. These are caused by flexure of the machine or

5- 23
Figure 5-6. Constituents of the topography of a machined surface;
(a) The general toporgraphy which includes the irregu-
laritiescausedby (b) flexure or slideways,(c) vibra-
tion or bad truing, (d) the cutting tool, and (e) chip
removal.

5-24
part, or by errors caused in the slideways. Superimposed upon
this waveform is one of shorter wavelength described
in
Figure 5-6c, which is caused generally by components of vi-
bration, or by bad truing a ofgrinding wheel. The next
shorter wavelength wave (Figure 5-6d) is commonly referred
to as surface roughness. It is the pattern formed by succes-
sive grooves or scratch marks. The shortest wavelength pat-
tern (Figure 5-6e) is superimposed on the previous wave and
results from the irregularities within each groove, which
are formed by the rupturing of the material as the is chip
torn from it. In many cases, these characteristics are
broadly classified by designating them as either surface
roughness or waviness. Roughness takes into account the
finer irregularities caused by the cutting tool and the
machine tool feed, while waviness is the wider spaced
irregularity resulting from machine or work deflections,
vibrations, or heat treatments. To distinguish between these
two forms,a roughness-width cutoffis defined asa maximum
width of surface to be included in the measurement of rough-
ness height. In addition to these surface characteristics,
there isa class of random irregularities called flaws. These
occur at one place or at relatively infrequent intervals in
d surface. Scratches, tears, ridges, holes, peaks, cracks,
or checks are examples of flaws.
On even a smaller scale than surface waviness, there is
a predominant direction of the surface pattern called the lay
of a surface. The controlling factor in this case is the
production method, which results in patterns such as parallel,
perpendicular, angular, multidirectional, circular, and
radial relative to some fixed reference. In general, the
character ofa surface depends upon the degree to a which
machine is properly set up and used, the particular machine
cutting apparatus, the direction of the cut, the feed and

5-25
tool shape, the crystalline structure of the material, the
elastic and plastic deformations of the material, and the
mechanism of material removal.
At least two possible effects of surface roughness are
immediately evident. The actual area, rather than the appar-
ent area,of a surface increases in direct proportion to its
roughness. The potential amount of surface oxide and/or ad-
sorbed contaminants would, therefore, be expected to be
directly proportional to surface roughness. Consequently,
surface roughness could potentially affect weld soundness
by providing more or less actual surface area for adsorption
of damaging contaminants.
The second possible effort of surface topography is
that related to the mechanical entrapment of harmful conta-
minants. Folds, tears, scratches, crevices, and other such
irregularities may promote the mechanical entrapment of
cutting tool debris, lint, lubricants, solvents, water, and
even humid air on the surfacea weld
of joint preparation.
This type of entrapment could cause subsequent weld defects.
One very important attribute of this type of mechanical en-
trapment could be its statistically random nature. The
occurrence of weld defects is also frequently by statistically
random distributions. Conceivably, such random defect dis-
tribution could be closely related to the probable random
distribution of mechanically entrapped surface contaminants.
The aforementioned methods were selected for initial
evaluation because they were believed to be capable of dis-
closing surface characteristics which could cause degradation
of weld soundness. Mass spectrometry, gas chromatography,
and spark emission spectroscopy were selected to determine
surface absorption effects. Spectral reflectance analysis
was evaluated for the purpose of pertinent oxide or surface

5- 26
topography characteristics and possibly compositional
differences. The evaporative rate method of analysis ais
special case and was employed to determine whethernot or
gross surface differences could be measured.
Coincident with the preliminary surface analysis studies,
a parallel evaluation of weld-defect potential was under-
taken. The exploratory evaluation was performed for two
reasons: (1) to develop a simple weld test which was capable
a
of disclosing surface-induced defects and (2) to establish
tentative correlation between surface contamination level and
weld-defect potential. The latter objective was considered
to be vitally important sinceit would be futile to indis-
criminately measure surface conditions which were in no way
related to weld-defect potential. Furthermore,a simple weld
test could in itself abevery potent screening test for the
evaluation of surface preparation methods.

Procedures of the IITRI Studv

The objective of Study

9 performed at IITRI was to
establish the significance of material preparation and sur-
face property effects on weld porosity.
A three-phase pro-
gram was undertaken to achieve the program objective:
Phase I: Identification and classification of dele-
terious surface conditions
Phase 11: Standardization of surface condition mea-
surements
Phase 111: Correlation of surface condition and weld
quality.

Materials. Two aluminum alloys, 2014 and 2219, were

supplied by the Marshall Space Flight Center,NASA, for this
program. Eight sheets of 2014-T651, 48 x 144 x 0.250 inches,

5- 27
and six sheets of 2219-T87, x72144 x 0.359 inches were
obtained. Only the 2014 material was used in the preliminary
Phase I evaluations.

Surface Preparation An overwhelming number of accepted

preparations for aluminum surfaces prior to welding are
currently used in the aerospace industry. A systematic study
of each one would have been impossible within the time and
funds scope. Therefore, treatments representative of solvent
degreasing, chemical cleaning, and mechanical cleaning were
employed in this investigation.

Preparation of Nonmachined Specimens. Materials in the

as-received condition exhibited maximum surface roughness of
less than 10 inches (peak-to-peak). The surface was heavily
contaminated with oils, greases, ink, and foreign particles
picked up in fabrication, handling, and storage. Small
blanks, approximately1 x 1.5 x 0.250 inches, were saw-cut
from the sheets of 2014 A1 and individually stored in snap-
top jars, about 2 inches diameter by3 inches deep, for
subsequent treatment. All further handling of specimens was
by Teflon-lined tongs, disposable tissue, or plastic gloves.
The jars were stored ain desiccated dry box between proces-
sing steps and until just prior to specimen analysis. The
air in the dry box was maintained atF dew -4OO point (about
72O F dry bulb temperature) by continuously purging with
bottled dry air.
Degreasing was performed bya detergent (Tide) and/of
solvent soak. The solvent was reagent grade benzene. Samples
were immersed fora period of 1 minute, followed bya vigorous
tissue wipe or warm(llOo F) air dry usinga heat gun.
The original film was removed by chemically cheaning
(1-min. immersion in
a 5 w/o NaOH solution at18Oo-19O0 F).

5-28
The dark film that formed was removed (desmutted)
a short
by
(15 seconds) dip in 50 v/o
HN03. Agitated rinsing in deionized
water and warm air drying followed.
Additional treatments were included to attempt to produce
surfaces havinga range of weld-defect potential. These were:
boiling in water, storage over water, coating with silicone
grease, anodizing, and certain combinationsof these. Anodiz-
ing was done in an electrolyteof 15 w/o H2S04 at72O F and
a current density of12 amp/ft2 for periods ranging from 1 sec
to 60 minutes. Water rinsing and warm air drying followed.

Preparation of Machined Specimens. Numerically programmed

machining was done with a Sundstrand 5-axis, Om-3 Omnimil to
obtain a reproducible starting surface. The omnimil used
specially constructed fixturing. The specimen chamber enabled
the maintenance of a controllable environment during machining.
A dry air (20% relative humidity) ora moist air ( 9 0 % RH) at-
mosphere was incorporated in the machining procedures by
flushing the chamber with bottled dry air F(-40° dew point)
or passing the air through a water bubbler then to the chamber.
The ambient temperature and relative humidity in the Omnimil
room was maintained at about 72O F and 50%, respectively, at
all times.
The most valid discrimination between defective and
nondefective welds (including
a possible rangeof defect con-
tent) is ascertained by correlating the surface analysis re-
sults with actual weld results. Therefore,
a simple weld
test was developed and used extensively throughout the pro-
gram. The test proved to be extremely useful and is in it-
self an excellent screening test for determining the accepta-
bility of various surface preparations for welding.

5-29
 Weld Test. A weld test was developed to disclose damage
mainly produced by surface contamination.A pair of samples
of a particular preparation are placed together 1on x 1.5 in.
faces and positioned in a vise between two3 1/2 x 2 1 / 4 x 1 in.
thick pieces of type 1100 aluminum so that the 1.5 in. edges
are forward. The large pieces of aluminum served aasheat
sink. The vise is tightened with a force of about 30 ft-lb.
A spot is fused at the midpoint along the interface. The spot
welds are made with DCSP/TIG process, using the following
settings with a Sciaky S-4 power supply: constant current
mode, arc current, 320 amps; arc voltage, 18 volts; arc
length, 1/16 in.; gas, high-purity helium(10 ppm H20); arc
duration, 2 sec; gas preflow,1 min; gas flow, 100 cfh;
electrode, tungsten-2% thoria, 5/32 in. diameter; and tip
geometry, 32O taper, 3/32 in. blunted tip. Figure 5-7
illustrates the spot weld-test specimen.
The test is extremely sensitive to the properties of the
butting surfaces. The gases liberated from the surfaces by
the heat of the arc are trapped by solid contact along the
fusion line. The pressure of gases generated at the melting
front isa function of the amount of surface contamination.
At some levelof contamination there is sufficient pressure
built up to cause the gases to "escape" into the weld pool.
Porosity is formed by the rejection of the dissolved gases
during solidification and cooling. Heavily contaminated
surfaces exhibit porosity throughout the fusion zone, whereas
cleaner surfaces are characterized by porosity only along the
fusion line or complete absence of porosity. The amount of
oxide film present on the surfaces determines the fusibility
and depth of penetration along the interface. Oxide inclu-
sions are readily disclosed on the parted surfaces, at the
fusion line and in the weld.

5-30
 ' \-*NI

SPOT WELD

FRACTURESURFACE
E X A M I NED

Figure 5-7. Weld test specimen for evaluating defect potential of surfaces.

5-31
 The e x t e n t o f weld damage i s best determined by
f r a c t u r i n g the p i e c e s t h r o u g h t h e w e l d , t h e r e b y e x p o s i n g t h e
i n t e r f a c e ,f u s i o nl i n e ,a n df u s e dw e l d metal. D e f e c t con-
t e n t i s evaluated by inspection a t 25X m a g n i f i c a t i o n .

R e s u l t so f the I I T R I Study

T a b l e 5-2 summarizes t h e s u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n s a n d a
d e s c r i p t i o n of d e f e c t s . All t e s t welds c o n t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t
p o r o s i t ye x c e p tt h em a c h i n e ds p e c i m e n s( F i g u r e 5-8) t h a t
received no f u r t h e rt r e a t m e n t .F i g u r e 5-9 shows l a r g ep o r o -
s i t y e n c o u n t e r e d when t h e s u r f a c e w a s n o t m a c h i n e d b u t w a s
s o l v e n td e g r e a s e d .F i g u r e s5 - 1 0 , 5-11,and 5-12 show photos
taken of machined surfaces with a s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n micro-
scope:numerous tears and smears a r ep r e s e n t .F i g u r e 5-13
shows a f r a c t u r e d s p e c i m e n w i t h a r e s i d u e o f t h i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e
n e a r the s u r f a c e .F i g u r e 5-14 shows r e a c t i o np r o d u c t sf r o m
c h e m i c a lc l e a n i n g .

F i g u r e 5-15 p r e s e n t s the f i n d i n g i n a simplemanner.

Shown h e r e are w e l d - d e f e c t p o t e n t i a l o f v a r i o u s s u r f a c e
p r e p a r a t i o n s .F i g u r e 5-16 i s a s i m i l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n ,b u t it
i n c l u d e st h ee f f e c to fs t o r a g e t i m e o nd e f e c tp o t e n t i a l . As-
m a c h i n e ds u r f a c e s have t h el o w e s td e f e c tp o t e n t i a l .C h a r a c -
teristics ofvarioussurfacepreparationsare as f o l l o w s .

1. As-ReceivedT
. h i st y p eo fs u r f a c eg e n e r a l l y w i l l be
covered w i t h a n a n o d i z e d o r s e v e r e l y o x i d i z e d h y d r a t e d l a y e r
which i s l a d e n w i t h o i l s , i n k s , g r e a s e , d i r t , a n do t h e rd e b r i s .
is generally
The w e l d d e f e c t p o t e n t i a l o f a s - r e c e i v e d m a t e r i a l
veryhighand, a t best, c a n n o t be r e l i e d upon t o producecon-
s i s t e n t l y good weld q u a l i t y .

2. Machined. Removal o ft h ea s - r e c e i v e ds u r f a c e by an
" u n d e r c u t t i n g "m a c h i n i n go p e r a t i o n ,s u c ha sf a c em i l l i n g

5-32
 TABLE 5-2. DESCRIPTION OF SPOT-WELD DEFECTSRELATED
TO SURFACE PREPARATIONS.

Preparation
Surface
Description
of Defects

A. Nonmachined
(a) As -received Coarse and continuous fusion-line
p o r o s i t y and oxide inclusions.
(b) Benzene degreased Cavernous p o r o s i t y on f u s i o n l i n e
and i n w e l d . Porosity i s discolored
to a yellowish tint.
Chemically
(c) cleaned
Large and f ipnoeraelsofnugs i o n
line. Oxide i n c l u s i o n si n weld.
(d)
Chemically cleaned and Cavernous,
discolored
porosity on
c o a t ewdi st hi l i c o nf u
e s i ol innF
e .i npeo r e s and oxide
eld. in i n c l u s ig
o rnesa s e .
Chemically
(e) cleaned, Similar t o (a). More p o r o s i t y and
s i l i c o nger e a sceo a t e do,x i dien c l u s i o nisw
n eld.
stored over water f o r
several days.
(f) Chemically cleaned and Continuous fusion
line
porosity and
stored over water f olra r geel o n g a t epdo r eisn weld.
several days.
(g) Anodized 1 sec t o 5 min. With Increasinganodizingthepqros-
i t y becomesmore continuous on f u -
s i o nl i n e . Greater amounts of oxide
inclusions develop until the original
i n t e r f a c e remainsunfused.
(h) Anodized f o r 5 min o r 60 Almost nofusionacrossinterface.
rnin, b o i l e di n water f o r Much l a r g ep o r o s i t y on s u r f a c e .
5 min.
B . Machined
(a) A s machined ( a l l types)
Nearly free of defects. Occasionally
some v e r y f i n e p o r e s on f u s i o n l i n e .
(b)
Trichlorethylene
rinsed About: 20 l a r g p e ores on f u s i o nl i n e ,
some d i s c o l o r e d .
(c)
Chemically
cleaned About
30 pores on f u s i ol innlea,r g e
and small. Some l a r g e area oflack-
of-fusion.Occasionaloxideinclusions.

5-33
Neg. N O . 32725 25X

Figure 5-8. Nil defectspot weld fracturesurfacetypical of the as-machined

surface condition.

5- 34
Neg. No. 3 3 4 0 3 2 5X

Figure 5-9. High defectspot weld fracture surface typical of thenonmachined

and solvent degreased surface condition.
ul
I
w
Q,

1lOOx
NOTE: NUMEROUS TEARS AND SMEARS ARE
PRESENT ON THE SURFACE.
Figure 5-1 0. Scanningelectronmicrograph ofan Figure 5-1 1. Scanning electron micrograph of an
as-machined surface. as-machined surface.
 1 lOOX

NOTE: THIS SURFACE IS SIMILAR IN APPEARANCETO

THEAS-MACHINED SURFACE. CROSSMACHINING
MARKS ARE DUE TO TOOL CHATTER.

Figure5-1 2. Scanning electron micrograph of a trichlorethylene-rinsed surface.

5-37
NOTE: NOTICE THE THIN RESIDUE AWAY FROM THE FUSION LINE WHICH
IS PROBABLY A PRODUCT OF TRICHLORETHYLENE.

Figure 5-13. Scanningelectronmicrograph of aspot weld fracture of

as-machined specimen.

5-3 8
NOI'E: NOTICE TIIAT PARTlCLES ON S U R F A C E A R E MUCH D I F F E R E N T
FROM OXIDE FLAKES.

Figure 5-14. Scanningelectronmicrographofchemically cleaned

surface in region of oxide spalling.

5-39
 GROUP A GROUP B
(AS-RECEIVED WELD-DEFECT (MACHINED
A N D TREATED) TREATED)
POTENTIAL
AND
ZERO- - -- AS-MACHINED
( A L L TYPES)

"- CHEMICALLY CLEANED

CHEMICALLYCLEANED
(PLUS WATER STORAGE) -
--7
- /

-" " TRICHLORETHYLENE

SOAKED

ANODIZED &

\'
~

I
I. ""
- ANODIZED 1 MIN

COAT
SILICONE % \
(PLUS WATER STORAGE)

\
\ I
HIGH

Figure 5-1 5. Scale ofweld-defect potential of varioussurfacepreparations.

5-40
 STORAGE TIME
STANDARDIZATIONTESTS
DEFECT
POTENTIAL
15 MIN I DAY 14 DAYS
" I
AS- MACHINED """

( A F T E R 30 DAYS)

T R I C H L O R E T H Y L E N E R I NSED "

ul
I
( A F T E R 2 - 7 DAYS)
rc1
r

CHEMICALLYCLEANED ""

( A F T E R 7 DAYS)

Figure 5-16.Weld-defect potential scale for both standardizationandstorageeffectstests.

 ( w i t h o u tc o o l a n t ) ,c a np r o d u c e a very l o w d e f e c t - p o t e n t i a l
surface. ( T h ea s - m a c h i n e ds u r f a c es h o u l db es u p e r f i c i a l l y
wipedprior t o machining t o remove e x c e s s c o n t a m i n a t i o n . )
T h i ss u r f a c e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e n o r m a l t o p o g r a p h i c a l
f e a t u r e sp r o d u c e db ym a c h i n i n g( t h a t is, tears, p i t s , waves)
a n dn a t u r a l l yf o r m e dh y d r a t e do x i d el a y e r( a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 0 0 A o r less i nt h i c k n e s s ) .S u r f a c e sm a c h i n e d t o 50-200 u i n .
p e a k - t o - p e a kf i n i s hi na na m b i e n t a i r atmosphere (72O F ,
5 0 - 6 0 % R H ) c o n t a i n a t l e a s t 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 5 ug/cm2 o f w a t e r i n t h e
h y d r a t e do x i d es u r f a c el a y e r .T h i s l e v e l o fc o n t a m i n a t i o n
alonedoesnotordinarilyproducesignificantwelddefects.
From a p r a c t i c a l o r t e c h n i c a l s t a n d p o i n t t h e "machined"
s u r f a c ec o n d i t i o nr e p r e s e n t st h eb e s tc o n d i t i o nf o rw e l d i n g .

3. D e g r e a s e dS u r f a c e sO
. r g a n i cr e s i d u e a
s n dd e b r i s
a r e commonly removed by d e g r e a s i n g t r e a t m e n t s p r i o r t o weld-
ing. However, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s programhavedemonstrated
that the solvent itself may b e a d s o r b e d o n t h e s u r f a c e a n d
create a s i g n i f i c a n tw e l d - d e f e c tp o t e n t i a l .A d s o r p t i o no f
t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n eo n 2 0 1 4 s u r f a c e sc a ne x c e e d 5 0 0 pg/cm2.
Such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o a t l e a s t 1 0 times t h e
thresholdhydrogenconcentrationabovewhichporosity will
f o r mF
. u r t h e r m o r e t, r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e i s chemicallyadsorbed
andhencedesorbsveryslowly a t a m b i e n tc o n d i t i o n s . Upon
w e l d i n gt r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n ed e g r e a s e ds u r f a c e s ,a ni r r e v e r s i b l e
desorptionreactionproducessolidreactionproductswhich
c a n become e n t r a p p e d (as i n c l u s i o n s ) w i t h i n t h e s o l i d i f i e d
w e l d .T h e r e f o r e ,p o r o s i t ya n ds o l i di n c l u s i o n s a r e caused
b ya b s o r b e dt r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e .

E x p l o r a t o r y work with benzene and Freon-TF indicated

t h a t similar d a m a g i n ga d s o r p t i o nr e a c t i o n so c c u r .D e g r e a s i n g
w i t ht r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n er e p r e s e n t s , a t b e s t , a processwhereby
o n et y p eo fo r g a n i cc o n t a m i n a n t i s exchanged f o r o r d i l u t e d

5-42
w i t ha n o t h e ra n da d s o r b e do nt h es u r f a c e . The w e l d - d e f e c t
p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c e d by t h e e x c h a n g e o r d i l u t i o n w i l l vary
depending upon t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e a d s o r b e d s p e c i e s i n -
volved. The d e f e c tp o t e n t i a l of t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n er i n s e d
s u r f a c e st e n d st ow o r s e n as t h e s u r f a c e a g e s d u r i n g s t o r a g e .
The mechanismofdegradation i s unknown, a l t h o u g h it i s
associated with the increased incidence or oxide inclusions
a n dm i c r o p o r o s i t y .T h e s er e s u l t s show t h a tt r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e
d e g r e a s i n g ,p r i o rt ow e l d i n g ,s h o u l db ea v o i d e du n l e s s
followed by a machine c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n whichremoves the
c o n t a m i n a t e ds u r f a c e .S o l v e n t so t h e rt h a nt r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e
may b e more o r less d a m a g i n g t h a n t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e ; how-
e v e r , a n y s o l v e n t w i l l b ea d s o r b e dt o some e x t e n t a n d
i n d i v i d u a le v a l u a t i o n sa r en e c e s s a r yt od e t e r m i n et h e
effects.

4. Water-Rinsed Surfaces and Ambient H u m i d i t y E f f e c t s .

" ~~~

Water-rinisingadds t o thewaterburdenwhichalready
e x i s t s i n t h e hydratedoxidelayerorentrappedin
t o p o g r a p h i c a ld e f e c t s . A t l e a s t 0 . 1 pg/cm2 ofwatercan
beadded by r i n s i n g , h o w e v e r , n a t u r a l d e s o r p t i o n i n the
ambientatmospherecancause a g r a d u a lr e d u c t i o no f the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . High humidity w i l l r e t a r d t h e r a t e of
d e s o r p t i o n .P r o l o n g e ds t o r a g ei ns a t u r a t e d air w i l l lead
tosubstantialadsorptionofwater,andanestimated
1 . 0 pg/cm2 c a nb ea d s o r b e dd u r i n g a seven day s t o r a g e
period. Any a d d e dw a t e rb u r d e nn a u t r a l l y increases t h e
w e l d - d e f e c tp o t e n t i a la n ds h o u l d ,t h e r e f o r e ,b ea v o i d e d .
Water r i n s i n g s h o u l d no& beemployed as a f i n a l p r o c e s s i n g
step just prior to welding, andprolongedambienttempera-
ture storage cannot be relied upon t o p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t
surfacedesorption.

5-43
 5. Chemically
Prepared
S u r f a c e sC
. o n v e n t i o n ahl o t
sodium h y d r o x i d e - n i t r i c acid c h e m i c a l " c l e a n i n g " p r o d u c e s
a surface which exhibits an unusually high defect potential.
Both p o r o s i t y a n d g r o s s o x i d e - t y p e i n c l u s i o n s a r e produced by
t h i st y p eo fs u r f a c et r e a t m e n t . The water o fh y d r a t i o n w i l l
2
exceed a measured 0 . 7 pg/cm , a n d t h e s u r f a c e i t s e l f i s cha-
r a c t e r i z e d by a r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k ( 1 , 0 0 0 t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 A), f r a g i l e
complex r e f r a c t o r yo x i d el a y e r . The c o m p l e xo x i d el a y e r is
easilyfragmentedandtendsto become e n t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e
s o l i d i f i e d w e l d o r a l o n gt h ef u s i o nl i n e .O f t e nm a c r o p o r o -
s i t y i s associated w i t h t h e e n t r a p p e d o x i d e s , a p p a r e n t l y
caused by t h e l o c a l i z e d d i s s o c i a t i o n o f water o f h y d r a t i o n .

Desorptionfrom a c h e m i c a l l yp r e p a r e ds u r f a c e i s a two-
s t a g e p r o c e s s where r e v e r s i b l e w a t e r o f h y d r a t i o n i s de-
s o r b e d a tt e m p e r a t u r e sb e l o w 750' F. A t t e m p e r a t u r e s be-
tween 750' F and 9 7 0 ° F i r r e v e r s i b l e d e s o r p t i o n o c c u r s , b u t
t h ep r o d u c t s of d e s o r p t i o nh a v en o tb e e ni d e n t i f i e d .T h e r m a l
desorptiondidnotappeartoimprovethedefectpotential
sincetherefractoryoxidelayerremainsbehindtoform in-
clusionsorlack-of-fusiondefects.

The obviousconclusionfrom these r e s u l t s i s t h a t

c o n v e n t i o n a ls o d i u mh y d r o x i d e - n i t r i ca c i ds u r f a c ep r e p a r a t i o n s
s h o u l d n o t be u s e d t o p r e p a r e 2014 and 2 2 1 9 aluminum a l l o y s
f o rw e l d i n g .I fu s e d , the s u r f a c es h o u l d be d e o x i d i z e db e f o r e
welding.

6. A n o d i z e dS u r f a c e sA
. n o d i z e ds u r f a c el a y e r sc o n s i s t
o fp o r o u s ,h y d r a t e d , A1203 f i l m s . The w a t e ro fh y d r a t i o n
tends t o i n c r e a s e i n direct proportiontothefilmthickness
such t h a t a f t e r a 1 5 s e c o n d s u l f u r i c a c i d a n o d i z i n g t r e a t m e n t
t h ew a t e rc o n c e n t r a t i o ne x c e e d s 0 . 7 pg/cm2; a f t e r 1 minute
t h ec o n c e n t r a t i o ne x c e e d s 1 . 0 yg/cm
2
.
The w e l d - d e f e c tp o t e n -
t i a l o fa n o d i z e ds u r f a c e s i s v e r yh i g h .L a c k - o f - f u s i o n ,

5-44
oxideinclusi.ons,andporosity are produced by t h e p r e s e n c e
o fa n o d i cl a y e r s .C o m p l e t er e m o v a lo fa n o d i z e ds u r f a c e s is
essentialtoachievelow-defectpotential.

7. S u r-.f a c e s Produced by Mechanical Wire Brushinq,

S c r a p i n g ,a n dG r i n d i n g .S u r f a c ep r o c e d u r e sw h i c h employ
abrasivemethodssuchasgrinding,or wire brushingand
scraping cannot be relied upon t o p r o d u c e a minimum d e f e c t
p o t e n t i a lc o n d i t i o n .S u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a n t st e n dt o become
imbedded o r r e d i s t r i b u t e d o n t h e s u r f a c e r a t h e r t h a n removed.
The g r i n d i n g w h e e l , b r u s h , o r s c r a p i n g b l a d e a l s o become
loaded so thatcontaminantsfromonesurfaceregion are t r a n s -
f e r r e dt oa n o t h e r .C o n t a m i n a t e ds u r f a c el a y e r sm u s tb ec u t
a n dc l e a n l ye x c i s e df r o mt h eu n d e r l y i n g material. Wire
brushingandgrindingcannotbeexpectedtoaccomplish this,
scraping is only partially effective.

T h e r m a l l yD e s o r b e dS u r f a c e sS. u r f a c ea d s o r p t i o no f
8.
liquidsandvapors may b e p a r t i a l l y r e v e r s e d by e l e v a t e d -
t e m p e r a t u r ed e s o r p t i o n treatments. However, such t r e a t m e n t s
a r e n o te n t i r e l ye f f e c t i v e .C h e m i c a l l ya d s o r b e ds p e c i e s may
n o td e s o r b ,i n s t e a dt h e yu n d e r g oi r r e v e r s i b l es u r f a c e reac-
t i o n s w h i c h may w o r s e n r a t h e r t h a n i m p r o v e t h e w e l d - d e f e c t
p o t e n t i a l .T h i st y p eo f damaging r e a c t i o na p p e a r st oo c c u r
withNaOH-treatedandwithtrichloroethylene-rinsedsurfaces.
F u r t h e r m o r e ,t h e r m a ld e s o r p t i o n w i l l n o t remove o x i d e l a y e r s
a n dc a ni n s t e a dp r o d u c et h i c k e ro x i d e s .C o n s e q u e n t l y ,t h e r m a l
desorptioncannotbeconsideredas a generally beneficial
treatment andmustbeevaluatedforeachindividual s e t of
conditions.

9. High-Frequency
. . .
Sparked
Surfaces.
High-frequency
sparkingcanbeeffectivelyusedtolocallydesorb a surface.
Surfaceadsorbedspecies are d e s o r b e d a n d d i s s o c i a t e d u n d e r

5-45
a high-frequency spark and even chemisorbed species may be
removed.However, r e f r a c t o r yo x i d el a y e r s are n o te f f e c t i v e l y
dispersed by sparking and the high defect potential due to
t h i ss o u r c eo fc o n t a m i n a t i o n w i l l t e n dt or e m a i n . High-
f r e q u e n c ys p a r k i n ga l s op r o d u c e s a v e r yi r r e g u l a r ,s p o n g y
s u r f a c ew h i c hh a sv e r yh i g ha d s o r p t i o np o t e n t i a l . The s u r -
face must be protected from vapor and liquid exposure other-
wise even more severe c o n t a m i n a t i o n may r e s u l t .

10. Surfaces Produced by Combined

-~ Treat-
ments. Ordinarily,
"i__

the preparation of precipitation-hardenable aluminum a l l o y s

f o rw e l d i n gi n v o l v e s many i n d i v i d u a lp r o c e s s i n gs t e p s . Some
a r ep l a n n e d as " c l e a n i n g "p r o c e s s e s ,w h e r e a s some are used
f o r o t h e rr e a s o n s( e . g . ,h e a t - t r e a t m e n t ,a d h e s i v eb o n d i n g ,
c o r r o s i o np r o t e c t i o n , e t c . ) . Each p r o c e s sa n dr e l a t e ds t o r a g e
c o n d i t i o n w i l l produce a d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e which may p o s s e s s
improved o r d e g r a d e d d e f e c t p o t e n t i a l compared t o t h e p r i o r
c o n d i t i o n .G e n e r a l l y ,t h ed e f e c tp o t e n t i a l i s i n c r e a s e di n
acompounded manner. The complexity of s u r f a c er e a c t i o n s
makes i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o p r e d i c t o r
m e a s u r es y n e r g i s t i ce f f e c t s . The w e l d - d e f e c tp o t e n t i a l may
be assessed bymeans ofthehorizontalspot-weld test.
U n d o u b t e d l y ,t h es a f e s tp r o c e d u r et o minimize weld-defect
p o t e n t i a l i s t o m e c h a n i c a l l y remove p r i o r s u r f a c e s u s i n g a n
" u n d e r c u t t i n g "p r o c e s s . The low d e f e c tp o t e n t i a lo f" a s -
m a c h i n e d " s u r f a c e s may t h e r e b y be a c h i e v e d .

5-46
 5.4 Composition of Base Plate and Filler Metal

Another possible sourceof porosity is some variables

in the composition of base plateor filler metal. Study 2
conducted at Battelle Memorial Institute has revealed that
composition of base plate and filler metal should cause
little problem.C9,lO)

Research Procedures. The study was conducted in two

phases. During the first phase, an evaluation was made of
the effectson weld-defect potential of four factors:
1) Shielding-gas moisture content
2) Alloying elements
3) Metallic impurities
4) Internal hydrogen content.
*
Two experimental base-metal alloys, X2014-T6 and X2219-T87
in 1/4- and 3/4-inch-thick plates, and two experimental filler
wires X4043 and X2319 were used. Battelleset the alloy
content at oneof two levels, classified as high and low.
Alloying elements at the low level were near the specified
minimum and impurity elements were almost nonexistent.
Battelle prepared 38 separate experimental compositions.
In the secondp h a s e , commercial-alloy base plates were
used, and they were welded with experimental filler wires.
Figure 5-17 shows the range of compositions for twenty-one
2014-T651 base plates.
In both phases, bead-on-plate welds were made by the
GTA process in the horizontal position. Welds were made
in
a chamber, which had been vacuum-purged and filled with
helium. With this set-up, water vapor could be added as a
shielding-gas contaminant.

5-47
 ALLOYING ELEMENTS
COPPER

SI LlCON

MANGANESE

MAGNESIUM

cn
i
METALLIC
IMPURITY
rp ELEMENTS 13
00
IRON 0. .2 , ' 1 b o

ZINC 0
1 %2 , I6 12 2
035
9 12
TITANIUM 01. Obl5

CHROMIUM

NOTE: NUMERAL INDICATES NUMBER OF HEATS THAT FALL WITHIN EACH INTERVAL.

Figure 5-17. Ranges ofcompositionfor 2014T651 base platewelding (3'.

 Findings. A statistical analysis was employed to study
the effects of the experimental variableson weld porosity.
Battelle investigators concluded that the base-plate and
filler-metal compositions are not likely to be significant
sources of porosity as long as (1) shielding gas and surface
contamination are controlled at low levels (2) and base
plates and filler metals are carefully prepared to meet the
present specification with no gross hydrogen contamination.
On the basis of findings, there is apparently no reason to
change the presentNASA specification fdr base-plate and
filler-metal compositions.

5-49
 nd Porosity
Eliminating ." ~

I n t h e NASA research program on welding aluminum,

several a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o developmethods for c o n t r o l l i n g
a n de l i m i n a t i n gp o r o s i t y . The f o l l o w i n gp a g e sd i s c u s s :

1. S u r f a c eh y d r o g e na n a l y s i s
2. S u r f a c pe r e p a r a t i o n
3. M o n i t o r i n gs h i e l d i n gg a sp u r i t y
4. O t h e rm e t h o d si n c l u d i n g (1) u s eo fh y d r o g e ng e t t e r s ,
( 2 ) magnetic arc s h a p e r a n d m o l t e n metal stirrer,
and ( 3 ) c r y o g e n i cc o o l i n g .

S u r f a c e Hvdrocren A n a l y s i s ( 4 , 2 8 )

A researchprogram was conducted a t t h e B o e i n g Company

todeterminethelevel of hydrogencontamination of t h e
metal s u r f a c e .

Background.The s p e c i f i cp r o b l e mp r o m p t i n gt h i si n v e s -
tigation i s the porosity found in the horizontal w e l d made
when j o i n i n g two s e c t i o n s o f t h e 33 f t d i a m e t e rS a t u r nB o o s t e r
( F i g u r e s 5-18 and5-19). The t o o l i n gs e t u p i s shown i n
F i g u r e s 5-18 and5-19; the t i m e requiredinjigging up t h e
entirepart i s a b o u te i g h th o u r s . The t w o p a r t s are h e l d by
Hawthornclamps p o s i t i o n e de v e r y s i x inchesalongthejoint.
Most of t h e t i m e i s s p e n t p l a c i n g a n d a d j u s t i n g t h e s e c l a m p s .
Thiscut was a t f i r s t a s l o t b u t t h e n a l t e r e d by t a p e r i n g t h e
e d g e st op r e v e n te n t r a p m e n to fc o n t a m i n a t i o n . When t h ec l a m p s
are a d j u s t e d t o r e d u c e t h e m i s f i t t o a minimum, a t a c k weld
i s made betweeneachclampone after the other a s th?clamps
a r e removed. A f t e r a l l theclampshavebeenremoved,the
j o i n t i s welded i n o n e c o n t i n u o u s p a s s , i f p o s s i b l e , c o v e r i n g
a l l t h et a c k sa n dt h eg a p sl e f t by t h ec l a m ps l o t s . Some

5- 50
Figure 5-1 8. Welding head and local tooling clamps in position for making horizontal weld i n 160 inch diameter tank.
T
O I 2 3 4 5 6 \

Figure 5-19. Two pieces of 1/2 inch aluminum plate aligned for welding using local tooling clamp.
welds showed c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r o s i t y , some o fw h i c ha p p e a r st o
be associated with the clamp slot location.

Test welds made a t NASA d i d n o t p r o d u c e p o r o s i t y when

t h e same m a t e r i a l s w e r e used.These test welds w e r e p r e p a r e d
i n t h e same way w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of clamp s l o t s , t a c k w e l d s ,
m i s f i t , a n dt h el e n g t h yh a n d l i n ga n d metal-to-metal rubbing
atthejoint. Thus t h ec o n c l u s i o n was r e a c h e dt h a tc l a m p
slots, t a c k s , j o i n t m i s f i t and metal movement c o n t r i b u t e t o
the observed porosity.

The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e S a t u r n w e l d s ,

e x h i b i t i n gp o r o s i t ya n dt h e t e s t w e l da r e :F i r s t ,t h el a r g e
a m o u n t ’ o fh a n d l i n go ft h es u r f a c e i n p r e p a r i n gS a t u r nw e l d -
ments.Second,tackweldsare known t o p r o d u c es u r f a c ec o n -
t a m i n a t i o nt h a tc a nl e a dt op o r o s i t y .T h i r d ,c o n s i d e r a b l e
r u b b i n ga n da b r a d i n go ff a y i n gs u r f a c e so c c u r r e dd u r i n gs e t - u p .
Theseconditionsresultinchemicalchangesinthesur-
f a c e ,c h a n g e st h a tc o u l di n v o l v eh y d r o g e na n d ,t h e r e f o r e ,
c o u l dp r o d u c ep o r o s i t y . Even t h o u g hw h i t eg l o v e s are w o r n ,
t h e t i m e p e r i o d i s longenough f o r s e v e r e c o n t a m i n a t i o n t o
o c c u r . Tack weldscould r e s u l t i n p o r o s i t yf o r m i n g a s u r f a c e
d e p o s i t . Whenevertwoaluminum s u r f a c e sa r er u b b e de n o u g h
to cause galling, t h e new m e t a l e x p o s e d c a n r e a c t w i t h w a t e r
p r e s e n t i n t h e a i r .I fs u f f i c i e n tm o i s t u r e i s p r e s e n t ,t h e
g a l l e d m e t a l can b e p o c k e t s o f h i g h h y d r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n
and t h u sl e a dt op o r o s i t yd u r i n gw e l d i n g s .T h e s ec o n s i d e r a -
t i o n s l e d t o a series of t e s t s u t i l i z i n g t h e measurementof
surfacehydrogen.

O p~- e r a t i o n of Analyzer. The s u r f a c e a n a l y s i s was c a r r i e d

out using a verysensitivehydrogendetectorrecentlydevel-
oped by Das andStrobeltunderBoeingfunded R & D program.
The i n s t r u m e n t i s c a p a b l e o f d e t e c t i n g b u l k as w e l l a s s u r -
face hydrogen i n m e t a l s andhas a d e t e c t i o n s e n s i t i v i t y of

5- 53
as l o w as f e w p a r t s p e r b i l l i o n i n a g a s stream. B e s i d e s
having a h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y t h i s i n s t r u m e n t i s unique from t h e
p o i n t of view o f s i m p l i c i t y of h a n d l i n g a n d l o w cost i n v e s t -
ment. I t i s simpleenough t o b eu s e d f o r a no n - l i n e or in-
processinspectionon a continuous basis i n a manufacturing
operation, or usedfordefiningproceduresfor a specific
manufacturingprocess.

A s c h e m a t i c of t h e surface hydrogenanalyzer i s shown

i nF i g u r e 5-20.The p l a t eu n d e r t e s t i s f a s t e n e ds e c u r e l y
on a s p a r kc h a m b e ra n ds e a l e d by means of a n ''0" r i n g .T h i s
a p p a r a t u s i s shown i n F i g u r e 5-21. The s p a r ku s e d to extract
hydrogen i s l o w e n e r g y ,s u p p l i e db y a h i g hv o l t a g e ,h i g h
impedance d i r e c t c u r r e n t power s u p p l y . The e n e r g ys u p p l i e d
(z. 5 w a t t s ) i s n o t enough t o v a p o r i z e a measurable amount
o f metal. The h y d r o g e nt h u sl i b e r a t e d i s d i r e c t e d t o an
activated palladium barrier under a positive pressure of high
p u r i t ya r g o n ( c a r r i e r g a s ) . The p a l l a d i u mb a r r i e r l e t s o n l y
hydrogenpermeatethrough i t w h i l eb e i n gi m p e r m e a b l et oa r g o n .
On t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b a r r i e r i s a ni o n pump. Thus, t h e
palladium barrier has a h i g h vacuum o n o n e s i d e o f i t andone
a t m o s p h e r ep r e s s u r eo nt h eo t h e rs i d e . The vacuum i n t h e i o n
pump chamber i s measured by t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e pump and
i s recordedon a s t r i pc h a r tr e c o r d e r . Once t h e pump h a s
r e a c h e d i t s b a s e vacuum any d i f f u s i o n o f h y d r o g e n t h r o u g h t h e
p a l l a d i u mb a r r i e r w i l l r e s u l t i n a n i n c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t . The
currentthroughthe pump i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
pressure,whichestablishes a relationshipbetweenthe amount
ofhydrogen i nt h eg a s stream a n dt h e pump c u r r e n t .T h i s
makes i t p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e t h e amountofhydrogen in a
ga.s streamfroman unknown s o u r c e .
C a l i b r a t i o n i s performedbyusinganelectrolysis cell
t o g e n e r a t e known amountsofhydrogen. The e l e c t r o l y t e
used i s a s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n of potassiumhydroxide. The

5- 54
i

PARTBEINGTESTED
"0" RING
\
T
r
LOW
ENERGY I
ARC ION P U "

HIGH VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLY

I
VOLTACF
"- "
ppn
THRU
7
x \ STAINLESS
STEEL CLIP II II
L I 1
I I
J
I/
II
TO FLOWMETER

3
HYDROGEN
60 GENERATOR
ELECTROCHEMICAL

DRY
ARGON

Figure 5-20. Schematic of surface hydrogen measurementequipment.

Figure 5-2 1 . Spark chamber for surface hydrogen analysis.

5- 56
hydrogenthusgenerated i s mixedwithpureargonanddirected
t o w a r d st h ep a l l a d i u mf o i l . A c a r r i e r gasflowof 1 0 0 cc/min.
w a s u s e dt h r o u g h o u tt h e s e tests. The t e m p e r a t u r eo ft h e
p a l l a d i u m f o i l i s m a i n t a i n e d a t a b o u t 560° C f o r a d e q u a t e
d i f f u s i o no fh y d r o g e nt h r o u g ht h e f o i l . By v a r y i n g t h e c u r r e n t
i n t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s c e l l t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e i o n pump can be
calibrated. 7 6 . 5 p a r t sp e rm i l l i o no fh y d r o g e n are c a r r i e d
throughinthegas stream a t a flow of 1 0 0 cc/min. p e r d . c .
m i l l i a m p e r et h r o u g ht h e c e l l . Once t h ed e t e c t o r i s c a l i b r a t e d
i n t h i s manner, i t i s a simple matter t o estimate q u a n t i t a t i v e
amountsofhydrogen i n t h e g a s stream froman unknown s o u r c e .
F i g u r e 5-22shows thecalibrationcurveforthedetector
as o b t a i n e d u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s g i v e n b e l o w :
T o t a lf l o w r a t e ( 5 0 c c / m i n .t h r o u g ht h ee l e c t r o l y t i c
c e l l and 50 cc/min.throughthesparkchamber)ofargon =
1 0 0 cc/min. P a l l a d i u md i s ct e m p e r a t u r e -- 5 6 0 ° C.
The c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e in
shows t h e d e t e c t o r r e s p o n s e
microamperes a s a f u n c t i o n of h y d r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of ppm
i n the carriergasstreamasgenerated by t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s
cell. I t i s o b s e r v e dt h a tb e l o w 2 0 ppm of hydrogenconcen-
trationinthegasstream t h e curvedeviatesslightlyfrom
linearity. T h i s i s because t h e e f f i c i e n c yo f t h e i o n pump
f o r hydrogen a t such low c o n c e n t r a t i o n l e v e l s i s reduced.
Since the d a t a i n t h e entire calibrationrange i s q u i t e
repeatable,thenon-linearitydoesnotaffectthe surface
hydrogenanalysis.
Once t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e d e t e c t o r i s performed,
extreme care i s e x e r c i s e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e same c o n d i t i o n s
o fp a l l a d i u md i s ct e m p e r a t u r ea n da r g o ng a s f l o w to insure
c o n s i s t e n tr e s u l t s . When s u r f a c ea n a l y s i s i s c a r r i e do u t ,
it i s n e c e s s a r y t o have a c o n s t a n t b a c k g r o u n d o f . 0 5 ma
t h r o u g ht h ee l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l ( 4 ppm) t o m a i n t a i n d e t e c t o r
sensitivity. Argon i s s u p p l i e df r o m a b o t t l e o fh i g hp u r i t y

5- 57
 2 80

2 60

2 40

220

B2 2oo
180
H
c
z 160

2w 140
B
s 120
p:
0
w
w”w 100
w
a
80

60

40

20

0 L -
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
110
120 130 140
PPM OF HYDROGEN IN GAS STREAM

Figure 5-22. Calibration of hydrogendetector.

5- 58’
l i q u i da r g o n .S i n c et h et e m p e r a t u r eo fl i q u i da r g o n i s -193' C
there i s v e r y l i t t l e w a t e r p r e s e n t , s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,
less t h a n
o n ep a r tp e rm i l l i o n . All surfacemeasurements were made on
b a r e 7075-T6 aluminum a l l o y s a m p l e s p r e p a r e d by v a p o r d e g r e a s i n g
andalkalinecleaning.
F i g u r e 5-23 shows a t y p i c a lr e s u l t .W i t h i n a few seconds
a f t e r t u r n i n g on t h e power t o t h e s p a r k s o u r c e , a n initial
peak i s n o t e d .A f t e ra b o u t 3 t o 5 m i n u t e so fc o n t i n u o u sa r c i n g
t h ec u r v eb e g i n st of a l lo f f .W i t h i n 30 minutes i t r e a c h e s a
c o n s t a n t l e v e l and f u r t h e r a r c i n g p r o d u c e s no change i n t h e
curve. I t i s b e l i e v e dt h a tt h ei n i t i a lh i g hh y d r o g e np e a k is
due t o s u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n . The p o r t i o n of t h e c u r v e a f t e r
thepeakshouldthenberepresentative of a c l e a n s u r f a c e .
When t h e power i s s h u t o f f , t h e s i g n a l level i s o b s e r v e dt o
d r o pb a c kt ot h eo r i g i n a lb a c k g r o u n d l e v e l . I f t h e power i s
s u b s e q u e n t l yt u r n e do n , no l a r g e i n i t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e hy-
drogen l e v e l w a s o b s e r v e d , t h e r e b y f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
s u r f a c e c o n t a m i n a t i o n wasremovedby the i n i t i a l power a p p l i -
cation. I t i s f u r t h e ro b s e r v e dt h a tt h es i g n a l level a f t e r
t h ep e a k i s c o n s i d e r a b l yh i g h e rt h a nt h eb a c k g r o u n d level.
Thissuggeststhat some hydrogen i s b e i n g e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e
i n t e r i o r o ft h em e t a l . The d i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt h ep e a kc u r r e n t
and t h e c u r r e n t a t 30 minutes ( A I ) i s u s e da s a f i r s t a p p r o x i -
m a t i o no ft h es u r f a c eh y d r o g e nd e t e c t e d . A more e x a c tv a l u e
wouldbeobrainedfromtheincreaseinareaunderthe curve,
measuredon a c l e a n e d s u r f a c e .
The v a l u e o f AI for c l e a n e d aluminumwas found t o b e
9 3 k 32. T h i s i s anaverage of 1 5 measurementson separate
p i e c e s of t h e same a l l o y .A l t h o u g ha l ls a m p l e s were c l e a n e d
t h e same way a t one t i m e , t h e r e was a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e o b s e r v e d
v a l u e of A I fromonesample t o t h en e x t .T h i sv a r i a t i o nc o u l d
bedue t o the complexrelationshipbetweenadsorbed water and
o x i d ef i l m .

5-59
 160

140

120

100

h
4
a
W

w 80
rn
z
0
a
rn
2
%
E-r
60
V
w
H
w
n

40

20

0
0 lC 30
TIME IN MINUTES

Figure 5-23. Typicalresult of arcingaluminum alloy surface.

5- 60
 A l l measurements were s t a r t e d w i t h i n one minute after
t h e t e s t sample w a s mounted on the spark chamberandargon
f l o wa d j u s t e d . T h i s was done t o p r e v e n t a change i n s u r f a c e
due t o t h e e f f e c t of dry argon found t o o c c u r a f t e r 30 minutes
o fe x p o s u r e o

SurfaceMeasurements.Figure 5-24 shows the d e t e c t o r

responseofanaluminumplate w i t h adsorbed water, The plate
was f l o o d e d w i t h d i s t i l l e d water and a i r d r i e d u n t i l the
v i s i b l e traces of water d i s a p p e a r e d .T h i s was accomplished
in a b o u t 9 0 seconds. When the p l a t e was allowed t o d r y f o r
longerperiodsof time t h e v a l u e of AT d r o p s t o t h a t o b t a i n e d
w i t h a nu n t r e a t e dp l a t e . The AI v a l u e f o r t h e u n t r e a t e dp l a t e
was 155 while a f t e r d r y i n g i n a i r f o r 1, 1 . 5 ,a n d 3 h o u r s t h e
v a l u e s were 85, 60, and 170 r e s p e c t i v e l y ( e q u a l w l t h i n e x p e r i -
mentalerror).

T h i s series o f m e a s u r e m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e r e l a t i v e
speed a t which w e t aluminum dries a n d r e a c h e s e q u i l i b r i u m
w i t h m o i s t u r ei nt h e air, The atmosphereof the laboratory
i n which these measurements were made i s c o n t r o l l e d t o 50%
relativehumidityand 21" C t e m p e r a t u r e ,
Since scraping t h e s u r f a c e i s a common methodused in
preparationforwelding, it is necessarytomeasurethe
amountof s u r f a c e water b e f o r e and a f t e r s c r a p i n g . The re-
s u l t s of three d i f f e r e n t p l a t e s showedno d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
s c r a p e da n du n s c r a p e ds u r f a c eh y d r o g e nl e v e l s . The AI v a l u e s
were 119 and 135, 59 and 105, 9 0 and 73 r e p r e s e n t i n g b e f o r e
and a f t e r s c r a p i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y , These are a l l w i t h i n e x p e r i -
mentalerrorof t h e same v a l u e .

These two e x p e r i m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e the r a p i d i t y w i t h

which water adsorbed on aluminum reaches e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h
water i n the atmosphere. These v a l u e sc o u l d be a f f e c t e d t o

5-61
 2050

500

400
2
0
F4

i
P;
300
u
w
Fl
w
n

200

100

d
15 30
TIME I N MINUTES

Figure 5-24. Hydrogen resulting from surface water.

5- 62
I.

a l i m i t e d e x t e n t by changes i n h u m i d i t y , h o w e v e r , it a p p e a r s
t h a t a d s o r b e d water i s n o t a p o t e n t i a l l y severe problem.

Tack
__ Welds
_
".__ As .~a.... Source of SurfaceContamination
.

Tack welds were p r e p a r e d u s i n g a h a n d h e l d t o r c h w i t h

h e l i u ms h i e l dg a s . The measurements were made 4.5minutes
a f t e r welding. The f o l l o w i n g AI v a l u e s w e r e o b t a i n e d :
Alternating current with filler wire -- 195ua
Direct c u r r e nwt i t h filler w i r e " 65 ua
Direct c u r r e n tw i t h o u tf i l l e r wire -- 80 ua
Direct r e p e a t " 85 ua
The A I v a l u eo f1 9 5f o ra n a.c. t a c k w e l d r e p r e s e n t s a
c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l above t h a t f o u n d f o r a n u n t r e a t e d s u r f a c e .
However, t h e o t h e r t h r e e v a l u e s do n o t r e p r e s e n t a n i n c r e a s e
i nc o n t a m i n a t i o n . The f a c t t h a t t h e o n e t a c k w e l d showed a
slightincreaseincontaminationsuggests a p o s s i b l ep r o b l e m
butperhapsnot a seriousoneundertheconditions of t h e s e
t e s t s . O t h e rc o n d i t i o n s may produceproblemsbutwould
r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l y more e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e i f a
p r o b l e md o e se x i s t .

Handling A s a S o u r c eo fS u r f a c eC o n t a m i n a t i o n . With t h e
s u r f a c eh y d r o g e nd e t e c t o r , it i s p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e s m a l l
amountsofhydrogen o r h y d r o g e n c o n t a i n i n g m a t e r i a l such as
o i l and g r e a s ed e p o s i t e d as a r e s u l to fh a n d l i n g .I nt h i s
series o fe x p e r i m e n t s ,m e a s u r e m e n t so fs u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n
were made o f f i n g e r p r i n t s , c l e a n g l o v e p r i n t s , a n d u s e d
glove prints.
F i n g e r p r i n t s made by t w o d i f f e r e n t subjects w e r e
measuredwiththefollowing results:
Subject A A I = 1455 ua
Subject A, r e p e a t A I = 1570ua
Subject B AI = 975 ua

5- 63
The hands of s u b j e c t A were r e l a t i v e l y c l e a n a n d d r y , a normal
condition, while the hands of subject B were washed with
a
detergent, rinsed thoroughly with distilled water, a n d d r i e d
w i t h a c l e a n t o w e l b e f o r e making t h e f i n g e r p r i n t .

Sincethenormalprocedureforshop work i s t o u s e w h i t e
cottongloves when h a n d l i n g material f o r c r i t i c a l w e l d s , s u r -
face contamination measurements w e r e made o f f i n g e r p r i n t s
u s i n gw h i t ec o t t o ng l o v e s . The f i n g e r p r i n t s were made w i t h
new c l e a n g l o v e s a n d g l o v e s t h a t h a d b e e n worn f o r v a r i o u s
l e n g t h so f time. These t e s t s were made b ys u b j e c t B:

New, c l e ga lno v epsa, i r A A I = 2 0 0 ua

a n o t h e rp a i r new g l o v e s p
, air B A I = 335 ua
g l o v e worn f o r0 . 5h o u r s ,p a i r C A I = 360 ua
g l o v e worn f o r 1 . 0 h o u r s ,p a i r A A I = 455 ua
g l o v e worn f o r 1 . 5 h o u r s ,p a i r B A I = 435 ua
g l o v e worn f o r 2 . 0 h o u r s ,p a i r B A I = 4 2 0 ua
undetermined t i m e , p a i r D A I = 425 ua

Thesegloves were worn i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y u n d e r n o r m a l w o r k i n g

c o n d i t i o n s : no e f f o r t w a s made t o e i t h e r k e e p them e s p e c i a l l y
c l e a no r t o c o n t a m i n a t e them w i t hg r e a s e o r o i l . T h e s ed a t a
c l e a r l y show t h a t c o n t a m i n a t i o n c a n n o t be avoidedeventhrough
t h eu s eo fw h i t ec o t t o ng l o v e s . While c o t t o ng l o v e sr e d u c e
t h e l e v e l ofContaminationby a s u b s t a n t i a l amount,theconta-
mination l e v e l r e s u l t i n gf r o me v e n new g l o v e s i n d i c a t e s a
severe p o t e n t i a l f o r p o r o s i t yi ft h ef a y i n gs u r f a c eh a sb e e n
touched. Our w e l d i n gf o r e m a ns t a t e dt h a tp e r h a p s w e would
h a v ec l e a n e rw e l d s i fw h i t eg l o v e s were n o tu s e d . Then t h e
mechanics would realize that they were p o s i t i v e l y n o t t o
touchthejoints.

U s e of Freon to Remove
~. C o- n t. "a" m
.
ination. Since the most
likely source of s u r f a c e h y d r o g e n a p p e a r s t o be o r g a n i c
ratherthanabsorbed water, a c l e a n i n g m e t h o d i n v o l v i n g a

5- 64
s o l v e n tr i n s em i g h t be i n o r d e r . A l i k e l yc h o i c ef o rs o l v e n t
i s "Freon"113 (C,C13F3) s i n c e i t d o e sn o tc o n t a i nh y d r o g e n
and i s a good g e n e r a l s o l v e n t . I n o r d e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
no problemwould be e n c o u n t e r e d i n u s i n g " F r e o r i ' 1 1 3 , s e v e r a l
measurements were made o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n r e m a i n i n g a f t e r
u s e ." F r e o n "u s e df o rt h i s series of t e s t s h a db e e nd i s t i l l e d
t o ensurenohydrocarboncontamination. The t e s t sample w a s
floodedwith"Freon" as might be done i n washing a p a r t i n
p r e p a r a t i o nf o rw e l d i n g . The "Freon" w a s not,however,wiped
on a s i s sometimesdone s i n c e c o n t a m i n a t i o n i s n o t as e a s i l y
removedby t h i s method. Two measurements of A I a f t e r washing
w i t h" F r e o n " 1 1 3 g a v ev a l u e so f 35 and 6 0 , e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
equaltothevalueof A I beforetreatment.

"Freon"113prepared by d i s t i l l a t i o n i n t h e sameway,
w a s u s e d t o wash w e l d j o i n t s ( d e s c r i b e d b e l o w ) p r i o r t o
welding. I n o r d e rt op r o p e r l y wash t h e j o i n t a p o l y e t h y l e n e
s q u e e z e b o t t l e w a s used t o d i r e c t t h e stream of"Freon1' i n t o
the weld joint.Afterthebottle was i n u s e f o r a b o u t a week
t h es u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n was againchecked.This time a A I
v a l u eo f 3735uawasfound i n d i c a t i n g a s e v e r e l yc o n t a m i n a t e d
surface. I t w a s a p p a r e n tt h a tt h e" F r e o n " had become c o n t a -
minatedfrom t h e p o l y e t h y l e n e b o t t l e e v e n t h o u g h t h e bottle
w a s new. To check t h i sc o n c l u s i o n t h e b o t t l e w a s r i n s e d
s e v e r a l times w i t h "Freon"then l e t s t a n d f o r a b o u t 4 days.
This"Freon" was compared t o t h e o r i g i n a l " F r e o n " w i t h a
Beckman I R - 1 2 i n f r a r e ds p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r . The o r i g i n a l
" F r e o n " c o n t a i n e d no h y d r o c a r b o n s w h i l e t h a t stored i n t h e
p o l y e t h y l e n eb o t t l ec o n t a i n e d1 5 4 ppm. T h e s ed a t ac l e a r l y
demonstratetheneedforcarefulhandlingof"Freon"orany
o t h e rs o l v e n tf o rt h i su s e . A metal c o n t a i n e r w i t h no o r g a n i c
p a r t s would be r e q u i r e d t o p r e v e n t c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h i s n a t u r e .

5- 65
 S i g n i f i c a n c e of 'AX Values. T t i s p o s s i b l e t o make a n
estimate of t h e amount of h y d r o g e n f r o m t h e o b s e r v e d v a l u e
of A I . The a r e au n d e rt h ec u r v e i s r e l a t e d t o t o t a l amount
ofhydrogenremovedfrom t h e s u r f a c e by t h e f o l l o w i n g
equations :

-i tx E
2 96,500 =

x 22,400 = v
2

The a r e a o f
a t r i a n g u l a rp e a k i s i t / 2 andhas t h e u n i t s of
coulombs when i i s i n amperesand t i ns e c o n d s . Coulombs
d i v i d e d by 9 6 , 5 0 0 a n d m u l t i p l i e d by e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t
(1.00 f o rh y d r o g e n )g i v e sw e i g h ti n grams of m a t e r i a l . When
t h i s i s m u l t l p l i e d by E , e f f i c i e n c y of the pump andpalladium
f o i l ( 1 0 0 i n t h i se x p e r i m e n t ) t h e w e i g h t o f h y d r o g e np r e s e n t
i n t h eg a s stream a t a n yo n ei n s t a n t i s o b t a i n e d .D i v i d i n g
t h e weightby t h e m o l e c u l a rw e i g h t (2,OO f o rh y d r o g e n )a n d
22,400 t h e volume of hydrogen i n c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s a t s t a n d a r d
t e m p e r a t u r ea n dp r e s s u r e i s o b t a i n e d . For a AI v a l u eo f 1000
t h i sc a l c u l a t i o ng i v e s 1.4 cc. T h i sv a l u e of 1.4 cc depends
on t h e shape of' t h e c u r r e n t - t i m e c u r v e a n d c o u l d be much
larger for the same v a l u e o f A I .

I n a l i k e manner t h e amountofhydrogendepositedfrom
a s i n g l e f i n g e r p r i n t w h i l e wearing a new c o t t o n g l o v e i s
0.4 cc. This i s purehydrogen: i f i t were d i s t r i b u t e d
throughone l i t e r , i t would be 400 ppm. T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n
c l e a r l y shows t h a t any type of h a n d l i n g o f t h e weld metal
whether gloves are worn o r n o t , w i l l produceenoughconta-
mination to result in weld porosity.

Cleaning. dramati-
The r e s u l t s of w e l d i n ga f t e rc l e a n i n g
callydemonstratesthe r o l e of s u r f a c e c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n p o r o -
sityformationandeaseofremoval by t h e p r o p e r u s e o f

5-66
solvents. Welds were h a n d l e da n dt h e nc l e a n e d ,w i t hp o r o s i t y
o c c u r r i n gi no n l yo n eo ft h e six w e l d s .T h i sh a n d l i n gp r o c e s s
w i t h o u tc l e a n i n gr e s u l t e di nm e a s u r a b l ep o r o s i t y . The welds
made a f t e r c l e a n i n g b u t n o t h a n d l i n g h e l p s u b s t a n e i a t e t h e
correlation between surface hydrogen measurements and poro-
sity. Only two w e l d so ft e n showed p o r o s i t y a f t e r t r e a t m e n t
w i t ht h e" F r e o n " .C e r t a i nw e l d s w e r e excluded f r o m c o n s i d e r a -
t i o n b e c a u s e a l l w e r e cleanedwith"Freon"113contaminated
w i t h unknown amounts of hydrocarbons from the polyethylene
bottle. N o s t a t e m e n t sc a n be made a b o u tt h ec o r r e l a t i o no f
porosityandvariousfactors when t h i s o v e r - r i d i n g f a c t o r is
uncontrolled. I t w a s d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a t "Freon" p i c k e d up
hydro-carbonsfrompolyethylenebut no metal c o n t a i n e r w a s
a v a i l a b l e so p o l y e t h y l e n e w a s u s e d w i t h a r i n s e p r i o r t o
c l e a n i n g .P o l y e t h y l e n ec o n t a i n e r s do n o ta p p e a rt o be ade-
q u a t e .N e v e r t h e l e s s ,t h ef a c tt h a tf i v ew e l d s of s i x showed
no p o r o s i t y a f t e r c l e a n i n g , when t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d i n a
manner t h a t p r o d u c e d p o r o s i t y , d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t p o r o s i t y of
t h i sn a t u r ec a n be a v o i d e d .T h e s ec o n c l u s i o n sa r e summarized
i n t h i s table.

Summary o f P o r o s i t y v s S u r f a c e Hydrogen

S u rCf o
a cned i t i o n AI, ua ( + 3 2 ) Porosity

Untreated 93 -
Scraped 104 No porosity
Tack weld 77 No porosity
Handling with gloves 376 M e a spuo r ar o
b sl ei t y
Hydrocarboncontamination 3735 S i g n i fpiocraonsti t y

The r e l a t i o n s h i p of p o r o s i t y a n d t h e s u r f a c e c o n t a m i n a t i o n
i n d e x , AI, can be s e e n .S c r a p e da n dt a c kw e l d e ds u r f a c e s show
t h e same l e v e l of contaminationand no p o r o s i t y , w h i l e s u r f a c e

5- 67
contamination and porosity both increase when the s u r f a c e i s
t o u c h e dw i t hg l o v e dh a n d .T h i sd e m o n s t r a t e st h a tt h es u r f a c e
c o n t a m i n a t i o ni n d e x , AI, c a nb eu s e d to predictporosity.

Analyticaltechniques for analyzingsurfacecontaminants

were p r e v i o u s l yc o n d u c t e d a t I I T R I . ( 2 0 ) T h r e et e c h n i q u e s were
found t o be e f f e c t i v e i nd e t e c t i n gh y d r o g e nc o n t a m i n a n t s . The
f i r s t one was gaschromatography. I t i s a r e a d i l yc a l i b r a t a b l e
methodwhichcouldmeasureadsorbedsurfacecontaminants. It
does not readily lend itself t o manufacturingapplications
since theinstrumentationandsamplingtechniques are q u i t e
complex.

The s e c o n dt e c h n i q u ei n v o l v e sr a d i o a c t i v e tracers. T h i s
method i s c a p a b l e o f r e v e a l i n g t h e completeadsorption/desorp-
t i o n c y c l e w i t h minimum d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e s u r f a c e b e i n g
measured. The r a d i o a c t i v et r a c e r method,however, i s mainly
a research tool.

The t h i r d t e c h n i q u e was s p a r ke m i s s i o ns p e c t r o s c o p y . It
e s s e n t i a l l yh e a t s ,d e s o r b s ,d i s s o c i a t e s ,a n de x c i t e sc e r t a i n
s p e c i e s which e x i s t on t h e s u r f a c e . The methodofmeasurement
involvesthequantitativedetermination of r e l a t i v e f i l m
d e n s i t i e sp r o d u c e db ye x p o s u r et os p a r ke x c i t e ds p e c t r a .T h i s
sparkemissionmethod of s u r f a c e a n a l y s i s a p p e a r s t o r a t e
s u r f a c e s i n a c c o r d a n c ew i t h t h e i r r e l a t i v e hydrogen-
c o n t a m i n a t i o nl e v e l s .

SurfacePreparation ( 2 0 )

A s t u d y was conducted a t I I T R I t o d e v e l o p new t e c h n i q u e s .

Phase I : C o n c e p t u asl t u d y
toevaluate
and select
s u r f a c ep r e p a r a t i o nt e c h n i q u e sa n ds y s t e m s .

Phase 11: D e s i g na n df a b r i c a t i o ns t u d yt od e v e l o pa n d
fabricate a prototype device for weld s u r f a c e
p r e p a r a t i o n ofaluminumcomponents.

5- 68
 Phase 111: Evaluation study to provide an empirical
evaluation of surfaces prepared with the
prototype device.
The basic concept for the system was to remove contamina
surface layers from weld surfaces and completed parts. There-
fore, all parts must be final, machined with reasonably smoot
A number
surfaces prior to the surface preparation operation.
of requirements were developed for the surface preparation
as follows:
Surfaces must include the abutting edges of the
weld grooves and2 5 . 4 mm (1 in) widths on the
adjoining surf aces.
Weld edges must be on cylinders (longitudinal and
circumferential surfaces) and on elliptical and
hemispherical domes: welds must in be vertical,
horizontal, and inclined curved positions and in
combinations of these positions.
Groove geometry must include all standard configura-
tions including square grooves, single V-grooves,
double V-grooves, and single U-grooves.
Depth of metal removal will be a minimum of
0.127 mm ( 0 . 0 0 5 in).
The finished surface roughness will be a maximum
of 5.08 pm (200 pin) and have a minimum of smeared
metal.
Thicknesses of the aluminum material shouldin be
the rangeof 2.54 mm (0 .lo0 in) to 2 5 . 4 mm (1.00 in).
No lubricants nor any manual work will be permitted.
Other geometrical characteristics will be those that
permit the best welding practices, is, thatminimum
waviness of edge; absence of. burrs; no burning, no
discoloration or contamination of surfaces; and no
gouges, grooves, nicks, or undercuts.

5- 69
 Two t e c h n i q u e s w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r p r e p a r i n g aluminum
w e l ds u r f a c e s :m e c h a n i c a lc l e a n i n ga n d electric discharge
cleaning.Primaryemphasis w a s o nm e c h a n i c a lc l e a n i n g ,s i n c e
the effectiveness of this method w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n a p r e v i o u s
NASA p r o g r a m d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5.3.

Electrical dischargecleaning w a s e v a l u a t e d as a s u p p l e -
mentarymethod t o be u s e d o n l y i f t h e m e c h a n i c a l l y c l e a n e d
s u r f a c e s were a c c i d e n t a l l y c o n t a m i n a t e d Qr exposed t o a humid
a t m o s p h e r ef o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e a f t e r c l e a n i n g . Under t h e s e
conditions a secondmechanicalpreparationstepmightnotbe
p e r m i s s i b l eb e c a u s eo fd i m e n s i o n a lt o l e r a n c e limits ( f o r
example, minimum t h i c k n e s s o r g a p ) : c o n s e q u e n t l y , a n e l e c t r i c a l
dischargedesorptiontreatmentcould be a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r re-
s t o r i n gt h es u r f a c e .I fe f f e c t i v e ,t h ee l e c t r i c a ld i s c h a r g e
desorptiontreatmentwould employ e i t h e r t h e samepower supply
andtorchusedforwelding,oranauxiliary power supplyand
electrodesystemwouldbeusedtoachievetheproperelectric
d i s c h a r g ec o n d i t i o n s .

MechanicalCleaning. A p r a c t i c a ls y s t e mf o rp r e p a r i n g
theweldingsurfacesof aluminum components was developedand
demonstrated. The s y s t e mc o n s i s t so fd r ym i l l i n gt h ea b u t t i n g
e d g e sa n da d j a c e n ts u r f a c e so f aluminum t o removecontaminated
s u r f a c el a y e r sa n de x p o s e a freshsurfacewith a low d e f e c t
potential. A p r o t o t y p ed e v i c e was d e s i g n e da n df a b r i c a t e dt o
d e m o n s t r a t et h ef e a s i b i l i t yo ft h es y s t e m .

The p r o t o t y p e d e v i c e i s d e s i g n e dt os t r a d d l et h ee d g et h a t
is being prepared and to align with the existing edge and ad-
j a c e n ts u r f a c e s of t h e component.Depthof cut is regulated
f r o mt h ee x i s t i n gs u r f a c e s .T h e r e f o r e ,r e a s o n a b l ys m o o t h
existingsurfacesand a uniformthickness a r e r e q u i r e d on t h e
component t h a t i s b e i n g p r e p a r e d .

5- 70
 The d e v i c e i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a n electric d r i v e u n i t to
providetravelandthreeair-operatedmillingmotors to
p r o v i d et h er e q u i r e dm a c h i n i n go p e r a t i o n s . The d r i v e u n i t
p r o v i d e s a mechanizeduniformtravelspeed. The m i l l i n g
motors are a l i g n e d t o machine t h e a b u t t i n g e d g e s a n d a d j a c e n t
s u r f a c e ss i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

The d e v i c e w a s u s e d t o p r e p a r e p l a t e e d g e s w i t h t h e
platesinthehorizontalweldingposition(Figure 5-25),
downhand w e l d i n g p o s i t i o n ( F i g u r e 5 - 2 6 ) , and v e r t i c a l welding
p o s i t i o n( F i g u r e 5-27). When s i m u l a t i n gt h el o w e rs u b a s s e m b l y
of a p a r t i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l w e l d i n g p o s i t i o n , t h e d e v i c e main-
t a i n s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p l a t e due t o g r a v i t y a n d t h e o p e r a t o r
does n o t n e e d t o h o l d t h e u n i t . With p a r t s i n p o s i t i o n f o r
downhand w e l d i n g ,m a n u a lf o r c e i s adequate t o h o l dt h ed e v i c e
i nc o n t a c tw i t ht h es u r f a c e of t h ep a r t .L i k e w i s e ,t h e same
technique i s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r the v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e
d e v i c e moving down t h e component.

The p r o t o t y p e d e v i c e w a s used t o p r e p a r e t h e w e l d s u r f a c e s
of f l a t andcurved aluminum p l a t e s w i t h a s q u a r e b u t t weld
j o i n tc o n f i g u r a t i o n .T h e s es u r f a c e s were e v a l u a t e d on t h e
b a s e s of g a s t u n g s t e n - a r c s p o t a n d seam weldsoundness,
P r o f i c o r d e rm e a s u r e m e n t s ,a n ds c a n n i n ge l e c t r o nm i c r o s c o p y .
R e s u l t s from these e v a l u a t i o n sp r o v e d t h e technique, system,
andprototypedevicetobesatisfactoryfortheintended
application.

E l e c t r i c D i s c h a r g eC l e a n i n q .T h r e ee l e c t i r c a l ' d i s c h a r g e
conditions w e r e investigated:
1) P u l s e dd i r e c t - c u r r e n rt e v e r s e - p o l a r i t y
2) Radiofrequency
3) S t e a d y - s t a t ed i r e c t - c u r r e n rt e v e r s e - p o l a r i t y
Figure 5-25. Unit in position for preparing lower part of an assembly to bewelded in horizontal position.

5-7 2
I

Figure 5-26. Method for holding device on plate for preparing surfaces in down-handwelding position.
Figure 5-27. Methodforsupporting device inpreparingsurfaces in
vertical welding position.

5-74
 Test specimens for electrical discharge cleaning evaluat
were first dry machined to produce a surface defect
lowwith
potential and then deliberately contaminated, retaining some
specimens in the as-machined condition for experimental contr
purposes. The following surface conditions were evaluated:
1) As-machined and carefully stored
2) Alconox degreased
3 ) Chemically cleaned (1 min in 5 w/o NAOH solution
at 18Oo-19O0 F, dipped in demineralized water,
15 sec dip with agitation 5 in0 v/o HN03 to remove
smut, followed by a 1 min rinse in demineralized
water)
4) Trichlorethylene degreased.
Cleaning was performed with conventional gas tungsten-
arc welding equipment mounted on a side beam carriage and
equipped with an oscillator to provide longitudinal and
A photograph
transverse travel over the specimen surfaces.
of a cleaning operation with direct-current reverse-polarity
discharge is shown in Figure
5-28.
Unfortunately, all the electrical discharge cleaning
methods investigated failed to produce surfaces with low wel
defect potential.

Monitorina Shieldina Gas (4,281

Puritv

As discussed earlierin Chapter5.2, it was found during

previous prdgrams that:
1) Small amountof hydrogen about 2 5 0 ppm in the
shielding gas is enough to produce porosity in
aluminum welds

5-75
Figure 5-28. Electric discharge cleaning withdirect-current reverse-polarity discharge.
I.

2) Normal commercial gaseswhich meet t h e c u r r e n t NASA

s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r s h i e l d i n g g a s are s u f f i c i e n t l y p u r e .
However, g a s c o n t a m i n a t i o n c a n o c c u r w i t h i n t h e b o t t l e , es-
p e c i a l l y when i t i s empty, o r b e t w e e n t h e b o t t l e a n d t h e t o r c h
n o z z l e .I n o r d e r t o s u c c e s s f u l l yc o n t r o lw e l d i n gp r o d u c t i o n ,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o m o n i t o r p u r i t y of s h i e l d i n g gas a t t h e t o r c h .

A s t u d y was conducted a t t h e Boeing Company w i t h t h e

f o l l o w i n g objectives:
1) D e f i n et h es h i e l d i n gg a sp r o f i l e s of t y p i c a l
production weld torches
2) D e t e r m i n et h ed e g r e e of c o n t a m i n a t i o ni n t r o d u c e d
i n t o t h e a r c r e g i o n as a r e s u l t of j o i n t d e f e c t s
3) C o r r e l a t e t h e above w i t hw e l dp o r o s i t y .

P r o b ef o r G a s A n a l y s i s .I no r d e rt om e a s u r ec o n t a m i n a t i o n
"

i n t h e s h i e l d g a s a s p e c i a l p r o b e was designedwhichcould
c o n t i n u o u s l y s a m p l e a v e r y small p o r t i o n o f t h e g a s a n d d e l i v e r
i t t o a mass s p e c t r o m e t e rf o ra n a l y s i s . The probe w a s made by
s i l v e r s o l d e r i n g a 0.025 mm (1 m i l ) s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c a p i l l a r y
w i t h 0.15 mm ( 6 m i l s ) o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r i n t o t h e e n d o f a
0 . 7 9 mm (1/32") s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t u b e . The t u b e was connected
t o a mass s p e c t r o m e t e r as shown i n F i g u r e 5-29.Theprobe
w a s a f f i x e d t o t h e w e l dt o r c hb y means of a motor drivenclamp.
The probe t i p and mount a r e shown i n F i g u r e 5-30. The motor
used w a s a syncronoustypegeared down s o t h a t t h e p r o b e t r a v e l
w a s 1 cm/min. T h i s d r i v es p e e dp r o v i d e d a p o s i t i o nr e s o l u t i o n
of 0.025 c m , s i n c e t h e r e s p o n s e t i m e w a s a b o u to n es e c o n d( t h e
t i m e required for the gas t o passthroughtheprobeandinto
t h e mass s p e c t r o m e t e r ) .
The mass s p e c t r o m e t e r u s e d w a s a Veeco Model RG-4 r e s i d u a l
g a sa n a l y z e r .C a l i b r a t i o n of t h e mass s p e c t r o m e t e r w a s accom-
plished by passing the helium gas to be analyzed past an

5- 77
 HELIUM

OXYGEN

HYDROGEN

t
HELIUM

Figure 5-29. Schematic of mass spectrometerandcalibration cell.

5-78
 PHOTOGRAPH OF PROBE T I P
(A)

PHOTOGRAPH OF WELD TORCH, PROBE, AND CONTROL

(B)
Figure 5-30. Mass spectometerprobe and control.

5- 79
e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l c e l l a t a known flow r a t e . Oxygen was g e n e r a t e d
electrochemically a t a platinumelectrode from d i l u t e s u l f u r i c
acid.
t o oxygen
Under t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h e s e n s i t i v i t y
i n helium was found t o be 3.15 ppm/division with an observed
n o i s e l e v e l of up t o 0 . 3 d i v i s i o n or a n u n c e r t a i n t y o f -ca. 2 ppm
oxygen.

By means of t h e m o t o r d r i v e n p r o b e it w a s possible t o scan

thegasshieldand r e l a t e composition t o p o s i t i o n a n d t o re-
c o n s t r u c tt h ec o n t a m i n a t i o np r o f i l e . The mass s p e c t r o m e t e r
w a s s e t t o continuouslymonitoroxygen. A t y p i c a ls c a n is
shown i n F i g u r e 5-31. From t h e s es c a n st h ed i s t a n c e s a t which
oxygenreached 1 0 , 100, 1000, and 5000 ppm were r e c o r d e d .
S c a n s ' w e r e made a t s e v e r a l p o s i t i o n s ( u p to twelve p e r p r o f i l e )
t o d e f i n et h en a t u r e of e a c hp r o f i l e .F o u rh e l i u m flow r a t e s ,
0.34, 0.44, 0.57, and0.68standard l i t e r s p e rs e c o n d (43, 56,
72, and 86 s t a n d a r d c u b i c f e e t p e r h o u r ) , f o u r t o r c h t o work
d i s t a n c e s 0.6, 1.0, 1.3, and 1.5 crn (1/4, 3/8, 1/2, and 19/32
i n c h ) , t w o t o r c hp o s i t i o n sh o r i z o n t a la n d v e r t i c a l , and t w o
t o r c h e s L i n d e HW-27 and HW-13 were u s e d t o p r e p a r e r e f e r e n c e
p r o f i l e s .T h e s ep r o f i l e sa r er e p r o d u c e di nt h ea p p e n d i x .

The oxygencontamination l e v e l s may b e c o n v e r t e d t o w a t e r

c o n t a m i n a t i o nl e v e l sb u tt h e s ed e p e n d upon t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
humidity.Eachoxygencontourcan be c o n v e r t e d t o a water
c o n t o u r by m u l t i p l y i n g by t h e r a t i o o f t h e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e
of water t o t h e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f o x y g e n .
A t 100% relative humiditythepartialpressure of water
P(H20) i s e q u a l t o t h e v a p o r p r e s s u r e o f water andcan be
found i ns t a n d a r dh a n d b o o k s . At 50% R . H . P(H20) i s one-half
t h ev a p o rp r e s s u r e , e t c . A t o n ea t m o s p h e r ep r e s s u r e ,d r y air
c o n t a i n s 20.95% oxygenbyvolume, t h e r e f o r e ,t h ep a r t i a l

5- 80
 - 1,000 ppm 0 ;

100 ppm O2

-
- 10 ppm 02

1_ -1 I
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
PROBE TRAVEL, cm.

Figure 5-31 Typical scan for gas profile.

5- 81

L
p r e s s u r e of oxygen, P (02), i s

P(02) = 0.2095 [760 - P (H20) 1 (5-3)

The r a t i o P (H20)/P (02) i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 5-3 f o r v a r i o u s

temperaturesandhumiditylevels t h a t may be e n c o u n t e r e d i n
a p r o d u c t i o n area.
These d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t a r a t i o of 0 . 1 t o 0 . 2 c o v e r s
t h er a n g ee n c o u n t e r e di nm o s ts h o pe n v i r o n m e n t s . I f w e assume
a v a l u e of 2 5 0 ppm w a t e r i n t h e g a s s h i e l d is necessaryto
producesignificantporosity,then it i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n t r o -
duce a c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l o f s o m e t h i n g g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 0 0 ppm
oxygenfromshop a i r . T h i sr e p r e s e n t s a rather l a r g ec o n t a m i -
n a t i o nl e v e la n dt h e r e f o r e ,s h o u l d be e a s y t o d e t e c t .

J o i n tD e f e c t s .E x p e r i m e n t s were conducted t od e t e r m i n e
t h e minimum s i z e d e f e c t t h a t r e s u l t s i n contamination i n t h e
c r i t i c a l a r c zone. Gaps were s e l e c t e d f o r t h e f i r s t e x p e r i -
ment.Flow r a t e s were s e l e c t e d w h i c h r e p r e s e n t minimum cover-
ageandthustheeasiesttoperturb.

The f o l l o w i n ge x p e r i m e n t w a s conducted: The massspec-

t r o m e t e rp r o b e was s e t d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e e l e c t r o d e t i p a t
t h e s u r f a c eo f t h e aluminum p a n e l . The j o i n t was a d j u s t e d so
t h a t a gapof2.54 c m ( o n ei n c h )e x i s t e da to n ee n da n d no
gap a t t h e o t h e re n d . The j o i n t was made upfrom two p i e c e s
of 0.63 cm (0.25inch) by 1.118 m ( 4 4 i n c h e s )l o n g . The w e l d
t o r c h was moved a l o n g t h e j o i n t s t a r t i n g a t z e r o g a p at
v a r i o u ss p e e d s . (See F i g u r e 5-32) The gap s i z e a t which the
c o n t a m i n a t i o nl e v e lc h a n g e d w a s recordedand i s listed i n
Table 5-4.
Thesedataindicatethatonlygaps of v e r y l a r g e size
t o e n t e rt h ec r i t i c a l
a l l o wc o n t a m i n a t i o n zone. The g a s f l o w
r a t e was l o w e r e d t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e c o v e r a g e was j u s t b a r e l y

5- 82

. -. . ...... . ____ _ _ .
 TABLE 5-3. THE RATIO P (H20) / P (02)

Temperature

5 0 % R.H. 100% R.H.

20 .056 .112
25 77 .0 76 .154
30 86 .lo2 .209
35 95 .136 .280

5- 83
 GAPS

MI SF I T S

Figure 5-32. Gaps and Misfits.

5- 84
 TABLE 5-4. GAPSIZENECESSARYTO CAUSE CONTAMINATION
CHANGES IN GAS SHIELD.

o Torch: Linde, HW-13

Position I F1

Helium 0.44 11s 0.57 11s

Flow Rate
- "
. ~ ~~~

Torch Travel 73.1

Rate cm/min
. "

Gap Size 1.75

where contami-
nation level
changes (cm)
-

.
Posit
-
ion Horizontal

I
Helium 0 . 4 4 1/3 0.57 l/s
Flow Rate
- ~

Torch Travel 29.5 51.5 73.1 .73.1 51.6 29.5

Rate cm/min
~~

Gap Size * * * * 2k *
where contami-
nation level
changes (cm)

o Torch:Linde, HIJ-27

Position Horiz Ita1

Helium 0.44 1/3 0.57 l/s

Flow Rate

Torch Travel I 29.5 I 51.6 I 73.1

Gap Size * * *
* No change was noted in the contamination level.

5- 85
a d e q u a t ea n dt h ee x p e r i m e n tr e p e a t e d .W i t ht h i s lower flow
r a t e it was i m p o s s i b l e t o p r e v e n t e v e n t h e s l i g h t e s t d r a f t
from disturbing the gas shield despite extensive shielding.
The movement of t h e t o r c h was enough t o c a u s e c o n t a m i n a t i o n
o ft h eg a ss h i e l d . The r e s u l t s of t h e s e t e s t s may b e summed
up as f o l l o w s :I fs h i e l d i n gg a sf l o wr a t e i s a d e q u a t e ,g a p s
do n o t p e r t u r b t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o f i l e b u t i f f l o w r a t e s
a r er e d u c e dt ow h e r eg a p s may c a u s e c o n t a m i n a t i o n , t h e n move-
mentofthetorchandotherslightdraftsdisturbtheshield-
i n gg a se n o u g ht oc o m p l e t e l yo v e r s h a d o wa n ye f f e c to ft h eg a p .
T h i s c o n d i t i o n was a l s o f o u n d t o e x i s t f o r m i s f i t s ( F i g u r e 5-32),
t h a t i s , e i t h e r no change i n t h e p r o f i l e was found o r d r a f t s
o v e r s h a d o wt h ee f f e c t . I n o r d e r t o p r o p e r l yi n t e r p r e tt h e s e
r e s u l t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o compare t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o f i l e s
f o rc o n s t a n tg a sf l o w by c h a n g i n gt o r c ht o work d i s t a n c e s . T o
supplementtheprofilesintheappendix it was n e c e s s a r y t o
d e t e r m i n ep r o f i l e s for the c a s e of no work p r e s e n t .T h i s
series i s shown i n F i g u r e 5 - 3 3 . A h e l i u mf l o wr a t et h a t is
adequateforshorttorchto work d i s t a n c e becomes i n a d e q u a t e
a tl o n g e rd i s t a n c e s . When c a r r i e dt oe x t r e m e ,t h er e g i o n of
z e r oc o n t a m i n a t i o nd e c r e a s e st o a small cone. A t t h es h o r t e r
t o r c h t o work d i s t a n c e s , t h e work f o r c e s t h e s h i e l d g a s o u t ,
t h u st h e r e i s adequatecoverage. When a gap i s e n c o u n t e r e d ,
the profile exhibits a transition to that observed with no
work p r e s e n t , when t h e g a p i s l a r g ee n o u g h .

T h i s t r a n s i t i o n i s dependent upon h e l i u mf l o wr a t e . A t
a f l o wr a t eh i g h enough t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e c o v e r a g e the
t r a n s i t i o no c c u r sa t a l a r g eg a p . A t lowerflow rates t h e
gasshield is unstable with respect to slight a i r movement
and t h et r a n s i t i o nc a n n o tb es e e n .T h e s ed a t ai n d i c a t et h a t
j o i n t v a r i a t i o n s may havevery l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on s h i e l d i n g .

5- 86
 1.8 cm None

HU-27
TORCH, 0 . 5 7 1/SEC ( 7 2 SCFH) AT VARIOUS TORCH
TO WORK DISTANCES,TWICE ACTUAL SIZE

None

Figure 5-33. Effect of torch to work distance on contamination profiles.

 The d a t a o b t a i n e dso f a r s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t m e c h a n i c a l
j o i n t d e f e c t s do n o t l e a d t o p o r o s i t y .T h a t i s , mechanical
joint defects do not easily produce poor shielding and if they
moist a i r ,
c o u l d ,a t m o s p h e r i cc o n t a m i n a t i o n ,p a r t i c u l a r l y
cannot enter the arc r e g i o n i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s t o produce
p o r o s i t y i n aluminum even u n d e r t h e most a d v e r s e p r o d u c t i o n
conditions.

Other Possible Means

In the NASA r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m o n w e l d i n g a l u m i n u m , s e v e r a l
methodsotherthandiscussedpreviously were s t u d i e d as p o s s i b l e
means f o rr e d u c i n gp o r o s i t y . The m e t h o d ss t u d i e di n c l u d e :

1) U s e o fh y d r o g e ng e t t e r s
2 ) Magnetic a r c shaperandmolten-puddle stirrer
3) C r y o g e n icco o l i n g .

t w o methods were n o t
Even t h o u g h m a j o r o b j e c t i v e o f t h e l a s t
to control weld porosity, their effects on porosity were
studiedon a limited scale.

Use ofHydrogen Getters. ( I 3 ) I t hasbeen known t h a t

c e r t a i ne l e m e n t s w i l l a c t as s c a v e n g e r so fh y d r o g e n ,e i t h e r
e l i m i n a t i n g i t o r combiningwith i t i n a harmlessform. The
SouthernResearchInstituteconducted a research program which
c o n s i s t e do f two p h a s e s : (1) a l i t e r a t u r e a n dt h e o r e t i c a l
s t u d y ,a n d ( 2 ) a ne x p e r i m e n t a ls t u d y .

On t h e b a s i s o f a survey of literature (54-57) hydrogen

appears t o b ea b l e t o combinewith almost e v e r y e l e m e n t t o
formbinary compounds. These compounds a r e d i v i d e di n t o
t h r e eg r o u p s :t h ec o v a l e n th y d r i d e s ,t h es a l i n eh y d r i d e s ,a n d
thetransition-metalhydrides.

5- 88
 The covalent hydrides are formed by the elements B, C,
N, 0, F, Si, P, S , C1, Ge, As, Se, Br, Sn, Sb, Te, I, Pb, Bi,
and Po. The elements Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, andHg form an inter-
mediate type of hydride that is neither pure ionic nor metal
bonded but tends to have the characteristics of the covalent
hydrides. Therefore, this type hydride was included with the
covalent hydrides for consideration in this study. In their
natural state covalent hydrides are usually in either liquid
or gaseous form. Since it was considered likely that liquid
or gaseous hydrides would be detrimental if mixed into the
weld puddle, these elements were eliminated from further
consideration.
The saline hydrides are ionic in their bonding and form
stoichiometric compounds. The elements included in this
classification are Li, Na, Mg, Al, IC, Ca, Rb, Sr, Cs, Ba, and
Ra. It is probable that the rare earths are also included in
the saline-hydride group.
The transition-metal hydrides are formed Ti, by Zr, Hf,
Th, V, Cb, Ta, Pa, Cr, Mo, W, U, Pu, Fe, Ru, O s , Rh, Ir, Ni,
Pd, Co, and Pt. These hydrides exhibit metallic bonding and
nonstoichiometric compositions depending upon the exposure
time to hydrogen, temperature of reaction, and past history
of the element.
It was decided to select offour
the promising elements
for experimental investigation of their hydrogen-getting
abilities, one from the saline group, two from the transition
metals, and a rare earth, Calcium was chosen to represent the
saline group because
it was more readily available and pre-
Ba and Sr.
sented less stringent handling requirements than
Of the transition metals, Ti and Zr were chosen because of
their availability and lower cost in comparison to Hf.
Mischmetal, a mixture consisting of 50 percent
approximately
cerium a n d o t h e r r a r e - e a r t h metals ( p r i n c i p a l l y l a n t h a n u m a n d
neodymium), w a s chosen t o r e p r e s e n t t h e rare e a r t h s .

Experiments w e r e made t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r p o r o s i t y c o u l d
b e r e d u c e d by a p p l y i n g h y d r o g e n g e t t e r s i n areas n e a r a GTA
arc s p o tw e l d . The g e t t e r s w e r e p r e p a r e d i n powder form and
a p p l i e d t o specimensbyvarious'techniques as o u t l i n e d i n t h e
p r e c e d i n gd i s c u s s i o n . None of t h et e c h n i q u e sp r o v e d t o be
effectiveforreducingporosity.

Finepowdershavelargesurfacescompared to their
volumesand are e a s i l yc o n t a m i n a t e d . A i r i s a l w a y sp r e s e n t
aroundpowders,even when t h e y a r e packed. A s demonstrated
by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n the NASA p r o g r a m , p o r o s i t y i n
aluminumweldscan r e s u l t fromveryslightshielding-gas
impuritiesandvery minimum c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o d e
o r w o r k p i e c es u r f a c e .F i n d i n g so b t a i n e d a t B o e i n gi n d i c a t e
thattheexistenceofonly 2 5 0 ppm o f g a s i m p u r i t y , o r of a
singlefingerprintonthe metal s u r f a c e , w i l l c a u s e p o r o s i t y .
A t SRI, nomeasurement w a s made o f t h e i m p u r i t i e s a r o u n d t h e
hydrogengettersapplied t o specimens.

It i s theintegrator'sopinionthat
SRI work h a s n e i t h e r
provednordisprovedwhetherporositycanbereducedbyusing
h y d r o g e ng e t t e r s .T h e r e f o r e , it may beworthwhile to try a
d i f f e r e n ta p p r o a c ht ot h ep r o b l e m .P e r h a p sa na p p r o a c hw o u l d
betheuseofexperimentalfiller wires c o n t a i n i n gh y d r o g e n
getters.

Magnetic A r c ShaperandMolten-Puddle S t i r r e r . (18) Another

p o s s i b l e method of r e d u c i n g p o r o s i t y i s t h eu s eo fm e c h a n i c a l
devices that either agitate the puddle or oscillate or shape
t h ep l a s m a .B o t hp u d d l es t i r r i n ga n dp l a s m ao s c i l l a t i o nh a v e
p r o v e ds u c c e s s f u li nr e d u c i n gt h e l e v e l o fp o r o s i t y ,a l t h o u g h
t h ep e r c e n tr e d u c t i o n was r e l a t i v e l y small. However, a t t a i n i n g
thisreductionrequirestheadditionofcomplicatedequipment
t o theweldingtorch.

5- 90
 Cryogenic Cooling.( I 5 ) The results obtainedat Harvey
Aluminum have shown that porosity could be reduced by cryogeni
cooling during welding. However, the percentage of porosity
reduction was relatively small. The use of this method intro-
duces the risk of contaminating the weld and further complicates
the welding process. More studyis needed before conclusive
statements can be given on this subject.

5-91
5- 92
 CHAPTER 6

Weld T h e r m a l E f f e c t s

F i g u r e 3-2 summarizes t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d
a t theMarshallSpaceFlightCenterwhich show t h e e f f e c t s
of w e l d i n g h e a t i n p u t o n t h e u l t i m a t e tensile strength of
welds i n 2219-T81 and 2219-T86 a l l o y s . ( 4 ‘ 6 7, When t h e w e l d
2
h e a t i n p u t i s between 4 0 , 0 0 0 and 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 j o u l e s / i n , t h e
u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of a weld i s between37,500and 42,000 psi.
A s theheatinputdecreases,theweldstrengthincreases
2
s h a r p l y r e a c h i n g as h i g h as 57,000 p s i w i t h a 1 0 , 0 0 0 j o u l e s / i n
h e a t i n p u t by e l e c t r o n - b e a mp r o c e s s . The 2 2 1 8 - T 8 7 b a s em e t a l
has a s t r e n g t h o f 6 9 , 0 0 0 p s i ,a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 p s io fw h i c h
s t r e n g t h i s due t o s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g . The s t r e n g t ho ft h e
alloyintheunstrainedcondition, T-62, i s l i s t e d a t 59,000
2
p s i ,n e a r l yr e a c h e di ne l e c t r o n - b e a mw e l d so f 10,000 joules/in.

The t h e r m a l e f f e c t i s a l s o s e e n m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y .
F i g u r e 6 - 1 shows t y p i c a l m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e h e a t - a f f e c t e d
zonesofwelds made i n two d i f f e r e n t h e a t i n p u t s , . 2 0 , 0 0 0 a n d
80,000 joules/in2 A s h e a ti n p u ti n c r e a s e s ,t h e r e i s a ni n -
crease i n g r a i n s i z e a n d i n t h e t a o r c o p p e r a l u m i n i d e a g g l o m e r a -
t i o n a t t h eg r a i nb o u n d a r i e s . The s t r e n g t h vs h e a ti n p u tc u r v e
has a s t e e ps l o p ef r o m 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 j o u l e s / i n 2T h i s may
b e r e l a t e d t o a markeddecrease intheexcessenergyover that
required for activation of copper migration.
a. 20,000 joules/m' b. 80,000 joules/in2
(1,000 x fusion time) (1,000 x fusion time)

Figure 6-1. 2219Microstructure Versus energy.

 6.1 Time-Temperature Effect

Jackson (57) proposed the time-temperature concept to

study the effects of heat input on the strength of aluminum
welds. (5 1 Figure 6-2 shows the temperature change during
welding of a point in a weldment. Maximum temperature is
defined as the peak temperature which the material being
joined experiences during the welding heat cycle. Time at
temperature is defined as the time that the material being
joined is above the temperature that adversely affects
strength properties of the base metal being joined. Accord-
ing to Jackson, the strength properties2219-T87
of aluminum
alloy are found to be adversely affected 450' aboveF .
An investigation was made to develop relationships
between weld heat input and strength characteristics 2219of
aluminum welds. By the use of multivariate regression analy-
sis of experimental data, the relationship among maximum
temperature, timeat temperature, and mechanical property
characteristics including yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, and elongation were determined. The results are
(41
summarized as follows:
2
Yield Strength: Y1 = 5.04 + 0.19X8 - 0.62X8X9;

Standard errorof Y1 = 2.65; and multiple correlation

coefficient = 0.79.

Ultimate Tensile Strength: Y 2 = 12.51 - 2.30X8 +

z
0.40X8 - 0.67X8Xg; Standard error of Y2 = 4.70;
and Multiple correlation coefficient
= 0.82.
2
Elongation: Y3 = 2.08 - 0.30X8 + 0.03X8 ;

Standard errorof Y3 = 0.71; and Multiple correlation

coefficient = 0.82.

6-3
 MAXIMUM TEMPER ATURE

IL
0
W

450
I

TEMPERATURE I
I

Figure 6-2. Time-temperaturecharacteristics curve.

where,
Y1 = Yield strength, ksi
Y2 = Ultimate tensile strength,
ksi
Y3 = Elongation, percent
X8 = Maximum temperature lo2 OF
X g = Time at temperature, seconds

The strength characteristics, yield strength and ultimate

tensile strength varied with maximum temperature and inversely
with time at temperature as shown in Figures 6-3 and 6-4.
Elongation varied with both maximum temperature andat time
temperature, as shown in Figure 6-5, which increased the heat-
affected zone. To optimize the value of yield and ultimate
strength a maximum value of maximum temperature and minimum
value of time at temperature is required. These values of
maximum temperature and time at temperature 1500'are F and
16 seconds, respectively. To optimize the value of elongation
maximum values of maximum temperature and maximum time are
required. These values are 1500O F and 52 seconds. From the
response surfaces shown in Figures 6-3, 6-4, and 6-5, the theo-
retical maximum values attainable for the strength character-
istic responses are: yield strength, 35.13 ksi; ultimate
strength, 54.39 ksi; elongation,4.87%.
Maximum temperature,X8, and time at temperature,
Xg,
were further expressed as follows:
4) Maximum temperature: X8 = 62.97 - 0.36X1X2 +
0.55X1X3 + 1.56X2X7 - 0 .01X4X6 + 5.35X3 - 0.21Xs2 +
o=15X5X7 - 29.56X7 - 0.56X72; Standard error of
X8 = 0.96; and Multiple correlation coefficient
= 0.96.

6- 5
Figure 6-3. Yield strength of weldsVersus maximum temperature and time at temperature.
 1

Figure 6-4. Ultimate tensile strength of weldsVersusmaximum temperature and time at temperature.
Figure 6-5. ElongationVersusmaximum temperature andtime at temperature.
 5) Time a t temperature: Xg = - 9 6 . 2 7 + 7.23X2 - 33X2X3 +
5.35X3; S t a n d a r d error of Xg = 0.54;andMultiple
correlation coefficient = 0.95.

where,

X1 = arc v o l t a g e , v o l t s (10.5 t o 11.5)

X2 = w e l d i n gc u r r e n t ,a m p e r e s (160 t o 180)

X3 = a r c t r a v e l s p e e d , ipm ( 6 t o 9 )

X4 = f i l l e r metal s p e e d , ipm ( 1 6 t o 2 4 )

X5 = e l e c t r o d e h o l d e r a n g l e , d e g r e e s ( 2 d e gl e a d to
4 d e gl a g )

X6 = g a s f l o w r a t e , c f h (80 t o 1 2 0 )

X 7 = t u n g s t e nl e n g t h ,i n( 3 / 8t o 1/21

were s e t a t t w o l e v e l s as shown
T h e i n d e p e n d e n tv a r i a b l e s
above i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e 2 7 f a c t o r i a l e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n
w i t h 1/4 replicate.

The f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s were drawn as a

resultof t h i s investigation.

1. Maximum temperatureand t i m e a t t e m p e r a t u r e were

found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t i n m e a s u r i n g e f f e c t i v e
weld h e a t i n p u t .
2. Currentandtravelspeed were t h e o n l y c o n t r o l l a b l e
independent variables that significantly affected
t i m e a t temperaturewhilevoltage,currentand
tungsten length affected maximum t e m p e r a t u r e .
3. Definite mathematical relationships can be
developeddescribing t h e interactions between weld
heat input and factors that require optimization.

6-9
S t r e n g t h vs WeldingEnergy (4 1

S h o r t l y a f t e r Jackson completed the above mentioned

work, t e n s i l e data fromhundreds of w e l d i n g p a n e l s were
p l o t t e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o weldingenergyperinch of t h i c k -
n e s s .V a r i o u sw e l d i n gt e c h n i q u e s were usedsuch as e l e c t r o n -
beam (EB), g a st u n g s t e n - a r c (GTA), g a s metal-arc (GMA), done
w i t h o n ep a s so n e s i d e , t w o p a s so n e s i d e , a n do n ep a s se a c h
s i d e . The weldingenergy i s e x p r e s s e di nj o u l e sp e rl i n e a r
i n c h of t r a v e l p e r i n c h of t h i c k n e s s . The lowest s t r e n g t h
was producedby welds w i t h weld h e a t i n p u t g r e a t e r t h a n
8 0 , 0 0 0 j o u l e sp e ri n c hp e ri n c h , as shown i n F i g u r e 3-2. The
h i g h e s t s t r e n g t h of 5 7 , 0 0 0 p s i w a s p r o d u c e d b y e l e c t r o n beam
equipment.

It is worthwhiletomentionthat a l l t h e welds of which

d a t a a r e shown i n F i g u r e 3-2 were made without back-up bars.
I n t h e p a s t t h e industryhadusedback-up bars a n d t h e y were
thought t o be e s s e n t i a l . A s a r e s u l t of a ne x t e n s i v es t u d y
a t NASA, i t has beenfound t h a t back-up bars a r e n o t n e c e s s a r y ,
evenonheat treated alloys. (4 1
 6.2 Welding w i t h High D e n s i t y Power Sources
"

As shown i n F i g u r e h i g h e r s t r e n g t h s are o b t a i n e d
3-2,
w i t hw e l d s made w i t hl o w e re n e r g i e s .E x p r e s s e dd i f f e r e n t l y ,
welds made w i t h h i g h power d e n s i t i e s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e p a r a -
meters w i l l p r o d u c eh i g h e rs t r e n g t h s .A t t e m p t s were made t o
w e l dw i t hh i g hd e n s i t y power sources. The f o l l o w i n gp a g e s
discuss:
1) Experiments t o i n c r e a s e GTA power d e n s i t y
2) E l e c t r o n Beam welding
3) Non-vacuum e l e c t r o n beam welding
4) P l a s m a e l e c t r o n beam welding.

Experiments
- " - ..
~~~ .. . t o
.. I n c r e a s e GTA Power D e n s i t y
"

... - ~

A s t u d y was conducted by Lockheed ( 2 5 ) t o i n v e s t i g a t e

possibilities to significantly increase t h e power d e n s i t y o f
t u n g s t e n a r c w e l d i n g .M o d i f i c a t i o n so fg a st u n g s t e na r c s
w e r e s e l e c t e d w h i c h w e r e b e l i e v e d t o show the most promise.
Each o f t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s a differentportionofthearcand
canbeclassified as f o l l o w s :
a) M o d i f i c a t i o no f t h e e l e c t r o d e( c a t h o d e )
b) Modificationoftheanode(workpiece)
c) M o d i f i c a t i o no ft h es h i e l d i n gg a s
d) U s e o fm a g n e t i cf i e l d st oc o n s t r i c tt h e a r c plasma.

Modificationoftheelectrode may i n c l u d e c h a n g e s i n the

m a t e r i a lf r o mw h i c h i t i s c o n s t r u c t e d ,c h a n g e s i n i t s shape,
o r changes i n the means used t o c o o l i t . Emphasis w a s p l a c e d
on m a t e r i a l s w i t h h i g h t h e r m i o n i c e m i s s i v i t y s i n c e t h e y c o u l d
operate with a smallercathodespot a t a givencurrentand
t h e r e b y p r o v i d e a narrowercurrent--conductingpathnearthe
cathode. The r e p o r t e dh i g ht h e r m i o n i ce m i s s i o no fl a n t h a n u m
h e x a b o r i d et o g e t h e r w i t h i t s h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t , 2210O C
(4012O F ) , good e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , a n d s t a b i l i t y l e d t o
i t s s e l e c t i o n as oneof t h e materials f o r e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n .

6- 11
Barium-calcium-aluminate impregnated cathodes were a l s o
selected for their high thermionic emission and because of
their successful application as e l e c t r o d e s i n a n a r c plasma
g e n e r a t o r .A c c o r d i n g l y ,e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e made t o s t u d yt h e s e
two m a t e r i a l s .

A t theanodeorworkpiecein DCSP-GTA is
welding,there
much less l a t i t u d e a v a i l a b l e i n which t o p e r f o r m m o d i f i c a t i o n s
t o i n c r e a s e power d e n s i t y ; t h a t i s , t h ec o m p o s i t i o no n l y can
be changedandonly i n v e r y small amounts. A f o u r f o l dd i f -
f e r e n c e i n p e n e t r a t i o n due t o t r a c e amountsofchlorine
r e p o r t e d byLudwigwas justification for further investigation
of t h i s phenomenon i n t h i s program.Severalexperimentswith
halogenadditionstotheanoderegion w e r e made.

The marked e f f e c t o f s h i e l d i n g g a s c o m p o s i t i o n on a r c
v o l t a g e , power d e n s i t y , a n d t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y r e p o r t e d in
the literature indicated a potential for significant improve-
ment i n GTA power d e n s i t y .A d d i t i o n so ft h ed i a t o m i cg a s e s - -
h y d r o g e n ,n i t r o g e n ,o x y g e n ,a n dc h l o r i n e - - w e r es e l e c t e df o r
s t u d ya ss h o w i n gp a r t i c u l a rp r o m i s e . I t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t
hydrogenandnitrogencouldbe studied i n a l l concentrations
w h e r e a so x y g e na n dc h l o r i n e ,b e c a u s eo fp o s s i b l ed e g r a d a t i o n
o ft h ec a t h o d e ,w o u l d be l i m i t e d t o a b o u t 1%byvolume.

A n a r c plasmasuch a s used f o r GTA w e l d i n g d i v e r g e s f r o m

t h ec a t h o d et o t h e anode as t h e r e s u l t o f a form of thermal
d i f f u s i o n called a m b i p o l a rd i f f u s i o n .T h i s phenomenon o c c u r s
when t h e more m o b i l e e l e c t r o n s , f o r m e d n e a r thecathodeby
ionization,diffuseradiallyoutward more r a p i d l y t h a n t h e
l a r g e r , more m a s s i v ep o s i t i v ei o n s . The c h a r g es e p a r a t i o n
producedresultsin a r a d i a l e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d which r e t a r d s
t h em o t i o no fe l e c t r o n sa n ds i m u l t a n e o u s l yi n c r e a s e s the force
d r i v i n gt h ep o s i t i v ei o n so u t w a r d .I ft h ee l e c t r o n sc o u l d be
restrainedfromtheirrapidoutwardflight,theplasmadiver-
g e n c ec o u l db ed e c r e a s e d ,e f f e c t i v e l yc o n s t r i c t i n gt h ea r c

6-12
inthe anoderegion. One means of i n h i b i t i n gt h eo u t w a r d
motion of e l e c t r o n s would be by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a l o n g i -
t u d i n a lm a g n e t i cf i e l dt h r o u g ht h e arc. Such a f i e l d would
beexpectedtocausesmallcircularmotionsoftheelectrons
between c o l l i s i o n s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e i n t e r r u p t e d l i n e a r
motion t h a t n o r m a l l yo c c u r s .L o n g i t u d i n a lm a g n e t i cf i e l d s
of the o r d e r of 20 t o 50 G hadbeenused to stabilize the
g a s - ' t u n g s t e n arc and t o p r o v i d e" s t i f f n e s s . " Somewhat h i g h e r
f i e l ' d s t r e n g t h ( 1 0 0 G ) h a sb e e nr e p o r t e d t o provide a
" f o c u s s i n g "a c t i o no nt h e arc. T h e r e f o r e , a s t u d y w a s con-
d u c t e d of l o n g i t u d i n a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d s of up t o 3 0 0 G t o
determine their effect on a r c power d e n s i t y .

E x p e r i m e n t a lR e s u l t s .S i g n i f i c a n ti n c r e a s e si n arc
Power d e n s i t y , as measuredbynarrowingofthecontinuum,
were n o t e d f o r a d d i t i o n s of 20 v o l % hydrogen t o h e l i u m o r
a r g o ns h i e l d i n gg a s .N i t r o g e na d d i t i o n st oh e l i u ma l s o
i n c r e a s e d power d e n s i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
40 V o l % o rg r e a t e r . The g r e a t e s t increase measured,however,
was w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f 0 . 5 v o l % SF6 t o helium.

The improvement i n weld p e n e t r a t i o n a n d d e p t h - t o - w i d t h

ratioobtained i n thebead-on-plate t e s t s i s much smaller
t h a ns u g g e s t e d by t h ec o n t i n u u md a t a ;f o re x a m p l e , an increase
ofabout 30% compared t o a t e n f o l d increase i n thecontinuum
power d e n s i t ym e a s u r e df o rt h e SF6 a d d i t i o n .M o r e o v e r ,
nitrogenadditions,actuallyresulted i n lowerdepth-to-width
ratios i n s t a i n l e s s steel.
The u s e o f m a t e r i a l s w i t h h i g h t h e r m i o n i c e m i s s i o n f o r
t h ee l e c t r o d e( c a t h o d e ) shows some promisewith up t o a 60%
increase i n power d e n s i t y , a s m e a s u r e d by thecontinuum,
andabout a 30% i n c r e a s e i n d e p t h - t o - w i d t h r a t i o s , f o r t h e
t i pc o n f i g u r a t i o n ss t u d i e d .P r o b l e m sw i t ht h e r m a ls h o c ka n d
m e l t i n g of t h el a n t h a n u mh e x a b o r i d et i p s( F i g u r e 6-6) could

6- 13
 in.

0 . 0 5 0 in.
"it-
1 I -
LL
ZIRCONIUM 0.150 in.
1/8 in. BRAZING
FILLER

- -
o-Au-Ni-Cr
BRA ZING
FILLER

2% THORIATED
TUNGSTEN 2% THORIATED
ELECTRODE

t" 3/16 in.-

(a) Conical Tip @) InsertTip

Figure 6-6. Configurations of LaB6 tipped electrodes.

6- 14
possiblybeavoided by a d d i n g s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e l a n t h a n u m
t oc o n v e n t i o n a lt h o r i a t e dt u n g s t e ne l e c t r o d e s .T h e s et i p s
wouldhavetheresistancetomeltingofthethoriatedtungsten
plusthehighemissivity of thelanthanum.

The use of a longitudinal magnetic field resulted in a

slightnarrowingof the c u r r e n t widthon the copperanode
b u t c a u s e d severe d i s t o r t i o n of t h e w e l d p o o l u n d e r p r a c t i c a l
weldingconditionsInthebead-on-plate tests.
N o improvement i n power d e n s i t y w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e
experimentstomodifytheanode.
Surface melting of the water-cooled copper anode was
o b s e r v e d i n s e v e r a l of the continuum runs a t h i g h power
d e n s i t ya n da r en o t e d i n t h et a b l e s .S l i g h tm e l t i n gd i dn o t
appear t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h the co’ntinuummeasurement b u t i n
some i n s t a n c e s s m a l l b e a d s o f c o p p e r w e r e formedon t h e
s u r f a c e andtended toreflectlight f r o mt h ea r c . This could
r e s u l t i n e r r o n e o u s l yh i g hr e a d i n g so f power d e n s i t y . To
a v o i dm e l t i n g , a l l continuumruns were made a t 1 5 0 A . In
son~ecases, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h c h l o r i n e a d d i t i o n s , a reaction
w i t h thecoppersurface was o b s e r v e d w h i c h c o u l d i n f l u e n c e
the measurement. The m a j o r i t yo ft h e r u n s were made a t 0 . 2 5 mm
( 0 . 0 1 0 i n ) a b o v et h ec o p p e ra n o d es u r f a c eb u t some r u n s w e r e
made a t 0 . 5 0 mm ( 0 . 0 2 0 i n ) t o a v o i d s u r f a c e e f f e c t s .
I n g e n e r a l ,t h eb e a d - o n - p l a t e t e s t s w e r e made under
uniformconditionswith little a t t e m p t made t o o p t i m i z e w e l d -
ing conditions for the specific arc modificationunderstudy.
T h e r e f o r e ,t h er e s u l t ss h o u l do n l yb ec o n s i d e r e da ss h o w i n g
possibletrends.
The d e p t h - t o - w i d t h r a t i o s a t t a i n a b l e by t h e electron
beam w e l d i n g p r o c e s s a r e o v e r t e n times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
b e s t GTA c o n d i t i o n s . The t o t a l power f o r e a c hp r o c e s s is
of t h e o r d e r o f 5 KW y e t b e c a u s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n the

6-15
s i z e of t h e h e a t s o u r c e as it i m p i n g e s o n t h e work t h e
maximum e l e c t r o n beam power d e n s i t y i s o f t h e o r d e r o f
1 0 9W/cm2 whereas f o r GTA t h e maximum power available i s o f
t h e o r d e r of 1 0 5 W/cm2. The r e s u l t s of t h i ss t u d yd e c r e a s e d
about 1/2 t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f power d e n s i t y b e t w e e n t h e two
methods'but the power d e n s i t y of e l e c t r o n beam welding w i l l
still be a b o u t 1 0 0 times t h a t of t h e t u n g s t e n arc process.

E l e c t r o n Beam Weldina

E l e c t r o n beam welding i s one of the newer welding

processeswhich i s b e i n g e v a l u a t e d f o r missile a n d r o c k e t
I n e l e c t r o n beam w e l d i n g ,f u s i o n
w e l d i n ga p p l i c a t i o n s . is
accomplished by bombarding the workpiece w i t h a densestream
of h i g h - v e l o c i t ye l e c t r o n s . The j o i n td e s i g n f o r e l e c t r o n -
beam welding i s a s q u a r e - b u t t j o i n t w i t h nogap. N o filler
metal i s r e q u i r e d .W e l d i n gu s u a l l y takes p l a c e i n anevac-
uatedchamber,and thisplaces some l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e s i z e
of the w o r k p i e c e .T h i sf a c t o r is oneof t h em a j o r limita-
t i o n s i n t h ea p p l i c a t i o no fe l e c t r o n beam welding.Consi-
derable work i s beingdone t o m i n i m i z e t h i s l i m i t a t i o n .
I n 1963, MSFC made i t s f i r s t e f f o r t t o e x t e n d t h e use
of a n e l e c t r o n beam weldingsystem. (4) A "split-chamber"
conceptasdevelopedfor MSFC by t h e S c i a k y B r o t h e r s Company
w a s used. I n b r i e f , t h i s means t h a t avacuum chamber i s
reduced t o a s i z e t h a t w i l l e n c o m p a s s o n l y t h e j o i n t s t o be
welded.
MSFC c h o s e t h e 3 3 - f o o t d i a m e t e r r i n g t h a t makes t h e
t r a n s i t i o n from a b u l k h e a d t o a c y l i n d e r i n the S a t u r n V
firststage. The c r o s s s e c t i o n a Y , as
of t h er i n gf o r m s
shown i n F i g u r e 6-7. Maximum t h i c k n e s s was a b o u t 2 1 / 2 i n c h e s .
Only s h o r t a r c s of t h e r i n g s e g m e n t s were i n a low atmosphere
(Figure6-8) .
The "A" h a l f of t h e chamber was s t a t i o n a r y .

6-16
 /CHAMBER WALL

ME

Figure 6-7. Sealing between Y-ring and vacuumchamber

6-17
Figure 6-8. Vacuum seals on the splitchamber Y-ring welding unit.
The "B" h a l f w a s moveable on a p a i r of p r e c i s e l y a l i g n e d
r a i l s and w a s backed away t o p e r m i t p l a c e m e n t o f a t h e work-
p i e c e or t o g e t t o t h e e l e c t r o n g u n s .
The c r i t i c a l a s p e c t o f s u c h a system i s theadequacy
of t h e seals a t t h e i n t e r f a c e of t h e chamberhalvesand
betweentheY-ringandthechamber.Sealingbetweenthe
machined mating surfaces was d o n e w i t h N e o p r e n e r u b b e r s t r i p s .
A f t e r the chamber h a l v e s w e r e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t , f o u r
b o l t s , one a t e a c h c o r n e r , w e r e t i g h t e n e d t o produce a t i g h t
j o i n t .T h i s i s one area t h a tp r o v e d t o be troublesomeduring
the Y-ring weldingprogram.During many of t h e pump
down
c y c l e s , it became evi-dent t h a t a l e a k e x i s t e d somewhere i n
t h es y s t e m .Q u i t eo f t e nf u r t h e rt i g h t e n i n g of one o r more
o f the b o l t s s t o p p e d t h e l e a k .

Sealing between the Y-ring and the chamber was done w i t h

m e t a lb l o c k s ,r u b b e rs t r i p s ,a n d e i t h e r preformedpacking or
O-rings.Againsmall leaks were o f t e n c o r r e c t e d by t i g h t e n i n g
theclampingplates,yettheexactlocation of l e a k s c o u l d n o t
bedetermined.
D e s p i t et h e s ep r o b l e m s , three segments were j o i n e d i n t o
a c o m p l e t er i n g .I ng e n e r a l , MSFC demonstrated t h e s p l i t -
chamber t o be a p r a c t i c a l c o n c e p t f o r j o i n i n g l a r g e c o m p o n e n t s .

Non-Vacuum E l e c t r o n B e a m Weldincr ( 4 1

An a t t e m p t h a s b e e n
ma,de f o r u s i n g a h i g h - v o l t a g e non-
vacuum e l e c t r o n beam weldingsystem. ( 2 2 ) A newlydeveloped
model w a s d e l i v e r e d t o MSFC i n 1 9 6 9 by theWestinghouse
A s t r o n u c l e a rL a b o r a t o r y . Poweredby 1 5 0 KV s u p p l y ,t h e
w e l d e r i s of a uniquecompactdesign. The power supplyand
w e l d i n gg u n ,c o m p l e t ew i t h a l l h i g h vacuum pumps and accesso-
ries, a r e a s s e m b l e d i n t o a 210-lbpackage t h a t c a n be mounted
i n e i t h e r t h e down-hand o r h o r i z o n t a l w e l d i n g p o s i t i o n
(Figure 6-9). It i s mountedon a c o n v e n t i o n a l side beam
c a r r i a g e .F l e x i b l e l o w vacuum l i n e sp e r m i tt h ew e l d i n gh e a d

6- 19
t o b et r a v e r s e df o u r feet i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The complete
unit is enclosed in a lead shielded room.
Electronemissionfrom an i n d i r e c t l y h e a t e d t u n g s t e n r o d
is forced through differentially pumped o r i f i c e s by a combi-
n a t i o n of e l e c t r o s t a t i c a n d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c e l e c t r o n o p t i c a l
systems. Maximum o p e r a t i n g power i s 80 mA a t 150 kV. A
p o s i t i v e p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d j u s t b e l o w t h e e x i t o r i f i c e of
t h e gun.
Welding has been done on 1 / 4 - i n c h t h i c k aluminumand
1/8-inchand1/2-inchthick steel.
I f material were welded i n oneatmosphere,an EB system
wouldbe as a p p l i c a b l e a s t h eg a s - a r cp r o c e s s e s .B u tt h i s
posesno small c h a l l e n g e . The c o n c e n t r a t e d stream o f elec-
t r o n s t h a t makeslowenergyweldingpossiblehasfromthe
o n s e t of EB systems r e q u i r e d a 'llow" a t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e .
A l o w power d e n s i t y b u t v e r s a t i l e EB system would only be a
r e g r e s s i o n ,b e t t e rl e f ta l o n e . I t wouldbemeaningfulonly
iftheweldsproduced were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o GTA
and g a s metal a r c (GMA) welds. A t t h i sd a t e ,o u r non-vacuum
systemproducesaluminumweldsdefinitelyinferior t o hard
vacuum w e l d s , a n d o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y s u p e r i o r t o GTA welds.
P o r o s i t y i s h i g h l yu n p r e d i c t a b l e .

But t o o b t a i n non-vacuum EB welds i n aluminum t h a t are

s i m i l a r i n s h a p e t o h a r d vacuum welds, welding must be done
a t more t h a n 2 0 0 in/min. Narrow welds made a t anyspeed i m -
pose s t r i c t a c c u r a c yr e q u i r e m e n t s .T r a n s v e r s ed e v i a t i o n s
of t h e beam f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e j o i n t , a n d j o i n t g a p s of
more t h a n 0 . 0 0 5 i n c h c a n r e s u l t i n l a c k of f u s i o n . The
s i t u a t i o n i s g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d when t h e g u n i s moving a t
200 inlmin. A t t h i s s p e e d a seam t r a c k i n gd e v i c ew o u l dh a v e
t o move t h e g u n s y s t e m l a t e r a l l y 0.005 i n c h i n 3 1/3 inches
of forward movement p e rs e c o n d .P r o x i m i t y of t h e gun t o t h e
work, less t h a n 3/8 i n c h , i s e q u a l l y c r i t i c a l . Even i f t h e

6-21
power d e n s i t y of t h e e l e c t r o n beam were i n c r e a s e d so t h a t
much slower t r a v e l s p e e d c o u l d b e u s e d , t h a t is, 4 0 in/min
vs 2 0 0 i n / m i n , a c c u r a c y of p a r t s f i t - u p would still be
c r i t i c a l and seam guidance and proximity control would still
b em a n d a t o r y .I na d d i t i o n ,s h i e l d i n g of p e r s o n n e l from
x-rays generated by the high voltage means t h a t remote
m o n i t o r i n g of w e l d i n g i s n e c e s s a r y .

I t i s c l e a r , t h a t much a n a l y s i s ,d e v e l o p m e n t ,a n d
p l a n n i n g are n e c e s s a r y before t h e s y s t e m c a n be c o n s i d e r e d
a p p l i c a b l ea n dt h u sv e r s a t i l e .I n a r a t i o n a la p p r o a c h to
EB welding w e mustrecognizeandacceptthattheprocess will
h a v e - l i m i t a t i o n s ,j u s tl i k e any o t h e rj o i n i n gp r o c e s s . EB
welding i s n o t y e t a panacea.

P l a s m a E l e c t r o n B e a m Weldins

A s t u d y w a s c a r r i e d o u t by General E l e c t r i c Company t o
develop a plasmaelectron beam (PEB) system. ( 2 6 )

PEB i s a new k i n d of e l e c t r o n beam s o u r c e b a s e d o n a

c o l dh o l l o wc a t h o d eg a sd i s c h a r g e( F i g u r e 6-10). With a
p r e s s u r e of a b o u t 1 0 microns of n i t r o g e n , f o r e x a m p l e , a
bodyofplasma f i l l s thecathodeandanelectron beam forma-
t i o nt a k e sp l a c e . B e a m c u r r e n t i s c o n t r o l l e db yv a r y i n gt h e
gaspressureandconsequentlytheinfluxofpositiveions.
The beam i s focusedby a m a g n e t i cl e n ss p a c e d 8 or 1 0 inches
from t h ee n d of t h ec a t h o d e .C a p a b i l i t yo ft h i se q u i p m e n t
was demonstrated by a n a r r o w p e n e t r a t i o n w e l d 1 3/4 i n c h e s
d e e pi n t o 5456 m a t e r i a l . P o r o s i t y w a s n o tp r e s e n t a t t h e
r o o t of t h e weld, i n d i c a t i n g good e l e c t r o n beam s t a b i l i t y as
compared t o c o n v e n t i o n a le l e c t r o n beam weldingsystems. The
principleofoperation is discussed in detail in the final
r e p o r t from General E l e c t r i c . PEB o f f e r st h ea d v a n t a g e s of
long cathode life and goodperformanceunderpoor vacuum
c o n d i t i o n s where gaseouscontaminants may b ep r e s e n t . Parts

6-22
 4 @ -
I
I
0
0
0
0
/
/
/
/

ELECTRON BEAM

"""""

\
SHIELD'
\ TO H I G H
\
\ VOLTAGE D-C

DARK
SPACE
BOUNDARY / '\. "
"

Figure 6-10. Beam formation inshielded PEB cathode.

canbewelded i n anatmosphere of a b o u t 75 microns. For
welding structures too large t o be c o n t a i n e d i n a vacuum
chamber, i t would seem feasible t o e x t r a c t t h e e l e c t r o n beam
i n t o a small chamber which moves a l o n g t h e weld seam main-
t a i n i n g a r e d u c e d p r e s s u r e bymeans of a s l i d i n g s e a l .
SciakyBrothers,sponsored by t h e A i r Force,hasdeveloped
such a s l i d i n g s e a l f o r t h e i r own " p a r t i a l " p r e s s u r e EB
system. A r e l i a b l e movingchamberand t h er e l a t i v e l ys i m p l e
PEB systemwould be a s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p toward v e r s a t i l i t y .

The p l a s m a e l e c t r o n beam u n i t i s shown i n o p e r a t i o n i n

Figure 6-11. The cathode a t t h e t o p o f t h e photo i s e m i t t i n g
a n e l e c t r o n beam through t h e f o c u s c o i l i n t o a Faradaycup.
The photograph shows t h e man p e e r i n g t h r o u g h t h e v i e w i n g
port.
Figure 6-1 1. Plasma Electron Beam Unit in operation.

6- 25
 6.3 Time-Temperature Control by Cryogenic Ci>oling

Figures 6-2 and 6 - 3 suggest that the strength

of a
welded jointin.aluminum could be increased by shortening
the time at temperature. It can be achieved by the absorp-
tion of heat by forced coolingof the base plate by impinge-
ment of cryogenic liquids, suchas liquid C02 and liquid
nitrogen. A study was conductedat Harvey Aluminum of the
effect of cryogenic cooling during welding on properties of
weldments. (15)

Experimental Procedures(151

Materials selected for the experimental work were

aluminum alloys 2219-T87 and 2014-T6 in plate thickness of
5/16 and 1/2 inch. The welding process selected was gas
tungsten arc welding, D-C, straight polarity with helium
shielding gas welding done from one in side
the horizontal
position using 2319 filler wire for both alloys. One pass
was prescribed for the 5/16-inch material and two passes for
the 1/2-inch material.
Experimental equipment and procedures were developed
for welding12- by 48-inch panels with sufficient instru-
mentation to monitor pertinent heat input and extraction
variables. Weldment temperatures were measured by thermo-
couples embedded in the plate. Limited investigations were
conducted for measuring weld temperature by means of infrared
radiometers.
Two series of welded panels were fabricated. They were
bead-on-plate and square-butt welds. Table 6-1 shows typical
welding parameters. Half of each serieswas welded without
chilling and half with liquidC02 chilling, attempting to
maintain comparable weld-bead dimensions. In the first series,

6-26
 TABLE 6-1. TYPICAL WELDING PARAMETERS USED IN THE HARVEY ALUMINUM STUDY.

Penetration Pass Filler Pass

Plate
Thickness
Arc Travel Arc Travel
(in) Current Current Wire Wire
,T Speed Voltage Speed Voltage
h3
4 (amp) (v) (ipm) Speed ( amp 1 (V) Speed (ipm)

5/16 215-220 11 7- 1 0 80 " " " "

1/2 320-325 11 7 None 300 11 18 120

 c h i l l i n g w a s e f f e c t e d from t h e b a c k s i d e of t h e weldment
u s i n g a d o u b l e l a y e r of g l a s s t a p e t o p r e v e n t d e f o r m a t i o n
a n dc o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h eu n d e r b e a db yt h el i q u i d C02. I n
thesecond series, weldments were c h i l l e d from t h e f r o n t
(torch)sideusing a s h i e l d t o p r e v e n t l e a k a g e of C 0 2 i n t o
t h e a r c area. S e v e r a ls y s t e m s of j e t o r i f i c e s i z e s and
arangements were u s e d f o r e a c h s e r i e s .

Comparable unchilled and chilled weldments for both

series were e x a m i n e db yX - r a y ,f r a c t u r i n g ,a n dm a c r o s e c t i o n -
i n g .T e n s i l e t e s t s were performed a f t e r n a t u r a l a g i n g ,
artificialaging,andafterreheattreating t o t h e T-6
condition.

E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s u l t s (151

ThermalCycleCurves.Figure 6-12 showsexamplesof

t h e r m a lc y c l ec u r v e sf o rp o i n t s a t 3/8and3/4 i n c h ,r e s p e c -
t i v e l y , from t h e w e l d c e n t e r l i n e o n 1 2 - by48-inch b u t t welds
i n 1 / 2 - i n c ht h i c k 2219-T87 p l a t e s . Data a r e compared f o r t h e
*
unchilledweldandtheweldchilledwiththe J e t System N o . 14.

M a c r o s e c t i o n s .I nm o s t cases, t h em a c r o s e c t i o n s showed
thatchillingreducedtheextentoftheheat-affectedzone,
a n dr e d u c e dt h eg r a i ns i z eo ft h e For example,
cast structure.
F i g u r e 6-13showscomparisons of m a c r o s e c t i o n s o f t h e u n c h i l l e d
andthechilledweldin1/2-inchthick 2219-T87 p l a t e .

T e n s i l eP r o p e r t i e s .S p e c i m e n s were s e l e c t e d from c h i l l e d
andunchilledweldpanelsofeachalloyandeachthicknessfor
r o o m - t e m p e r a t u r et e n s i l e t e s t s . The s e l e c t i o n w a s made on t h e
b a s i s of X - r a y sw h i c hi n d i c a t e d less t h a n 1 p e r c e n t p o r o s i t y .

*
J e t System N o . 1 4 w a s d e s i g n e d f o r f r o n t - s i d e c h i l l i n g ,
u s i n g a c r y o g e n i cl i q u i d . I t u t i l i z e d a t r a v e l i n gs h i e l d
w i t h a s p r i n g - l o a d e d , m e t a l l i c wool-and-wirebrush s e a l and a
m e t a l l i c - s h i r t , 7-jet m a n i f o l d f o r h e l i u m p u r g i n g .

6-28
 "@p
b. THERMOCOUPLE LOCATED
AT A POINT 3/8 i n , FROM
WELD CENTERLINE

1 i I I I

Q,
I
to
W

-24 0 +24 +4a +72 +96 -24 0 +24 +48

TIME ( s e c ) TIME (scc)

Figure 612. Effect of front-side chilling on thermal-cycle curves.
 UNCHI LLED
2BOW6151

Q,
I
CJ
0

CHILLED
2BCFW751

Figure 6-13. Macrosectionsshowingeffectoffront-sidechillingof welds.

A l l specimens were c u t t o 3 / 4 - i n c h w i d e s t r a i g h t - s i d e d bars
w i t ht h ew e l dt r a n s v e r s ea n dw e l db e a di n t a c t . One group of
specimens f r o m e a c h p a n e l w a s a r t i f i c a l l y a g e d t o t h e -T6
c o n d i t i o na f t e rw e l d i n g . A l l t e s t s were performed a t room
temperature.

T a b l e 6-2 s u m m a r i z e sa v e r a g et e n s i l e values o b t a i n e d
f o ra r t i f i c a l l ya g e ds p e c i m e n s ,a n dT a b l e 6-3shows such
values f o r n a t u r a l l y a g e d s p e c i m e n s .
Yield strengths a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d by c h i l l i n g
f r o m t h ef r o n ts i d e .
The g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e values
was 17.8percentforartificallyagedweldsin1/2-inch
2014-T6 p l a t e . The g r e a t e s ti n c r e a s ei na v e r a g ey i e l ds t r e n g t h
forweldsin 2219-T87 p l a t e was 8 . 8 p e r c e n t ( f o r w e l d s i n
5/16-inchartificallyagedspecimens).

Porosity. I t w a s f o u n dt h a tp o r o s i t yc o u l db er e d u c e d
by c r y o g e n i cc o o l i n g( r e f e r t o Chapter 5 . 5 ) . Approximately
6 0 p e r c e n t of t h e u n c h i l l e d w e l d s a m p l e s c o n t a i n e d p o r o s i t y
r a n g i n g f r o m 1 / 2 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area,
w h i l e more t h a n 9 0 p e r c e n t o f the c h i l l e d w e l d s were f r e e of
porosity.

D i s t o r t i o n .S e v e r a lp a n e l sf a b r i c a t e d by c h i l l i n gf r o m
the f r o n ts i d er e m a i n e de s s e n t i a l l y f l a t a f t e rw e l d i n g ,e x -
h i b i t i n g almost no l o n g i t u d i n a l bow o r p e a k i n g .U n c h i l l e d
w e l dp a n e l sh a v ec o n t a i n e d a l o n g i t u d i n a l bow up t o 1 1 / 2 i n c h
andpeaking t o 1 0 deg,dependingupontheamountof heat i n p u t .
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c r y o g e n i c c o o l i n g o n d i s t o r t i o n c o n t r o l
was investigated in another contract a t Harvey Aluminum. ( 2 4 )

6-31
 TABLE 6-2. EFFECT OF FRONT-SIDE CHILLING ON TENSILE PROPERTIES OF WELDMENTS,
ARTIFICIAL AGING.

1 Average Tensile Strengths (ksi)

Weldment
Material
Chill
System
(No.) Unchilled
Yield

Chilled Change ('70)

r Unchilled
Ultimate

Chilled Change (YO)

5/ 16-in. 201 4-T6 18 33.9 36.9 + 7.7 45.9 41.3 -10.0

18 37.1 39.9 + 7.6 49.0 48.3 - 1.4
19 32.5 34.7 + 6.8 44. 8 42.3 - 5.6
23 36.3 39.0 + 7.5 48.5 47.5 + 2.0

1/ 2-in. 201 4-T6 18 30. 9 36. 4 + 17.8 47. 0 47.3 + 0.6

19 34. 4 38. 9 + 14.4 47.2 47.6 + 0.1
19 34. 0 38. 7 + 13.8 47. 2 48.7 + 3.2

5/16-in.2219-T87 l9
1
31.9 33. 2 + 4. 2 38. 4 39.0 + 1.6
19 ' 35.4 38.5 + 8.8 40. 4 44. 7 +lo. 7
35.1 23 36.0 + 2. 6 42,5 40. 7 - 4. 2

1/2-in.2219-T87 18 35.1 36.7 + 4.6 46. 8 48.1 + 3.4

ii 1 34.2
35.1
36. 0
36.6
+ 6.4
+ 4.3
43.7
45.0
45.6
46. 8
+ 4. 3
+ 4.0
 TABLE 6-3. EFFECT OF FRONT-SIDE CHILLING ON TENSILE PROPERTIES OF WELDMENTS, NATURAL AGING.

Chill
rt Yield
Average Tensile Strengths (ksi)
1- Ultimate
Weldment System
Material (No. ) Unchilled Chilled Unchilled Chilled Change (7')
5/16-in. 2014-T6 18 32.7 34. 5 + 5.6 45.5 45.2 -0.6
19 33. 5 36.6 + 9.3 40.2 40.4 +o. 5
Q,
I 23 33. 0 35.5 + 7.6 49.7 45.5 -8.5
w
w
1/2-in. 2014-T6 19 28. 8 32.1 + 11.5 47.4 48.3 +l.9
19 28.8 33.2 + 15.5 47.4 49.0 t3.4

5/16-in. 2219-T87 23 24.2 26.8 + 2.6 37.8 40.5 +2.5

19 25.5 25.7 + 0. 8 36.1 37.3 +3.3

1/2-in. 2219-T87 18 20.9 22.5 + 7.7 40. 4 41.5 +2. 7

19 19.7 20.2 + 2.5 38.8 40.1 +3.8
23 21.7 21.6 - 0.5 39.4 40.8 +3.6
 CHAPTER 7

R e s i d u a l Stresses a n d D i s t o r t i o n

An i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m f a c i n g e n g i n e e r s e n g a g e d i n w e l d i n g
f a b r i c a t i o n o f aluminum s t r u c t u r e s i s t h a t r e s i d u a l stresses
and d i s t o r t i o n .C o n t r o lo f weld d i s t o r t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y more
of a problem i n aluminum s t r u c t u r e s t h a n steel s t r u c t u r e s
because :

1) Aluminum, compared w i t h s t e e l , h a s h i g h e r h e a t
c o n d u c t i v i t y .T h e r e f o r e ,t h ew e l d i n gh e a ts p r e a d s
i n widerareas,orexpansionandcontractionoccur
i n l a r g e r areas.

2) Aluminum h a s a l a r g e r c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e r m a l
expansionthan steel.

3) Many aluminum a l l o y s h a v e r a t h e r low y i e l d s t r e n g t h s ,

thusproducinglargeplasticzonesnearthe weld.

Due t o combined e f f e c t s of these f a c t o r s , c o n s i d e r a b l e

amountsofthermal stresses are producedduringwelding in
a r e a sa d j a c e n t t o t h ew e l d i n g a r c . Thesethermal stresses
may c a u s e j o i n t m i s m a t c h , when t h e j o i n t i s n o t t i g h t l y
clamped. When welding i s c o m p l e t e d ,h i g ht e n s i l er e s i d u a l
stresses are produced i n areas near the weld which can cause
considerableshrinkageanddistortion.
 7.1 A n a l y s i s of Thermal Stresses d u r i n gW e l d i n g

Several a e r o s p a c e c o m p a n i e s h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d d i s t o r t i o n
problemsduringfabrication of t h e S a t u r n V components
i n c l u d i n g welded f u e la n do x i d i z e rt a n k s .A l t h o u g hp r o d u c t i o n
practiceshavebeendeveloped t o t e m p o r a r i l y overcome t h e s e
p r o b l e m s ,t h e y are e m p i r i c a l s o l u t i o n s a n d little i s known
a b o u tt h em e c h a n i s m sc a u s i n gs u c hd i s t o r t i o n . It i s e s s e n t i a l
t o understandthemechanismsinorder t o developmethods f o r
m i n i m i z i n g d i s t o r t i o n e f f e c t s d u r i n g f a b r i c a t i o n of f u t u r e
vehicles.
MSFC r e c o g n i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c o n d u c t i n g research
onmathematicalanalysis of thermal stresses and metal move-
mentduringweldingandsupportedstudiesat Battelle
*
Memorial I n s t i t u t e a n d M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Technology.
Computerprograms have beendeveloped t o c a l c u l a t e t r a n s i e n t
t h e r m a l stresses i n areas s u r r o u n d i n g t h e movingwelding a r c
andresultingresidual stresses.

TechnicalBackgroundonAnalysisand
C o n t r o l of Weld D i s t o r t i o n

T h i s sectionpresents a brief technicalbackgroundon

theanalysisof thermal stresses and metal movement d u r i n g
w e l d i n g .D i s c u s s i o n si nt h i ss e c t i o n are limited t o those
s u b j e c t s w h i c h are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s t u d i e s a t
B a t t e l l e and M . I . T . and a number of o t h e r s u b j e c t s o n v a r i o u s
t y p e s o f w e l d d i s t o r t i o n are n o t c o v e r e d .
A r e c e n tW e l d i n g Research C o u n c i l B u l l e t i n No. 149
entitled"ControlofDistortionandShrinkageinWelding"

*
D r . KoichiMasubuchi, who was t h e p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r
of the B a t t e l l e s t u d y j o i n e d t h e F a c u l t yo f M.I.T. i n 1968.

%2
is an interpretive report covering the development of
analytical means for predicting and controlling various
types of weld distortion.(58) The material in this section
is a condensation of this report.

Welding Thermal Stresses. Because a weldmentis

locally heated by the weldingarc, the temperature distribu-
tion in the weldment is not uniform and changesas welding
progresses. This non-uniform temperature distribution
causes thermal stresses in the weldment, which also change
as welding progresses. The major effort in the studiesat
Battelle andM.I.T. has beento develop computer programs
to analyze such thermal stresses during welding and also the
resulting residual stresses.
Figure 7-1 shows schematically how welding thermal
stresses are formed. Figure 7-la shows a bead-on-plate
weldLin which a weld bead is being at a speed v. 0-xy
laid
is the coordinate system: the origin,0 , is on the surface
underneath the weldingarc, and the x-direction lies in the
direction of welding.
Figure 7-lb shows temperature distribution along several
cross sections. Along Section A-A, which is ahead of the
welding arc, the temperature change due to welding,AT, is
almost zero (Figure 7-lb-1). Along Section B-B, which crosses
the welding arc, the temperature distribution is very steep
(Figure 7-lb-2). Along Section C-C, which is some distance
behind the welding arc, the distribution of temperature change
is as shown in Figure 7-lb-3. Along Section D-D, which is
very far from the welding arc, the temperature change due to
welding again diminishes (Figure 7-lb-4).
Figure 7-lc shows the distribution of stresses along
these sections in the x-direction, ox. Stress in the

7-3
 IATZ0 Stress ~0

I . Section A -A

Deformation
V

3. Section C -C
Residual

a. Weld

4.Section D - D

b. Temperature Change Stress

c. mX

Figure 7-1. Schematicrepresentation of changes of temperature

and stresses during welding.

7-4
y-direction, CT and shearing stress, T also exist in a
Y' XY' *
two-dimensional stress field (Figure 7-la).
Along Section A-A, thermal stresses due to welding are
almost zero (Figure 7-lc-1). The stress distribution along
Section B-B is shown in Figure 7-lc-2. Stresses in areas
underneath the welding arc are close to zero, because molten
metal does not support loads. Stresses in areas somewhat
away from the arc are compressive, because the expansion of
these areas is restrained by surrounding areas that are
heated to lower temperatures. Since the temperatures of
these areas are quite high and the yield strengthof the
material is low, stresses in these areas are as high as the
yield strength of material at corresponding temperatures.
The amount of compressive stress increases with increasing
distance from the weld or with decreasing temperature. How-
ever, stresses in areas away from the weld are tensile and
balance with compressive stresses in areas near the weld.
In other words,

**
across Section B-B. Thus, the stress distribution along
Section B-B is as shown in Figure 7-lc-2.
Stresses are distributed along Section
C-C as shown in
Figure 7-lc-3. Since the weld-metal and base-metal regions
near the weld have cooled, they try to shrink causing tensile
stresses in areas close to the weld.As the distance from
the weld increases, the stresses first change to compressive
and then become tensile.

*
In a generalthree-dimensional stress field, six stress
y' cs
components, cs x' cs
2'
T
zy''I
xy' exist.
**
Equation (7-1) neglects the effect of CT and T on
the equilibrium condition. XY Y

7-5
 Figure 7-lc-4 shows the stress distribution along
Section D-D. High tensile stresses are produced in areas
near the weld, while compressive stresses are produced in
areas away from the weld. The distribution of residual
stresses that remain after welding is completed as shown
in the figure.
M", in
The cross-hatched area, Figure 7-la shows the
region where plastic deformation occurs during the welding
thermal cycle. The elipse near the origin0 indicates the
region where the metal is melted. The region outside the
cross-hatched area remains elastic during the entire welding
thermal cycle.

Metal Movement during Welding. Welding thermal stresses

cause metal movement during welding. There are two major
types of metal movement. The first type involves motion in
the plane of the plate, that. is opening
or closing of the
joint gap ahead of the weld.
The second type involves motion ofoutthe plane of the
plate, that is either bending due to temperature variations
in the thickness direction
or buckling due to compressive
thermal stresses. This out-of-plane metal movement often
causes joint mismatch.

Development of Techniques for Analyzing

Thermal Stresses and Metal Movement

As shown in Figure-
7-1, thermal stresses during welding
are produced by a complex mechanism which involves plastic
deformation at a wide range of temperatures from room tempera-
ture up to the melting temperature. Because of the difficulty
in analyzing plastic deformation, especially
at elevated
temperatures, mathematical analyses conducted in the past

7- 6
 ***
are l i m i t e d t o s i m p l e cases such as s p o t w e l d i n g .
However, o n t h e b a s i s o f r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t i n c o m p u t e r
technology, it a p p e a r s t h a t w e are o n t h e v e r g e of t e c h n o l o g i -
c a l b r e a k t h r o u g h as f a r as t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e r m a l stresses
d u r i n gw e l d i n g are concerned. The f o l l o w i n gp a g e sd e s c r i b e
r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s made a t B a t t e l l e and M.I.T.

B a t t e l l e ComputerAnalysis.Under a r e c e n tc o n t r a c tf o r
R e d s t o n eS c i e n t i f i cI n f o r m a t i o nC e n t e r , U. S . Amy Missile
Cbmmand, Masubuchi, Simmons, and Monroe of B a t t e l l e Memorial
I n s t i t u t ed e v e l o p e dc o m p u t e rp r o g r a m s for calculatingthermal
stresses i n bead-on-plate welding. (29) The B a t t e l l e s t u d y
usesthetechniquewhich w a s originallydevelopedin 1 9 6 4 by
Tall. (59 ,60)

I n t h e B a t t e l l e a n a l y s i s , i t was assumed t h a t (1) t h e

l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r e s s , a x , i s a f u n c t i o n of y o n l ya n d (2) 0
Y
and T are z e r o (see F i g u r e 7 - 1 ) . D e t a i l s of t h e B a t t e l l e
XY
a n a l y s i s a r e r e p o r t e d i n RSIC-820.

F i r s t , t h et e m p e r a t u r ed i s t r i b u t i o na r o u n dt h e moving
a r c i s c a l c u l a t e d . Then t h e stress f i e l d i s d i v i d e di n t o a
s e t of t r a n s v e r s e s t r i p s o f w i d t h , h o , a s shown i n F i g u r e 7-2.
The t i m e i n t e r v a l s r e p r e s e n t e d b y the stripwidthmustbe
s h o r t enough s o t h a t t h et e m p e r a t u r ea n d thermal s t r e s s f o r
e a c hi n c r e m e n t may b er e g a r d e d as b e i n gc o n s t a n t .S i n c et h e
g r e a t e s t c h a n g e s i n t e m p e r a t u r eo c c u rn e a rt h e a r c , narrow
s t r i p s are used i n areas n e a r t h e arc
The c a l c u l a t i o n s t a r t s on a s t r i p some d i s t a n c e a h e a d
o ft h ew e l d i n g a r c w h e r et h et e m p e r a t u r ec h a n g e is negligible
and stresses are p u r e l y e l a s t i c . T i m e z e r o i s f i x e do n t h e
s t r i p .F o re x a m p l e ,i nt h ec a l c u l a t i o n s shown l a t e r

x**
The Welding Research C o u n c i l B u l l e t i n 1 4 9 d i s c u s s e s t h e
historicaltrendinthedevelopmentoftechniques f o r analyz-
i n g t h e r m a l stresses d u r i n g w e l d i n g a n d r e s u l t i n g r e s i d u a l
stresses. (581

7-7
 I
I
i =O

Figure 7-2. Dividing the stress field into transverse strips for calculating
thermal and residual stresses.

7-8
I- -

(Figures 7-3 through 7-61, the heat sourceis located at

T = 9 seconds. Since the welding speed in this particular
case is0.233 ips, or14 ipm, the calculation starts at a
strip 2.1 inches (0.233 x 9) ahead of the arc.
First, stresses in the strip crossing the origin,
0,
are calculated basedon elasticity theory. Then, stresses
in the second strip are calculated by adding stresses due
to the temperature increment. In this case, analysis is made
whether or not any plastic deformation takes place.It is
assumed that the amountof stresses at a given point does
not exceed the yield stressof the materialat the tempera-
ture of that point. Similar analyses are conducted step
by step on the following strips. Thus the stress distribution
in the entire f2eldis determined.
The program is written FORTRAN
in IV computer language
6400 computer
for use on a Control Data Corporation (CDC)
system including a Cal-Comp plotter. The FORTRAN language
is common in computer programming and can be adapted readily
to any other computer that has a FORTRAN compiler program.

"M.I.T. One-Dimensional
~ Analysis. The Battelle program
was improved during a study at M.I.T. completed in October,
1970. Table 7-1 presents comparison between the Battelle
program and the M.I.T. program. Although both of them are
one-dimensional analyses, the M.I.T. program has several
improvements over the Battelle program.
For example, strain hardeningof the material is
considered in the M.I.T. program, while the material is
assumed to be perfectly plastic in the Battelle program.
In both programs, however, the yield strength,0ys, changes

with temperature. The M.I.T. program includes the analysis

of strain which is important in comparing results of the
theoretical study with experimental data. In the experimental

7-9
 TABLE 7- 1. COMPARISONBETWEENTHEBATTLLE PROGRAM AND
THE M. I. T. PROGRAMS.

~ ~-~. "" -~
Battelle Program .
M I. T . Program
- ~ -~ " . - . .

Type of Weld Bead-on-plate Bead-on-plate, Edge,

Analyzed and Butt weld
~ _____
Configuration Flat plate with Flat plate with
finite width finite width
"

Stress Analysis Longitudinal stress Longitudinal stress

only only

" . -
Naterial Behavior Perfectly plastic* Strain hardening (linear
included*

" "-

Analysis of Strain Not included Includes total strain

and
plastic strain

Temperature distribution Calculated by same Calculated by separate

program program.Distributions
from other sources may
be used for stress
calculation

*Yield strength varies with temperature.

7- 10
a n a l y s i s , s t r a h s rather t h a n stresses are commonly measured.
program is w r i t t e n i n FORTRAN I V f o r u s e on
The M.I.T.
an IBM 360/65computer.

M.I.T. Two-Dimensional A n a l y s i s . Under a c u r r e n t

c o n t r a c t f o r MSFC, a s t u d y i s being conducted a t M.I.T. t o
develop a two-dimensional analysis of thermal stresses d u r i n g
welding. All three components, ox, CT and 7: are analyzed
Y' XY
as f u n c t i o n s of x andy. The a n a l y s i s u s e s t h e f i n i t e -
element method.
The f i n i t e - e l e m e n t method i s an approximate stress
a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e which y i e l d s a c c u r a t e s o l u t i o n s f o r
complexproblemsbyuseof a high-speedcomputer. This
method, which was o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d i n the a i r c r a f t
industry, has been successfully applied t o a wide variety
of problems.

Examples of A n a l y t i c a l R e s u l t s

F i g u r e s 7-3 through 7-6 shows r e s u l t s of anexample.

I n this p a r t i c u l a r e x a m p l e , c a l c u l a t i o n s are made under t h e
followingconditions:
Aluminum a l l o y 2014-T6, 1 / 4 i n c h thick
P l a t e width: 8 inches
Weldingcurrent: 254 amp
A r c voltage: 10 v
Arc t r a v e ls p e e d :0 . 2 3 3i p s ( 1 4 ipm)
A r c efficiency:
* 80%

Except f o r some l e t t e r s such as "Center Line, 'I "1 i n c h

o u tf r o m I' and"Edge" i n F i g u r e 7-3 and "100 F , " " 2 0 0 F,"
e t c . , i n F i g u r e 7-4, most l i n e s a n d l e t t e r s i n F i g u r e 7-3
through 7-6 are p l o t t e d b y a Cal-Comp p l o t t e r . I n other

* Iti s assumed t h a t 80% of the energy generated by the

arc i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o the p l a t e .

7-11
s f = 50 GEUMIS
=1

TI* OR x Rxxs
CENTER-LINE TEHPERRTURE
Figure 7-3. Temperature changes along three longitudinal lines.

1
ii

0.m 5- 10.mJ Ism lo.olD SaPI X

-I sm @.an urn y1.w
TItE OR X FlxIS
TEPIPERflTLIRE
ISOTHERMS
Figure 7-4. Isothermpattern.
 x RXI6
TIHE OR
CENTER-LINE STRESS
Figure 7-5. Stress changes along three longitudinal lines.

/ "
- 1 0

0- 9- WOPD UODD m- 5.- mDoLp mom um =.om

T I E OR X FlXIS
ISOSTRESS LINES
Figure 7-6. Isostress pattern.
words, a computer provides not only a print-out sheet but
also figures already printed as shown
in Figures 7-3 through
7-6.
Figure 7-3 shows temperature changes along the weld
center line (y = 01, y = 1 inch, and y= 4 inches. The
abscissa is given in terms of time, and the arc is located
at 9 seconds. Each curve, therefore, also can be considered
as a curve showing the thermal cycleof a point some distance
away from the weld.
Figure 7-4 shows the isotherm pattern around the arc.
Again the time scale can be interpreted as the longitudinal
coordinate x.
Figure 7-5 shows stress changes alongy = 0, 1 and
4 inches. Along the weld center line (y = 0 ) , stresses are
in compression in areas ahead of the arc. As the arc approaches
the point, the absolute value of the compressive stress first
increases and then decreases as the temperature increases. At
the point below thearc, the stress is zero. Stresses are in
tensile, in areas behind the arc, since cooling takes place in
these areas.
Figure 7-6 shows the isostress pattern around the arc.
There is a high compressive stress area shortly ahead of the
of compressive stresses are very
heat source; however, values
low in high-temperature areas very close to the heat source.
There is a narrow tensile-stress zone along the center line
behind the heat source, and compressive-stress zone expands
outwards in a horseshoe ghape.
From the standpoint of metal movement in the thickness
direction during welding which causes joint mismatch, the
compressive stress zone appears to be of particular importance.
If the plate is thin, or the compressive-stress zone is large,
the plate may buckle during welding. Distortionin the
thickness directionalso may be caused if the temperature and

7-14
stress d i s t r i b u t i o n s are n o t u n i f o r m i n t h e t h i c k n e s s
direction.

E
". f f e c t s of Welding Parameters

An i m p o r t a n t b e n e f i t o f t h e c o m p u t e r a n a l y s i s is that
o n c e t h e program i s developed it i s r e l a t i v e l y less expen-
sive t o conductcalculationsunderdifferentconditions.
M.I.T. researchersstudiedeffects of w e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r so n
t h e r m a l stresses d u r i n g w e l d i n g of 2219-0 aluminum p l a t e s
*
andresultingresidual stresses.

WeldingParametersUsed i nt h eA n a l y s i s .T a b l e 7-2
shows v a l u e s o f w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s u s e d i n t h e s i x t e e n cases
studied. The d e f i n i t i o n so fl i n e a rn e th e a ti n p u t ,h ,a n d
linearnetheatintensity, q , are:

h = H/T q = Q/T H = Q/v (7-1)

where
Q = n - V - 1 , t h e r m a l power of h e a t s o u r c e i n watts o r
joules/second
n = arcefficiency
V = arc voltage
I = arc c u r r e n t
v = weldingspeedininches/second
T = platethickness,inch

From t h e d e f i n i t i o n s , q i s the i n t e n s i t y o f a l i n e heat

s o u r c e , o r the a v e r a g e v a l u e o f the i n t e n s i t y o f heat source
i n t h e t h i c k n e s sd i r e c t i o n ;t h e r e f o r e , q is called the "linear

*
An e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s made o n b e a d - o n - p l a t e
w e l d s i n 2219-0 a l l o y as d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .

7- 15
 TABLE 7-2. WELDINGPARAMETERS USED IN THE ANALYSIS

*
I
Arc T r aSvpeelLeidn,e a r Net * Linear N e t
Heat I n t e n s i t y , q
joules/sec/inch
I
I
I
1
2 l 5 5 0.0833
0.0833
0.0833
1 0 ,0 0 0
32,000
56,000
2,667
4,667
833

0.0833 80 ,0 0 0 6,667

10 0.1667 1 0 ,0 0 0 1,667
0.1667 32 ,0 0 0 5,333
0.1667 56,000 9,333
8 10 0.1667 80,000 1 3 ,333

9 20 0.333 10,000 3 ,333

10 20 0.333 32,000 10,667
11 20 0.333 56 ,0 0 0 18,667
12 20 0.333 80,000 26,667
-
13 30 0.500 10,000 5,000
14 30 0.500 32,000 1 6 ,000
15 30 0.500 56 ,0 0 0 28 ,0 0 0
16 30 0.500 80 ,0 0 0 4 0 ,0 0 0

V a l u e s of h a n d q are a c t u a l v a l u e s s u p p l i e d t o the p l a t e .

7-16
n e th e a ti n t e n s i t y . ! ' The v a l u e h i s t h e n e t h e a t i n p u t
supplied t o unitplatethickness;therefore, i t i s called
the "linear net heat input. "

As shown i n Table 7-2, w e l d i n gs p e e d , v , w a s changed

i n f o u r l e v e l s 5 , 10, 2 0 , and 30 i n c h e sp e rm i n u t e , or
0.0833,0.1667,0.333,and 0.500 i n c h e sp e rs e c o n d .L i n e a r
netheatinput,h, w a s a l s o changed i n f o u r l e v e l s , 10,000,
32,000,56,000,and80,000joules/inch/inch. When t h ev a l u e
of a r c e f f i c i e n c y i s 0 . 7 , f o r e x a m p l e ,t h e s e net heatinput
v a l u e sc o r r e s p o n d t o 14,300,45,700, 80,000, and 1 1 4 , 0 0 0
joules/inch/inch,respectivelyweldingheatinput.

I t must b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t l i n e a r n e t h e a t i n p u t , h , a n d
w e l d i n gs p e e d , v , a r e n o ti n d e p e n d e n t , as shown f r o m
Equation (7-1). Forexample, when v i s i n c r e a s e d t o 2v,
w h i l e q i s unchanged, h w i l l b er e d u c e d t o 1 / 2 h .F i g u r e 7-7
shows w e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r su s e d for t h e 1 6 c o n d i t i o n s s t u d i e d .
The v a l u e o f l i n e a r n e t h e a t i n t e n s i t y q i s t h e lowest f o r
Case 1 w i t h l o w h e a t i n p u t a n d s l o w weldingspeed,while it
i s t h e h i g h e s t f o r Case 1 6 w i t h h i g h h e a t i n p u t a n d fast
weldingspeed.

All c a l c u l a t i o n s were conductedonbead-on-platewelding

alongthelongitudinalcenterlineof a infinitelylongstrip,
1 8 inches w i d e .

R e s u l t s of t h eA n a l y s i s . The a n a l y s i si n c l u d e de f f e c t s
o fw e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r so n :
(1) High t e n s i l et h e r m a l stresses i n areas b e h i n d
t h e arc
(2) Compressive thermal stresses i n areas ahead of
the arc
(3) S i z eo fp l a s t i c zone
(4) Residual stress d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

7-17
 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13141516
C A S E NUMBER

Figure 7-7. Welding parameters used forthesixteenconditionsstudied.

7-18
 In order to keepthesizeof t h i s r e p o r t t o a minimum,
t h ef o l l o w i n gp a g e sd i s c u s so n l yt h e l a s t subject: e f f e c t s
onweldingparametersonresidual stress d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
F i g u r e 7-8 shows d i s t r i b u t i o n s of l o n g i t u d i n a l r e s i d u a l
stresses f o r Cases 2 , 6 , 1 0 , and 1 4 (h = 3 2 , 0 0 0 j o u l e s / i n 2 ) .
High t e n s i l e stresses are produced i n areas near t h e w e l d ,
w h i l e compressive stresses are produced i n areas away from
t h ew e l d . The maximum v a l u e of r e s i d u a l stress a t t h ew e l d
c e n t e r l i n e i s about 1 1 , 0 0 0 p s i , which i s t h e y i e l d stress
l e v e l a t room t e m p e r a t u r e , r e g a r d l e s s of w e l d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
However, t h e w i d t h of t e n s i l e r e s i d u a l stress zone i s
a f f e c t e d b yw e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r s .I nt h e cases shown i n
F i g u r e 7-8, f o re x a m p l e ,t h e width oftensile stress zone
i n c r e a s e d as t h ew e l d i n gs p e e di n c r e a s e d ,w h i l ek e e p i n gt h e
l i n e a rh e a ti n p u t ,h ,c o n s t a n t .

F i g u r e 7-9 shows t h e h a l f w i d t h o f t e n s i l e r e s i d u a l
stress zone as a f f e c t e d by l i n e a r n e t h e a t i n p u t , h , a n d
w e l d i n gs p e e d , v; w h i l e F i g u r e 7-10 shows t h e h a l f w i d t h of
t e n s i l e r e s i d u a l stress z o n e a s a f f e c t e d by l i n e a r n e t h e a t
i n t e n s i t y , q, a n dw e l d i n gs p e e d , v.

F i g u r e s 7-9 and 7-10 show t h a t l i n e a r n e t h e a t i n p u t , h ,

i s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r t h a t a f f e c t t h e width of tensile
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s zone,and i t i n c r e a s e sw i t hi n c r e a s i n gh e a t
i n p u t . The e f f e c to fh e a ti n p u t ,h o w e v e r , i s n o tl i n e a r . The
increaseinthewidthoftensileresidual stress z o n e p e r u n i t
increaseinheatinputdecreases as h e a t i n p u t i n c r e a s e s .
From t h e p r a c t i c a l v i e w p o i n t , t h e r e s u l t s c l e a r l y show
t h e a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g l o w w e l d i n g h e a t i n p u t t o reduce
r e s i d u a l stresses a n d d i s t o r t i o n .

7-19

L "
 12 -
-" h = 3 2 , 0 0 0 JOULES/IN2

v (IN/SEC
"""
0.0833 (CASE 2)
8- 0 . I 6 67 (CASE 6)
--
""

""- 0. 3333 (CASE IO)

V, 6-
0.5000 (CASE 14)
n
Y
v
4-
cn
cn
w
2-
I-
cn
0
DISTANCE FROM CENTER LINE(INCH)
-2-

-4-

Figure 7-8. Distributions of longitudinalresidual stresses for cases 2, 6, 10, and 14

(h = 32,000 joules/in 2 ).

7- 20
 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
LINEAR HEAT INPUT, h , (JOULES1 I N 2 )

Figure 7-9. E f f e c t so fL i n e a rH e a It n p u t , h, and

Welding S p e e d , v , o nt h eW i d t h of
T e n s i l e R e s i d u a lS t r e s s Zone.

7-21
 4
h

cn
w
I
0
-3
z
Y

N
cn
rK
I-
2
LL
0
I
I-
O
r '
LL
-I
a
I

20,000 40,000
LINEAR HEATINTENSITY, q (JOULES/SEC/INCH)

F i g u r e 7-10. E f f e c t s of L i n e a r Heat I n t e n s i t y , q ,
a n dW e l d i n gS p e e d , v , o nt h eW i d t h
o fT e n s i l eR e s i d u a lS t r e s s Zone.

7-22
Effects of Material Properties on
Residual
.~ "___Stress Distributions

An analysis was made of effects of material properties

on residual stresses. Figure 7-11 shows yield stress vs
temperature curves for several materials including high-
strength aluminum (with which the current study is primarily
concerned), low carbon steel, ultrahigh strength steel,
columbium, and tantalum.
The yield strengthof ultrahigh-strength steelis very
high at room temperature, but it decreases rather rapidly
with increasing temperature. Columbium and tantalum, which
were included by the request from MSFC, are characterized by
low yield stresses at room temperature and relatively high
yield stresses at high temperature.
Figure 7-12 shows residual stress distributions for low
carbon steel and ultrahigh-strength steel. In both cases,
maximum tensile stresses at the weld center are as high as
the yield stresses of these steels. The widthof tensile
residual stress for ultrahigh-strength is very narrow. This
is primarily due to the fact that only a very narrow zone
undergoes plastic deformation during welding.
Figure 7-13 shows residual stress distributions for
columbium and tantalum. The widths of tensile residual stress
zones are very large. Since both columbium and tantalum have
relatively low yield stressesat a wide temperature range,
very large areas of plastic deformation occur during welding.
Figure 7-13 suggests that residual stresses and
distortion can be quite a problem during welding some refrac-
tory metals including columbium and tantalum. It was informed
from the MSFC that some distortion problems have been
experienced in welding these metals.

'F23
 -
HIGHSTRENGTHALUMINUM

Y LOW CARBON STEEL

TANTALUM
COLUMBIUM

IO00 2000 3000 4000

I -
-
"4
5000
TEMPERATURE, OF

Figure 7-1 1. Yield strength vs. temperature curves for several materialsstudied.

7-24
I "

200

I80t - .
STEELS
I 6 0I -

140l -

I 20l -

I O 0l -

80 I -

6 0l -

40

20

0l -

- 2 0I -
I I
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
D I S T A N C E ( IN

Figure 7-12. Residual Stress Distributions for Low-Carbon

Steel and Ultrahigh-strength Steel

7-25
 40 E

30

20

IO

-I 0

2.0 3.0 4.0

DISTANCE (IN)

Figure 7-13. Residualstress forcolumbiumandtantalum.

7-26
 An experienced investigation was made
at M.I.T. to
of the mathematical analysis.
evaluate the accuracy

Experimental Procedures. To simplffy the investigation,

experiments were conducted on bead-on-plate welds made in
2219-0 aluminum alloy. Temperature changes during welding
were measuredby thermocouples, while strain changes were
measured by strain gages mounted on specimen surfaces.
Figure 7-14 shows the specimen, which was
30 inches
long, 18 inches wide, and1/4 inch thick. On the particular
specimen shown here, which was used for the first series
tests, one three-axis rosette strain gage and one thermo-
couple were mounted. Types and characteristicsof the gage
and the thermocouple are as follows:
Strain Gage: BLH Type FAER-18RB-12S13ET
Gage length: 0.12 inch
Gage factor: 2.0 at room temperature
Thermocouple: BLH Type GTM-CA (chromel/alumel)
They were manufactured
by BLH Electronics, Inc., Waltham,
Massachusetts.
The strain gage was mounted with the BLH EPY-600 cement.
BLH Barrier C was also used to protect strain gages from high
temperatures and other environment.
At the first test (number PR-Tl), a weld of bead
gas
metal arc with argon shielding was laid along a line near
the center line of the plate, as shown in Figure
5-1. The
lateral distance between the measuring point and the weld
line was 2.9 inches. Changes of temperature and strain
during welding and subsequent cooling were recorded on an
oscillograph paper using a 4-channel recorder.

7-27
Figure 7-14. Top surface of the specimen used in the series 1 experiment.
 After the first t e s t w a s completedand t h e specimen
c o o l e d t o room t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e s e c o n d w e l d b e a d was laid
a l o n g a l i n e closer t o t h eg a g e . The l a t e r a l d i s t a n c e
betweenthemeasuringpointand the weldlineunder test
number PR-T2 w a s 1 . 3 i n c h e s .

In the third t e s t (number PR-T3), a weldbead w a s ' l a i d

o nt h eb a c ks u r f a c eo ft h es p e c i m e na l o n g a l i n e 2.1 inches
away f r o m t h e m e a s u r i n g p o i n t .

A l l ofthethreebead-on-platewelds w e r e made under

t h e same c o n d i t i o n s as f o l l o w s :

Weldingcurrent: 2 6 0 amperes
A r c voltage: 23 v o l t s
A r c t r a v e l speed: 2 8 ipm
2
L i n e a r heat i n p u t ,h : 51,200 joules/in
F i l l e r wire: A l l o y 4 0 4 3 , 0 . 0 6 2 i n c hi nd i a m e t e r .

Experiments were c o n d u c t e do nt h r e e morespecimens. On

t h e s es p e c i m e n s t h r e e s e t s o fs t r a i ng a g e sa n dt h e r m o c o u p l e s
were mounted a t d i f f e r e n td i s t a n c e sf r o m t h e w e l dl i n e . The
w e l d i n g w a s donebygastungsten a r c p r o c e s su s i n gh e l i u m
shieldinggas,but no f i l l e r metal w a s s u p p l i e d .

Analysis of Experimental Results. Using

~ t h e computer
programsdeveloped i n t h i s s t u d y ,t e m p e r a t u r ea n ds t r a i n
changes were c a l c u l a t e d .M e a s u r e dv a l u e so fw e l d i n gc u r r e n t ,
a r c v o l t a g e ,a n d a r c t r a v e l speed were u s e d f o r i n p u t data
ofcomputation.

One unknown q u a n t i t y i n t h e a n a l y s i s i s t h e arc

e f f i c i e n c y , n , g i v e ni nE q u a t i o n (7-1). A f t e rc o m p a r i n g
m e a s u r e da n dc a l c u l a t e dt e m p e r a t u r ea n ds t r a i nc h a n g e s , it
was f o u n d t h a t t h e a d e q u a t e v a l u e of n i s 0.7.

7-29
 Figures 7-15 and 7-16 show changes of temperature and
longitudinal strains, respectively, observed during the
three test welds on the first specimen.As shown in the
figures, measured and computed results coincided fairly well.
On the basisof comparison between experimental and
analytical results,it has been concluded that the one-
dimensional stress analysis developed in this study can be
used as an approximate analysis to investigate general trend
of stress changes during welding and resulting residual
stresses. However, the current analysis is not adequate to
study complex stress changes in areas near the welding arc.
Experimental results generated in this study should be useful
for developing a two-dimensional stress analysis.

7-30
 CALCULATION DISTANCE
(EFE = 0.7) FROM $
400 '
I I I
I I
I
i
-1
1

300
c
LL
e
W
U
3
200
IL
w
a
5k

RT
TIME (SEC)
ARC END

TEMPERATURE VS TIME
(PR-T SERIES)

Figure 7-1 5. Measuredand computed temperaturechanges for theseries 1 experiments.

I ARC END

I 0
0 0

STRAIN V S TIME
(PR-T S E R I E S )

Figure 7-16. Measured and computed longitudinal strains for the series 1experiments.
 7.2 Reduction of- Warpage
-~ and Residual Stresses by
Controlling Thermal Pattern during Welding

A study was conducted at the Harvey Aluminum to investigat

the feasibility of reducing warpage and residual stresses in
aluminum weldments by controlling the thermal pattern during
of cryogenic liquids
welding. (24) The concept involves the use
and auxiliary heat sources to produce contraction and expan-
sion of metal in the vicinity of the weld in such a manner as
to counterbalance expansion and contraction caused by welding.

Backqround and Phases of Study

In the previous study conducted

at the Harvey Aluminum,
of welds in 2219-T87
it was found that the tensile strength
and 2014-T6 plate could be increased approximately
10 percent
by using liquid carbon dioxide to extract heat to shorten
the time-temperature cycle for the weldment (refer to Chapter 6.3
It was also observed that warpage appeared to be reduced as
compared to unchilled welds.
It was decided to continue the study with emphasis
on
the reduction of residual stresses and distortion. The study
covered the following three phases:
Initial phase: analytical study to establish a theoreti-
cal thermal pattern which could counter-
balance expansion and contraction due to
welding
Phase 1 experiment: tests on small samples to determine
basic data
Phase 2 experiment: development of beneficial thermal
patterns in 12 by 48 by 5/16-inch
2014-T6 welded panels by application
of the concept.

7-33
A n a l y t i c a lS t u d y

The a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h h e a t e x t r a c t i o n
bymeans of l i q u i d C 0 2 t o produce e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n e q u i -
v a l e n t t o t h e thermal e x p a n s i o n a n d c o n t r a c t i o n as well as
t h e weld s h r i n k a g e( l i q u i d - t o - s o l i d )w h i c ho c c u r sd u r i n g
w e l d i n g . The c a l c u l a t i o n s were b a s e do np a r a m e t e r so b s e r v e d
d u r i n gt h ep e r f o r m a n c e of t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d y f o r p r o d u c i n g
l i q u i d C 0 2 c h i l l e d weld p a n e l s 1 2 by 48 b y 5 / 1 6 - i n c h t h i c k
i n 2014-T6 aluminum a l l o y .
Resultsofthemathematicalstudyindicatedthat the
thermal stresses would be c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d i f t h e p o r t i o n o f
the p l a t e heated by t h e a r c c o u l d be c o n t a i n e d w i . t h i n a
2-inch diameter c i r c l e w i t h t h i s c i r c l e s u r r o u n d e db ya n
a r e ao fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 45 s q u a r e i n c h e s c o o l e d t o -100' F.
I t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.8-lb of liquid C02
p e r i n c h of weld, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t d i s s i p a t e d by t h e heat
o fw e l d i n gi nf o r m a t i o no f t h e w e l d , would be r e q u i r e d .

On t h e b a s i s of t h e a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , the
j e t system was modified i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e schematic
drawing shown i n F i g u r e 7-17. T h i s j e t systemwouldprovide
c h i l l i n g t o t h e f r o n t side o f t h e w e l d u s i n g a f i n e wire
b r u s h as a s l i d i n g s h i e l d t o keep C 0 2 o u t o f t h e a r c . A c t u a l
d e s i g n o f t h e new j e t s y s t e m a n d s h i e l d i n g device i n c l u d e d
p r o v i s i o n s f o r m a k i n ga d j u s t m e n t s t o c h a n g et h e thermal
p a t t e r n as r e q u i r e d t o a c c o m p l i s ht h e objectives of t h e
program.Redesign f o r s t a b i l i t yd u r i n go p e r a t i o na n dr e p r o -
d u c i b i l i t y of c h i l l i n g p a r a m e t e r s was a l s o performed.

E x p e r i m e n t a l Work

The e x p e r i m e n t a l work t o d e v e l o p c o n t r o l s f o r warpage

andresidual stresses c o n s i s t e d of t h e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p a l

7-34
 (OUTPUT 9 LB.C02 PER MIN.)

J WIRE BRI.ISH SEAL

Figure 7-17. Modified jet system no. 19.

efforts: (1) procurement and preparation of materials,
(2) setup of welding equipment with instrumentation,
( 3 ) development of chilling systems and techniques, ( 4 ) devel-
opment of techniques for measurement of temperatures and re-
sidual stresses, ( 5 ) development of basic data on thermal
stresses, and ( 6 ) development of thermal patterns for
controlling warpage and residual stresses.
Four major systems were developed for altering the
thermal pattern during welding. All employed jet spraying
of liquid C 0 2 with or without the application of auxiliary
heat. The basic systems included the following:
1) V-shaped cryogenic jet systems for cooling the front
side of the weld.
2 ) Trailing cryogenic jet systems for cooling the front
side of the weld.
3 ) Circular cryogenic jet systems for cooling the back
side of the weld.
4 ) Auxiliary heating with trailing cryogenic jet systems
for cooling the front side of the weld.
A V-shaped systemwas designed to concentrate the chilling
around the welding torchon the front sideof the panel. A
circular system was designed for concentrating the chilling
around the molten puddleon the back side of the panel. A
trailing system was designedfor use on the front side(but
could be used on either side) with the chilling
at various
distances behind the welding torch. Thirty variations of
these systems were used during the experimental welding program
of the program was performed
The experimental portion in
two phases. The first phase consisted of tests
on small
samples to determine basic data
on the feasibility of counter-
balancing weld expansionand contraction by using liquid
cryogenics. In the second phase, experiments were conducted
on large panels.

7-36
 Welding Techniques. All welding was performed with the
panels in horizontal position. The GTA process was used with
dc straight polarity using helium as the shielding gas. In
most cases, welds were made250atamperes with travel speed
adjusted from5 to 1 4 inches per minute as needed to effect
optimum penetration.

Temperature Measurement. Six platinum resistance thermo-

couples were held by spring wire clips against the ofsurface
the panel. The thermocouples were connected to a six-channel
recorder.

Warpage Measurement. Warpage was measured using the

center at the top of the panel as the reference point. Linear
measurements were converted to angular units for convenience.

Residual Stress
"" , Measurement. Two techniques were used
for measuring residual stresses. Both involved the use of
wire or foil strain gages in conjunction with a manually
operated strain indicator. Mechanical trepanning, with
C02
coolant to prevent overheating, was initially used for
relaxing the residual stress. However, there was some indica-
tion that this technique affected the actual residual stress
slightly. Therefore, the slicing technique was used for most
residual stress measurements.

Typical Thermal Patterns

Unchilled Weld Panels. In order to establish a basis

for comparison, several48 by 12-inch panelswere welded
without chilling. Measurements of warpage, residual stress
and tensile properties indicated that warpageis extremely
sensitive to the time-temperature cycle, degreeof restraint,
and shape of the cast weld structure. A typical thermal
pattern for unchilled weld panelsis shown in Figure 7-18.

7 - 37
 F r o n t - s i d eC h i l l i n g .V a r i o u sc h i l l i n gp a t t e r n s were used
i n a n e f f o r t t o s e l e c t t h o s e t h a t would produce the most
b e n e f i c i a le f f e c t so nw a r p a g ea n dr e s i d u a l stresses. A t o t a l
of 1 4 v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e V-shaped systems were used t o weld
4 8 b y1 2 - i n c hp a n e l s .F o u r t e e nv a r i a t i o n so ft h et r a i l i n g
systems were a l s o u s e d t o w e l d 4 8 by12-inchpanels. A total
of more t h a n 50 p a n e l s were welded t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e 2 8
v a r i a t i o n s of t h ef r o n ts i d ec h i l l i n gs y s t e m s .T y p i c a lt h e r -
mal p a t t e r n s f o r weld p a n e l s c h i l l e d f r o m t h e f r o n t s i d e w l t h
t h e V-shapedand t r a i l i n g m a n i f o l d s y s t e m s are shown iri
F i g u r e s 7-19 and 7-20.

Back-sideChillingSystems.During t h e courseof the

experimental work w i t h t h e f r o n t side c h i l l i n g s y s t e m s , a
c u r s o r y stress a n a l y s i s w a s made i n a n e f f o r t t o determine
the reason these systems did not effect more pronounced
r e d u c t i o n s i n warpageandresidual stresses. The r e s u l t
of t h i s a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t thermal c o n t r a c t i o n was
non-uniformsinceliquid C 0 2 c o u l d n o t be a p p l i e d t o t h e
plate ahead of the welding torch without interferring with
t h ew e l d i n go p e r a t i o n . On t h i s b a s i s , a system was designed
and fabricated for chilling i n a circular pattern.
The f i r s t system was d e s i g n e d f o r u s e on t h e f r o n t side
but failed to keep C 0 2 o u t of t h e a r c and w a s t h e r e f o r e
abandoned. The secondsystem was d e s i g n e df o ru s eo nt h e
back side and was e f f e c t i v e i n p r o d u c i n g the d e s i r e d c h i l l i n g
p a t t e r n . A t y p i c a lt h e r m a lp a t t e r n i s shown i n F i g u r e 7-21.
However, t h i s s y s t e m c a u s e d e x c e s s i v e p o r o s i t y i n t h e w e l d .
I t i s believed t h a t t h e p o r o s i t y r e s u l t e d f r o m water
condensedon t h e cold aluminumbecoming trapped between the
b u t t i n ge d g e sa h e a do f the arc. Inasmuch a st h i ss y s t e ma l s o
did not effect the desired degree of warpage or residual
stress r e d u c t i o n , i t w a s p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y

7-38
I

Figure 7-18. Typicalthermal pattern for unchilled weld panels.

Figure 7-19. Typical thermal pattern for panels welded with V-shaped C 0 2 chilling system.
 SCALE
QI
1-INCH

Figure 7-20. Typical thermal pattern for panels welded with trailing C 0 2 chilling system.
 !

Figure 7-21. Typical thermal pattern for panels welded with circular C 0 2 chilling system.
elastic-plastic relationships were not being produced by
chilling alone as the expansion after chilling takes place
too slowly to be effective. In order to cause the proper
relationship to take place, it would be necessary to use
auxiliary heat.

Combined
-
~~~
~ ~ Chilling and Auxiliary
~ . . Heating Systems. The
first system utilized one of the front side trailing
manifolds for chilling and an acetylene flame behind the
chilling manifold to cause more rapid expansion. This
system caused the warpage to reverse from normal, but the
acetylene flame was difficult to control. Therefore, in the
remaining experiments, the flame was positioned manually. It
was found that the most effective combined system was a
general preheat of the plate 2 0of 0 ° F with approximately
1.5 lbs of C 0 2 per inch of weld impinged on the weld seam
10 inches behind the torch.A typical thermal pattern for
this system is shown in Figure7-22. This pattern repeatedly
produced panels with low warpage and with longitudinal resi-
dual stresses of less than one-third of the normal. Work
for further refinement of this combined system could not be
accomplished within the limits on this project.

Experimental Results

Experimental results can be summarized as follows:

Effect
-~
~ of Thermal
"
. - Pattern
~ on Warpage.
As shown in
Table 7-3, it was possible to produce unwarped panels either
with or without the use of anyof the systems for changing
the thermal pattern: however, repeatability was extremely low
for all except the combined chilling and heating systems as
indicated by the variation from maximum to minimum. It is
concluded that the degree of warpage is extremely sensitive
to minor variations in welding parameters, and in order to
"de-sensitize" it is necessary to distribute plastic yielding

7-43
 TABLE 7-3. EFFECT OF THERMALPATTERN ON WARPAGE.

Principal Factors
Producing Thermaz
Warpage i n Degrees (11 I
I
Pattern Maximum Minimum Typical
Bow Peak Bow Peak

Unchilled -.08 +1.6 0 0 -0.4 +1.2

Chilled
only-front side -1.2 +3.5 0 0 -0.8 +1.2
Chilled
only-back s i d e -0.8 +0.6 0- 0 -0.8 +0.6
Chilled and
auxiliary heat +0.3 -0.3 0 0 +0.2 0
1 4

NOTE:

(1) Minus s i g n ( - ) i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t i o n of bow o r peak i s

away from face of weld; p l u s s i g n (+> i n d i c a t e s bow o r
peak i s t o w a r df a c e of weld. Note t h a t t h e bow i s r e v e r s e d
when combined c o o l i n g a n d a u x i l i a r y h e a t i n g a r e used t o
c h a n g et h e r m a lp a t t e r n .

7-44
Figure 7-22. Typical thermal pattern for panels welded with trailing C 0 2 chilling system and auxiliary heat.
over a w i d e r area of t h e weldmentby s p r e a d i n g t h e i s o t h e r m s
aroundtheweldpuddlewhilecreating elastic s t r a i n s i n
s u c h l o c a t i o n s as t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e t h e r m a l s t r a i n s created
bytheweldingoperation.

E f f e c t of T h e r m a l P a t t e r n o n R e.~
s i d u a l - Stresses, All of
thesystemsforalteringthethermalpattern were e f f e c t i v e
t o some d e g r e e i n r e d u c i n g t h e r e s i d u a l stresses as compared
t o t h o s ep r e s e n ti nu n c h i l l e d weld p a n e l s . However, c h i l l i n g
a l o n e p r o d u c e d a maximum of 5 0 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n the' l o n g i -
t u d i n a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s , w h i l e c h i l l i n g c o m b i n e dw i t ha u x i l i a r y
h e a t i n gr e d u c e dt h e s e stresses as much as 9 5 p e r c e n t as shown
i n Table 7 - 4 .

Effects of Thermal P a t t e r n on Mechanical

~. Properties and ~

P o r o s i t y .A l t h o u g ho n l y limited t e s t i n g w a s performed, it
was i n d i c a t e d t h a t t e n s i l e y i e l d s t r e n g t h s were improved
t h r o u g hc h i l l i n gb ya m o u n t sr a n g i n gb e t w e e n 1 0 and 2 0 p e r c e n t .
T h i s i s i n agreement w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s of workperformed in
t h ep r e v i o u ss t u d y( r e f e r t o Chapter 6 . 3 ) .
I t w a s observed t h a t p o r o s i t y i n c h i l l e d welds w a s
smaller i n q u a n t i t y a n d s i z e t h a n t h a t i n u n c h i l l e d welds
(refer t o C h a p t e r 5 . 5 ) .

D i s c u s s i o n of R e s u l t s

The e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p d u r i n g w e l d i n g
a r e extremelycomplexinasmuch as t h e y are i n f l u e n c e d by a
g r e a t many v a r i a b l e s , most of which are d e p e n d e n t . I n s p i t e
o f this c o m p l e x i t y , t h e r e s u l t s of the workperformedunder
this contractprovedthefeasibility of a p p l y i n g t h e c o n c e p t
o fb a l a n c i n gt h e r m a l stresses d u r i n gw e l d i n g t o c o n t r o l d i s -
t o r t i o na n dr e s i d u a l stresses. The optimum thermal p a t t e r n
for a specificweldmentcan be developedthrough a combina-
t i o no ft h e o r e t i c a la n de m p i r i c a lm e t h o d s . Computerprograms
developed a t M.I.T. c a n be u s e f u l f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e optimum
thermalpattern.
7-46
 TABLE 7-4. EFFECT OF THERMALPATTERN ON RESIDUAL STRESSES.

Principal
Thermal P a t t e r n
Factors
rt Maximum
RESIDUAL STRESS ( P S I ) ‘I’

r Minimum
~

1-
I
I . ,

~~

Typical 1
Long. Trans. Long. Trans. Long. Trans.

Unchilled +22,500 -12,300 +17,600 -3,000 +21,000 -7,000

Chilled only-
F r o n t side ’ +20,500 - 8,000 +12,200 -1 ,600 +12,000 -7,500

Chilled only-
Back side +20,300 - 7,800 +11,900 -4,000 +15,000 -5,000

C h i l l e d and
Auxiliary heat + 9,200 -12,600 + 1,100 + 800 + 3,000 -2,000

NOTE :
(1) P l u ss i g n (+) i n d i c a t e sr e s i d u a l stress i nt e n s i o n ; minus s i g n (-) i n d i c a t e s
r e s i d u a l stress i nc o m p r e s s i o n .S t r a i ng a g e sp l a c e di nt h ec e n t e r of t h e weld seam.
 7.3 Development of Non-Destructive Methods for
Determining Residual Stresses

Many techniques have been proposed and for used

measuring residual stresses in metal.R S I C - 4 1 0 prepared by
Masubuchi covers the present state-of-the-art of
measurement of residual stress in metals in metal structures,
especially in aluminum structures. Masubuchi discusses over
2 0 methods for measuring residual stresses. These methods
are classified into the following groups:
1. Stress-relaxation techniques using electric and
mechanical strain gages
2. X-ray diffraction techniques
3. Techniques by useof stress sensitive properties
(ultrasonic techniques and hardness techniques)
4. Cracking techniques (for estimating residual
stresses by use of hydrogen induced cracking
and stress corrosion cracking.)

Stress-relaxation techniques using strain gages,

especially resistance wire (or foil) gages, are most widely
used for measuring residual stresses in weldments. However,
the stress-relaxation techniques are destructive. Therefore,
their applications to actual structures have been limited to
very rare cases. Obviously, there is a strong need for
developing better means for non-destructively measuring
residual stresses.
MSFC sponsored a study at the Benson and Associates for
developing non-destructive methods for determining residual
stress and fatigue damage in metals.

7-48
 U l t r a s o n i c Stress Measurina.Techniaues ( 2 7 , 6 2 )

U l t r a s o n i cm e t h o d so f stress a n a l y s i s were f i r s t
d e m o n s t r a t e d i n 1 9 5 7 , when it w a s shown t h a t u l t r a s o n i c s h e a r
waves may b e u s e d i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h e p h o t o e l a s t i c
methodusingpolarizedlight beams w i t h o p t i c a l l y t r a n s p a r e n t
m o d e l s .E x p l o r a t o r y work d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tt h ec h a n g e of
s h e a r wave v e l o c i t y w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a p p l i e d stress
evenbeyondthe e l a s t i c l i m i t of c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s .
Later s t u d i e s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y of u l t r a -
s o n i c s u r f a c e waves w a s a l s o a f f e c t e d by stresses, i n d i c a t i n g
t h a t t h e s t r e s s n e a r t h e s u r f a c e may b em e a s u r e d .F u r t h e r
work showed t h e p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n of u l t r a s o n i c methods
t o dynamic s t r e s s a n a l y s i s .
Afterevaluatingthecurrentstatus o fv a r i o u su l t r a s o n i c
s y s t e m s , researchers a t t h e BensonandAssociatesdecided to
u s et h ef o l l o w i n g two systems:

1) Modified t i m e o ff l i g h ts y s t e m
2) Frequency null system

Modified T i m e o f F l i g h t S y s t e m .
" ~ A block diagram of the
m o d i f i e d t i m e of f l i g h t s y s t e m i s shown i n F i g u r e 7 - 2 3 .
U l t r a s o n i c waves a r e produced by an R . F . p u l s e g e n e r a t o r
a n dt r a v e lo nt h r o u g ht h es a m p l et ob e read b y a n o s c i l l o s c o p e .

A d e l a yl i n es i g n a lb y - p a s s i n g t h e sample i s a l s o s e n t
t o t h es c o p ef o rc o m p a r i s o n . A s stress i s p l a c e do nt h e
s a m p l et h ev e l o c i t yo ft h eu l t r a s o n i c wave changes. This i s
e q u i v a l e n t t o a change i n t i m e i t takes f o r t h e wave t o t r a -
v e r s et h es a m p l e . When t h i s o c c u r s a p h a s e s h i f t between t h e
s a m p l es i g n a la n d the delaylinesignalcanbeseenonthe
oscilloscope. Then t h ei n t e r n a lo s c i l l o s c o p et r i g g e r is
a d j u s t e d t o b r i n gt h es i g n a l si np h a s ea g a i n . This corresponds
t o a change i n t i m e of t r a v e l o f t h e wave t h r o u g ht h es p e c i m e n .
For example, i f t h e i n t e r n a l t r i g g e r m u s t be d e l a y e d by

7-49

L
I
I T 1 O'SCOPE 1
4

i
SA FI?LE 1
I R. i. - I i
I
L

AND
AMP.
I TRANSDUCERS

r
t
i VAR.
c TRIG O E R

Figure 7-23 Block diagram showing the modified time of flight system used in measuring
the change in velocity of ultrasonic surface waves.

I
2 lo-* s e c o n d s ,t h i s means t h a t t h i s same amount
constitutedthechangein t r a v e l t i m e of t h e u l t r a s o n i c wave.

FrequencyNullSystem. The m o d i f i e d t i m e of f l i g h t
system directly measures the percentage change in velocity
ofanultrasonic wave bycomparingthechange i n travel t i m e
t o t h e total travel t i m e . A s i m i l a rm e a s u r e m e n tc a nb e
o b t a i n e d by t h e u s e o f t h e f r e q u e n c y n u l l s y s t e m as l o n g as
t h e r e i s a f i x e dp a t hl e n g t hp r o v i d e db y a t r a n s d u c e r (see
Figure 7-24). C o n d i t i o n sn e c e s s a r y f o r t h er e f e r e n c ep u l s e
t o cancel o r n u l l a portionofthereceivedpulse are t h a t
t h e yb e 1 8 0 ' o u t of p h a s ea n dh a v ee q u a la m p l i t u d e s .T h i s
phaseconditioncan be b r o u g h t a b o u t b y f r e q u e n c y a d j u s t m e n t
o ft h e R. F . o s c i l l a t o rw h i l et h ea m p l i t u d ec o n d i t i o n is
o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g t h e g a i n i n o n e c h a n n e l of t h e o s c i l l o -
s c o p e (see F i g u r e 7 - 2 5 ) .
Inordertoutilizethissystemtomeasurethechange
inultrasonicvelocity,thefollowingrelationshipexists:

where N A i s t h e number of wave l e n g t h s , L i s t h e p a t h l e n g t h

o ft h es u r f a c ew a v e , V i s t h e v e l o c i t yo ft h es u r f a c ew a v e ,
and f i s t h ef r e q u e n c yo ft h ed r i v i n gs i g n a l .C o n s i d e r i n g
t h e e q u a t i o n w e see t h a t i f either drivingfrequencyor
s u r f a c e wave v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s t h e number of wave l e n g t h s
w i l l c h a n g ea c c o r d i n g l y .T h e r e f o r e , when t h es a m p l e is put
intocompressionthevelocitywouldincreaseandforthe
same number o f wave l e n g t h s t o o c c u r i n a givenpathlength L,
thefrequencymustincrease.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c h a n g e i n f r e q u e n c y A f , and
change i n t r a v e l t i m e A t , c a n be o b t a i n e d u n d e r s t r e s s e d a n d
u n s t r e s s e d c o n d i t i o n s as f o l l o w s :

7- 51
 - J

1
R . F. OSC \ i GATED AMP. \ H.V. AMP \ TRANSDUCER
/ / /
ASSEMBLY

. A
I
b
I
I
I
I
PULSE
GEN . \
t
\ .
/
PULSE
DELAY
\
/
\
/
R . F. PULSE
GATED AMP
PRE AMP

chl \I
COUNTER 0 SCOPE

r r

\/
L- SAMPLING \ METER
CRT. DRIVE

Figure 7-24. Block diagram of the frequency null system

 Driving
Signa I

Received
Signal

-4 +- 1 m /sec

Reference
Signal

I_. 1 m/sec

Received S i g n a l
M i n u sR e f e r e n c e Pulse

Figure 7-25. Time relationships between the driving signal, recived signal, 2nd the reference pulse.

7- 53

L
 - L - L
NA - €0 - Vo + AV (.fo+ Af)

Af - AV
” -

vO
fO
LAV
Af = - - ___
TAV
LvO
fO L

is the travel time for the surfacewave in unstressed

condition and is called T. The stressed condition is:

L = T - At
Vo + AV

By rearranging and substitution we get:

Ah -fo At.fo
Af =
T - At T

since At < < T.

This technique can also be used to make absolute velocity
measurements.

Investigation on Welded Plates

In the study conducted at the Benson and Associates,a

comprehensive investigation was made on fundamentals of the
ultrasonic stress-measurement techniques. After conducting
the fundamental investigation using specimens with known
stress values, an investigation also was made to apply the
ultrasonic technique on weldments. Since the major interest
of this report is on residual stresses in weldments, the
following pages cover results obtainedon weldments.
The stress distribution in plates containing weldments
had been the subject of previous investigation using both
destructive type tests and tests involving the ofuse
strain
gages.

7-54
 The techniques employed by Hasemeyer,
et al, (63) were
followed on a test specimen one-half inch thick of and
aluminum alloy 2014-T6. The weldmentwas in the center of t
the 9 inch length dimension with two and one half inches of
material each side of the weldment.The procedure was to
measure the changein length of the weld as succeeding
1/4 inch wide segments were removed symmetrically about the
weld. From these measurementsit was possible to compute the
average stress existing along the weld. The results of the
initial measurements were in close agreement with Hasemeyer.
The procedure was then varied to allow for a determination
of the actual stress that existed throughout the so plate
that
a check of ultrasonic measurements could be performed. The
new procedure involved the measurement of the deformation of
plates containing weldments which were either along the
length of the plate or transverse to the plate. Measurements
were made of the length of each 1/4 inch wide segment of the
plate before and after each pair1/4ofinch wide segments
were removed frommthe plate. In this manner a complete his-
tory of the stress change in the plate was obtained. The
results of these measurements are given in Figures 7 - 2 6 and
7-27. In Figure 7 - 2 6 the plate contained a weldment along
the lengthof the plate and in Figure 7 - 2 7 , the weldrnentwas
along the width of the plate.
It is seen that there is a tensile stress along the
weldment extending approximately1 / 2 inch to each side of
the weldment. The remainder of the plate is in a state of
compression along the lehgth dimension. There is also a
state of tension in the central portion of the plate trans-
verse to the weld. Again the outer portions of the plate
are in compression. It is further noted that the tensile
stress is more concentrated along the length of the weld
than it is transverse to the weld. The true stress

7-55
 +3

+2

-
10
+I

-I
"""H

UnweldedPlate
" """- "I0 - -
-
-.COMPRESSION

Q)
A=
0
-2
C
.-
*I -3 Tensi
0
-
u

C -4
.-0
4-

0,
-5

A l l o y 2014
-7

-8

-9

-10
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
+
12
I /4"

13 14 15 16 17 18

Figure 7-26. Elongation change in % inch segments Versus segment location along length of plate.

I
 1

+6

1 0 0
en-
4 u
C
0 - 2
.-
t
0
0,
c -4 Tension A l l o y 2014
-
0
W
-6

-8

2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32

Figure 7-27. Elongation change in 1/4 inchsegments Versus segment location along width of the plate.
distribution in the plate must therefore consist
of the
contouxs of constant stress being somewhat elliptical and
oriented about the weld as illustrated
in Figure 7-28.
The resultsof these destructive tests appear reasonable
since the welding process involves the meltingof the mate-
rial along the weld, which subsequently coolsto room
temperature. During the cooling process the material in
and near the weldment should shrink in both dimensions
resulting in a state of tension, while the surrounding
material will oppose the shrinking by exerting a compressive
force. It would further be expected 'that variation in the
temperature of the weldment would cause local variations
in the stress.
Such a condition would be emphasized
at the beginning
and end of the weld. If we re-examine the datain Figure 7-27,
it is seen that the tensile stress along the weld is a
maximum at the beginning of the weld and only the average
of the measured stress corresponds to that of the destruc-
tive data which inherently measures the average stress along
the portion of material removed.
Both types of NDT methods were onused
welded specimens
and gave the identical tensile-compressive results with
destructive tests.

Application Technique Considerations

To apply the knowledge and techniques learned from this

investigation to specific applications requires careful
consideration of all factors involved.It has been demon-
strated that both ultrasonic surface and shear waves may be
used to measure the stress resulting from an applied load.
For residual stressesit is possible to determine the magnitude
and major axes of the stress, however,
it is difficult to

7-58
I

CONSTANT STRESS CONTOURS

WELDMENT

Figure 7-28. Contours of constant stress

7-59
determinewhetheroneaxis i s incompression o r t h e o t h e r
a x i s i s i nt e n s i o n . The q u e s t i o n still r e m a i n s of whether
a u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i v e stress e x i s t s t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e
w e l d e d s i d e o r a u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e stress p a r a l l e l t o t h e
weldment s i d e .
Anotherpossibilitywouldbe a biaxial type of l o a d i n g
a l o n gt h e s ea x e s .T h i sq u e s t i o nc a n n o tb er e s o l v e dw i t h o u t
a s t a n d a r do fc o m p a r i s o n .
I nm e a s u r e m e n t ss u c ha st h o s e made c o n c e r n i n g t h e welded
plateswheretheeffectofwelding was studied,thedestruc-
t i v e tests f u r n i s h e dt h en e c e s s a r ys t a n d a r d of comparison.
A p p l i c a t i o n su s i n gs u r f a c ea n ds h e a rw a v e s ,w h e r eb e f o r ea n d
a f t e r typemeasurements a r e n o t made n e e d a n a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d .
Such a s t a n d a r d w o u l d h a v e t o b ef o u n df o re a c ha l l o ya n d
w o u l dc a r r yt h er e q u i r e m e n t of b e i n g stress f r e e .G r a i n
o r i e n t a t i o nt e m p e r a t u r ee f f e c t s ,a n di n c o n s i s t e n c i e si nt h e
are a f e w of t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h
a l l o ys u r f a c ec o m p o s i t i o n
couldeffecttheabsolutevelocityofeverysampletested.

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f stress a n a l y s i s w i t h t h e s h e a r wave

techniqueoffers a methodofdeterminingthetensile vs
compressivedirectionprovidingboth before and a f t e r mea-
s u r e m e n t sa r ep o s s i b l e .T h i sr e q u i r e m e n t i s similar f o r
straingages,buthastheadditional m e r i t t h a t stress i s
measureddirectlyandtheelement may beremovedduring
p r o c e s s i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l . The key t o t h e s o l u t i o n of t h i s
problem i s t h eu l t r a s o n i cl o n g i t u d i n a l w a v e .S i n c et h el o n g i -
t u d i n a l wave i s i n s e n s i t i v e t o s t r e s s , it can be used as a
referenceinthesample.

The X-cut c r y s t a l i s p l a c e d o n t o p o f a Y-cut c r y s t a l .

Eachof the crystals a r e f e df r o m t w o d i o d es w i t c h e si nc o n -
j u n c t i o nw i t ht h em o d i f i e d t i m e of f l i g h t s y s t e m . The u l t r a -
s o n i c waves w i l l t h e n be g e n e r a t e d a n d r e c e i v e d by s e p a r a t e
c r y s t a l s .N o t et h a tt h el o n g i t u d i n a lv e l o c i t yi n aluminum
i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice t h a t of t h es h e a r w a v e .T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e s h e a r wave can be phasecompared t o t h e s e c o n d r e c e i v e d
l o n g i t u d i n a lp u l s e .I n making t h ea c t u a l stress measurement,
t h e same p r o c e d u r ed e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r i s u s e d . The a b s o l u t e
numbers r e a d f r o m t h e d e l a y e d t r i g g e r d i a l of t h e o s c i l l o -
scope are recorded. A s b e f o r et h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e n these
numbers g i v e st h e stress magnitude. The sampleunderinves-
tigation is thensubjectedtotheparticularprocess to be
s t u d i e d ,f o re x a m p l e ,w e l d i n g .

The u l t r a s o n i cm e a s u r e m e n t s are a g a i nr e p e a t e d .S i n c e
t h e a b s o l u t e numbers were r e c o r d e d d u r i n g t h e f i r s t measure-
ment, i t can now b ed e t e r m i n e d as t o how t h e s h e a r wave
v e l o c i t ya l o n ge a c ha x i sh a sc h a n g e dr e l a t i v e to the
longitudinal velocity.

Detection of
"" F a t i g uDamage
e

A limitedstudyalso w a s made t o e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between e l e c t r i c a l s u r f a c e resistance a n d f a t i g u e damage.

The f o r m a t i o n o f m i c r o c r a c k s d u e t o f a t i g u e damage a t
thesurfaceof a metal may b e t h o u g h t o f a s a localized in-
creaseinsurfaceroughnessandhence,should be m e a s u r a b l e
as a n i n c r e a s e i n s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y . An e x p e r i m e n t t o
measure t h e i n c r e a s e i n s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y m u s t b e d e s i g n e d
i n s u c h a manner t h a t s u r f a c e r e s i s t a n c e i s m e a s u r e dw i t h o u t
a l s o measuringthebulkpropertiesofthe material.
By t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s k i n e f f e c t o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y
wave p r o p a g a t i o n , t h e d e p t h t o w h i c ht h es u r f a c e i s measured
may b e c o n t r o l l e d by s e l e c t i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y a t which
measurements w i l l b e made.

Aluminum p l a t e s s u b j e c t e d to flexuralfatigue damage

were i n v e s t i g a t e d a t wave l e n g t h of 3 c e n t i m e t e r s . An
increase in surface resistance w a s found t o p r e c e d ea n y
visualevidence of f a t i g u e damage a n d i m p e n d i n g f a t i g u e .

7-61
Summary

A s t u d y of t h e stress d i s t r i b u t i o n i n p l a t e s c o n t a i n i n g
a weldment w a s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n
of t h em e t h o d s . The magnitude of t h e stresses as d e t e r m i n e d
u l t r a s o n i c a l l y was c o r r e l a t e d a g a i n s t d e s t r u c t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s .
Agreement w a s o b t a i n e d when t h e stress w a s a v e r a g e d o v e r t h e
l e n g t ho fs a m p l ei n c l u d e di nt h ed e s t r u c t i v e t e s t s . The
ultrasonic measurements indicated that the maximum stresses
o c c u r r e dn e a r a w e l da n df u r t h e r m o r e ,t h e stresses were
greatestnearthestartandstop of t h ew e l d m e n t .

I t was f u r t h e r d e t e r m i n e d t h a t g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n i m p o s e s
l i m i t a t i o n so nt h eu l t r a s o n i cm e t h o d s of stress a n a l y s i s .
The u l t r a s o n i c waves a r e s e n s i t i v e t o g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n p r o -
d u c i n ge f f e c t sc o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s much as 1 5 , 0 0 0 p o u n d sp e r
s q u a r ei n c ho fe q u i v a l e n t stress. F o rt h i sr e a s o n it is
necessaryto make m e a s u r e m e n t s b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r p r o c e s s i n g
i n a s i m i l a r manner t o t h a t u s e d w i t h s t r a i n g a g e s .

A l t h o u g ht h em e t h o d sh a v eb e e nd e v e l o p e dt o a useful
state forapplicationtopracticalproblemsof stress a n a l y s i s ,
furtherstudy i s warrantedtoimprovethespatialresolution
of themeasurement as w e l l as t o f u r t h e r d e f i n e t h e e f f e c t s
of g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n , a n d e x t e n d t h e m e t h o d s f o r u s e w i t h
more c o m p l i c a t e dw e l d e dj o i n t s . The u l t r a s o n i cm e t h o d s of
stress a n a l y s i s c a n b e a v a l u a b l ea d d i t i o nt ot h em e t h o d so f
a n a l y s i sa l r e a d ya v a i l a b l e .

7-62
 CHAPTER 8
Manufacturing Process System Control

As discussed in the introductionof this report, the

ultimate purpose of the NASA welding research program
is to
improve the performance and reliabilityof space vehicles.
Process control is the final objective. A number of
quantitative limits of the major variables generated in the
NASA-sponsored studieson welding aluminum can be incor-
porated in various manufacturing specifications. Chapters 3
through 7 present important findings obtained in these
studies. However, some of the findings are useful for an
improved control of the manufacturing process system.
This chapter covers the following subjects:
(1) Transferability of welding parameters
(2) Development of welding process control systems.
 8.1 T r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of WeldingParameters

It i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e are a number of q u a l i t y -
c o n t r o lp r o b l e m si nw e l d i n g .C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e t, h e
s i z ea n ds h a p e of t h ew e l d . The d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n i s
n o ta l w a y su n i f o r m : it f l u c t u a t e sa l o n gt h ew e l d ,e s p e c i a l l y
when t h e w e l d i s made w i t h c e r t a i n t y p e s o f w e l d i n g e q u i p -
ment. When welds a r e made w i t hm a c h i n e sh a v i n gd i f f e r e n t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e s i z e s a n ds h a p e so fw e l d s may d i f f e r t o
some e x t e n t ,e v e nt h o u g ht h ew e l d s a r e made w i t h t h e same
w e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r s ,i n c l u d i n gw e l d i n gc u r r e n t , arc voltage,
and t r a v e l s p e e d .

I d e a l l y ,w e l d ss h o u l dh a v et h e same c o n f i g u r a t i o n
( d e p t ho fp e n e t r a t i o n ,w e l d a r e a , e t c . ) a n d q u a l i t y no
matter w h e r e o r when t h e y a r e made ( b y d i f f e r e n t f a b r i c a t o r s
a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s ) : p r o v i d e d t h e same typeofequipment,
t o o l i n g ,a n dj o i n td e s i g n ,a n dt h e same w e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r s
a r e used. To a t t a i nt h i so b j e c t i v e ,t h ef o l l o w i n gp r o b l e m s
a r e b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d 01: c o n s i d e r e d f o r f u t u r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n :

1) What typeofweldingequipment(withwhattypesof
v o l t a g e ,c u r r e n t ,a n de l e c t r o d e - p o s i t i o nc o n t r o l
s y s t e m s ) i s m o s ts u i t a b l et oo b t a i nc o n s i s t e n tw e l d s ?
2) What w e l d - q u a l i t yc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e l i k e l yt o
f l u c t u a t e - - d e p t ho fp e n e t r a t i o n , s i z e andshapeof
w e l d ,m e t a l l u r g i c a la n dm e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r t i e s of
w e l d s ? How are t h e ya f f e c t e d by d i f f e r e n tw e l d i n g
parameters?
3) How are w e l d - q u a l i t yc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sc h a n g e d when
wezdingequipment i s changed? How s h o u l d w e t r a n s f e r
w e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r sf r o mo n ew e l d i n gs e t u p t o another
toobtainweldswiththe same q u a l i t y ?

8- 2
 The o b j e c t i v e a t Lockheed-Georgia was t o s t u d y t h e
t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of s e t u p p a r a m e t e r s f o r i n e r t g a s w e l d i n g . ( 1 7 )
T o a c c o m p l i s ht h i s ,a t t e m p t s were made t o d e t e r m i n e (1) the
s i g n i f i c a n tv a r i a b l e sa n d ( 2 ) t h e d e g r e e of c o n k r o l t h a t c a n
b ea c h i e v e d .

A n a l y s i s w a s made of GTA and GMA welds made i n t h e

h o r i z o n t a lp o s i t i o n . Thework w a s t h e r m a l l yi n s u l a t e d f r o m
theholdingfixturetosimulatethe minimum t o o l i n g , t a c k - u p
weldingtechniqueveryoftenusedintheaerospaceindustry.
N o h a r dt o o l i n g o r i n e r tg a sb a c k - u p w a s u s e d . Welds were
made i n 1 / 4 - a n d3 / 4 - i n c ht h i c k , 2219-T87 aluminum a l l o y .
A l l j o i n t s w e r e p r e p a r e d w i t h s q u a r e - b u t te d g e s . The s h i e l d -
i n g g a s was h e l i u m .

P h a s e sa n dE x p e r i m e n t a lD e s i g n

The welding t e s t p r o g r a mi n c l u d e d two p h a s e s .I nP h a s e J,

GTA w e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r sa n d t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e r e s p o n s e v a r i -
a b l e s were e v a l u a t e d . The w e l d i n gs e t u pp a r a m e t e r si n v e s t i -
g a t e d were c u r r e n t , v o l t a g e , w e l d t r a v e l speed, w i r e d e p o s i t ,
g a sp u r i t y ,g a sf l o w ,t e m p e r a t u r eo ft h e weldment, j o i n t
d e s i g n ,a n de l e c t r o d et i p diameter. These s e t u pp a r a m e t e r s
were r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e GTA
I w e l d i npgr o c e s T
s .a b l e 8 - 1 l i s t s s y m b o lasnudn i tuss efdo r
independentanddependentvariablesbytheLockheedinvesti-
g a t o rF
s .i g u r e 8 - 1 d e f i n ebisyl l u s t r a t i otnh o s e
variables related to weld cross s e c t i o n a n d p e n e t r a t i o n .

A completefactorialfor these n i n e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s
a t two l e v e l sr e q u i r e s 2’ = 5 1 2 t e s t 2 o n d i t i o n s .I nt h i s
s t u d y , a 1 / 1 6 - f r a c t i o n a lf a c t o r i a lr e q u i r i n g 32 test conditions
w a s u s e d .F o u ra d d i t i o n a l t e s t c o n d i t i o n s were used t o i m -
p r o v et h ea c c u r a c y of s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . The e f f e c t so f
theindependentvariables on v a r i o u s w e l d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were

8-3
 TABLE 8-1. SYMBOLS AND UNITS FOR VARIABLES USED
BY THE LOCKHEED INVESTIGATORS.

Symbols Description and Units for Computer U s e

C Welding arc current '100)

V Welding a r c voltage

T Travel speed of t h e a r c

Wd Volume of filler wire deposited per 100/in.

inch of weld

GP G a s purity - total ppm contamination ( P P d 100)

Gf Gas flow - cubic feet p e r hour ( cfh/ 100)

OF Work temperature before welding ( O F/lOO)

J Joint gap (in. )

D Diameter of electrode at the tip (in. )

M Cross section area totalof melt zone ( in.2)

Mc C r o s s section area of crown (in.2)

Mf Cross section area of fall through ( in.2)

H Cross section area of heat-affected zone ( in.2)

P Penetration of melt zone from part (in. )

surface

B Height of the crown (in. )

EP Electrode position from part surface (in.)

X Percent of porosity reading (70)

Mt Maximum temperature reading ("F/100)

8-4
 TABLE 8-1. (Concluded)

Symbols Description and Units for Computer U s e

Tt Time temperature exceeded 450"F

At Area under temperature curve above

450°F

Ftu Ultimate tensile strength

FtY Yield tensile strength

E Elongation

Q Overlap of welds from both sides

A Angle of GMA torch

CP Distance from contact tube to work

Figure 8-1. Illustrated definitions of variablesrelated to weldcross section and penetration.

8- 5
s t u d i e d by s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s u s i n g r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s .
Phase I1 of t h e p r o j e c t d e a l t w i t h t h e GMA w e l d i n g p r o c e s s .
The d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s were t h e same a s f o r GTA, e x c e p t t h a t
fewer s e t u pp a r a m e t e r s were r e q u i r e d .T h e r e were o n l y f i v e
basic p a r a m e t e r s i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r t h e GMA p r o c e s s , c u r r e n t ,
v o l t a g e ,w e l d t r a v e l s p e e d ,a n g l e of t o r c h , a n d t h e d i s t a n c e
f r o mt h ec o n t a c t tube t o work. A o n e - h a l f r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
fivevariableswith a l l two-variableinteractionbeing
m e a s u r a b l e was used for t h e GMA s t u d y .

Weldincr Test P r o c e d u r e

F a c i l i t i e sa n dE q u i p m e n t . The f o l l o w i n g two w e l d i n g
u n i t s were u s e d i n t h e p r o g r a m :

1) WeldingUnit No. 1

Power: S c i a k y Model S-6, f u n c t i o n a l

c o n t r o l , D-C w e l d i n g power
source
Head: A i r c o Model HME-E, automatic
head
Carriage : L o c k h e e d - d e v e l o p e dc a r r i a g e
c o n t r o l l e d b y a Servo-Tech
t e c h a m e t e rf e e d b a c kg o v e r n o r
Wire feed: A i r c o Model AHF-B f e e d r o l l s w i t h
A i r c o Model AHC-B f e e d b a c k t y p e
g o v e r n o rc o n t r o l
Instrumentation
T:e x aI n
s strumen "St ervo/riter"
4 c h a n n e lp o t e n t i o m e t r i cr e c o r d e r

2) WeldingUnit No. 2

Power : S c i a k y Model S-6, f u n c t i o n a l

c o n t r o l , D-C weldingpowersource
Head: P r e c i s i o nS c i a k y (GTA-GMA) welding
head w i t h p r o x i m i t y h e a d c o n t r o l
Carriage : S e r v o - T e c hc o n t r o ls y s t e m to
o p e r a t e a Lockheeddesignedcarriage

8- 6
 Wire f e e d : Airco AHC-B w i r e f e e d c o n t r o l
w i t ht a c h o m e t e rf e e d b a c kg o v e r n o r
Instrumentation: M i n n e a p o l i s - H o n e y w e l l" E l e c t r o n i c 17"
four-channel potentiometric
recorder

Electrode ProximityRecordingSystem. It w a s necessary

to better understand the relationship between the welding
v o l t a g e o r a r c - l e n g t h c o n t r o l of t h e GTA p r o c e s s a n d t h e
p r o x i m i t y of t h e t o r c h t o t h e work. A new systemdeveloped
by Lockheed w a s u s e d t o c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r t h e e l e c t r o d e
p r o x i m i t y .T h i ss y s t e mo p e r a t e di n d e p e n d e n t l yo ft h e arc
voltage. The e l e c t r o d e p o s i t i o n w a s measuredbythepoten-
tiometric recorder,andchartedwiththeweldingvoltage.

Weldinu Parameter C o n t r o l DeveloDment

Welding
-~ - Control Studies. During many t e s t s , t h e
e l e c t r o d ep o s i t i o n was h e l dc o n s t a n t . With this c o n d i t i o n ,
boththevoltage w a s h e l d c o n s t a n t w i t h a na u t o m a t i cv o l t a g e -
controlhead,theelectrodeposition was erraticandequally
e r r a t i cp e n e t r a t i o nm e a s u r e m e n t sr e s u l t e d . I t was concluded
that neitherpresentautomaticvoltagecontrolnorconstant
electrode-positioncontrol by themselves m a i n t a i na d e q u a t e
processcontrol of t h e w e l d i n g a r c andmoltenpuddle.
A n o t h e rc o n t r o ls y s t e mh a d t o be a p p l i e d t o h o l d a constant
e l e c t r o d ep o s i t i o n (Ep) i na d d i t i o n t o a c o n s t a n tc u r r e n t (C),
c o n s t a n tv o l t a g e (V), c o n s t a n tc a r r i a g et r a v e ls p e e d (TI, and
c o n s t a n tf i l l e r - w i r ed e p o s i t r a t e (Wd).The w i r e - f e e ds y s t e m
used w a s r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e a n d r e l i a b l e : t h e r e f o r e , no
a t t e m p t was made t o c o u p l e t h i s s y s t e m t o t h e othersystems
i n z l u e n c i n gt h ew e l d i n g arc process. All of t h e s y s t e m su s e d ,
invariousways,incorporatedthe other fourweldingvariables.
All of t h e s y s t e m s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o be r e g u l a t e d by e q u i p -
m e n t s e t t i n g s a n d still m a i n t a i n p r o c e s s c o n t r o l o f the

8-7
w e l d i n g a r c a n dt h e molten puddle.Cross-coupledfeedback
c o n t r o l s were d e f i n e d as c o n t r o l s u s e d f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e
r e s p o n s eo fo n ev a r i a b l ea n d t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l yc h a n g et h e
s e t t i n g s of a n o t h e rv a r i a b l e .F o re x a m p l e , a change i n Ep
c a u s e s a change i n C . S e l f - c o u p l e df e e d b a c kc o n t r o l s were
definedascontrolsused t o measure t h e r e s p o n s e o f a variable
and t o a d j u s t t h e c o n t r o l s of t h a t same v a r i a b l e u n t i l t h e
r e s p o n s ea g r e e sw i t ht h ed e s i r e d s e t p o i n t .F o re x a m p l e , if
Ep d e v i a t e d f r o m t h e set p o i n t , t h e e r r o r w a s m e a s u r e do nt h e
r e c o r d e r ,a m p l i f i e d ,a n du s e d t o o p e r a t e a servo s y s t e m
b r i n g i n g Ep back t o t h e s e t p o i n t . The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e s e t w o feedbacksystems w a s t h es o u r c eo ft h ef e e d b a c k
information. The c r o s s - c o u p l e ds y s t e md e p e n d e d upon t h e
r e s p o n s eo fa n o t h e rv a r i a b l ec a u s e d by a change i n t h e
w e l d i n gp r o c e s s ,w h i l et h es e l f - c o u p l e ds y s t e m was a d i r e c t
measure of t h e r e s p o n s e , i n d e p e n d e n t o f a l l othervariables
n e c e s s a r y t o make up t h e w e l d i n g p r o c e s s .

The f o l l o w i n g s i x w e l d i n g c o n t r o l s y s t e m s were examined:

1) A u t o m a t i cv o l t a g ec o n t r o l
2) A u t o m a t i ce l e c t r o d e - p o s i t i o nc o n t r o l
3) C a r r i a g ec o n t r o lc o u p l e dt oe l e c t r o d ep o s i t i o n
4) C u r r e n tc o n t r o lc o u p l e d t o e l e c t r o d ep o s i t i o n
5) C u r r e n tc o n t r o lc o u p l e dt ov o l t a g e
6) S e l f - c o u p l efde e d b a c k .

The f i r s t t h r e e s y s t e m s were e v a l u a t e d a n d c o n s i d e r e d
i n a d e q u a t e f o r a c c u r a t ec o n t r o lo ft h ew e l d i n gp r o c e s s . Tests
w i t h t h e l a s t t h r e es y s t e m si n d i c a t e dt h a tt h e ym i g h tb e
c a p a b l e of m a i n t a i n i n g p r o c e s s c o n t r o l o f t h e a r c a n dt h e
moltenpuddle.

E l e c t r o d e P o s i t i o n A l i g n m e n t a n d D i s t a n c e f r oWork.
m ~~ ~

D u r i n gt h e f i r s t 1/4-inch t e s t series o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l d s , t h e
e l e c t r o d e was c e n t e r e d over t h e j o i n t ; h o w e v e r , i n t h e w e l d e d

8- 8
cross s e c t i o n t h e m e l t zone w a s n o t symmetrical a b o u t t h e
c e n t e r l i n e of t h e e l e c t r o d e .I n f a c t , t h ep o i n to f maximum
p e n e t r a t i o n w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y0 . 0 7 5i n c ha b o v et h ee l e c t r o d e
c e n t e r l i n e ,a s shown i n F i g u r e 8 - 2 . ( 1 7 ) A l t h o u g hF i g u r e 8-2
shows cross s e c t i o n s of welds 3/4 i n c h t h i c k , s i m i l a r pheno-
mena were o b s e r v e di nw e l d s 1 / 4 i n c ht h i c k .I ns e v e r a l
s p e c i m e n s ,a l t h o u g hp e n e t r a t i o n w a s c o m p l e t e , t h e m e l t zone
d i d n o t cover the e n t i r e j o i n t . New specimens w e r e welded
t o r e p l a c et h e s ej o i n t s .D u r i n g a l l f u r t h e rw e l d i n g of
1 / 4 - i n c ht h i c km a t e r i a lt h ee l e c t r o d e w a s c e n t e r e d0 . 0 7 5i n c h
below t h ej o i n t .A d d i t i o n a l t e s t s were conducted t o f u r t h e r
evaluatethis phenomenon.

Welds i n t h e 3 / 4 - i n c h t h i c k p l a t e were made fromboth

s i d e s . A s i n t h e 1/4-inchwelds, a nonsymmetrical m e l t zone
o f t e nc a u s e d l a c k o fp e n e t r a t i o n .F o re x a m p l e , Weld N o . U 1 5 4 S T ,
shown i n F i g u r e 8-2, hadsufficientpenetrationtoindicate
overlap,butagain t h e m e l t zone d i d n o t c o v e r t h e j o i n t .
T h i sc o n d i t i o nc o u l dn o t be d e t e c t e d i n X-ray i n s p e c t i o n , n o r
was i t o b s e r v e d d u r i n g f i x e d 3 X p h o t o g r a p h i ce x a m i n a t i o no f
t h ec r o s ss e c t i o n . I t became a p p a r e n ti n t h e f r a c t u r es u r f a c e
of t h e t e n s i l e - t e s t s p e c i m e n f o r which t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h was
v e r y low.

Another phenomenon o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t
w i l l requireadditionalinvestigation i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of
e l e c t r o d ep o s i t i o na n dd e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n . Some specimens
hadconsiderablydeeperpenetrationononesidethanonthe
o t h e rs i d e , as shown i nF i g u r e 8-2b and8-2c. The weldson
eachsideoftheplate were s e t u p w i t h i d e n t i c a l w e l d
p a r a m e t e r sa n de x a m i n a t i o no fr e c o r d i n g sc o n f i r m e dt h a tt h e s e
s e t u p s were a c t u a l l ye s t a b l i s h e d .I n some cases t h es e c o n d
weldhad less p e n e t r a t i o n t h a n t h e f i r s t w e l d , w h i l e t h e re-
v e r s e w a s i n d i c a t e d i n o t h e r t e s t s . I t was found t h a t i n
almost a l l cases w i t h less p e n e t r a t i o n , t h e e l e c t r o d e p o s i t i o n

8- 9
 TOP

BOTTOM

4 B. THE FIRST WELD HAD SHALLOWER

PENETRATION (SPECIMEN U172ST) 1
BOTTOM BOTTOM

+Electrode penetration and

A. INCOMPLETE FUSION DUE TO tip diameter
NON SYMMETRICAL MOLTEN C. THE SECONDWELD HAD SHALLOWER
ZONES (SPECIMEN U154ST) ::::::Joint location PENETRATION (SPECIMEN U182ST)

Figure 8-2. Examples of welds having incomplete fusion and irregular nugget shapes.
was deeper. The electrode position for these welds was
controlled by the automatic head to maintain a constant
arc voltage. In every case, the arc voltage readings were
stable and accurately controlledat the correct.settings.
However, the electrode position recording was erratic in
most cases.
The Lockheed investigators concluded that
(1) with a
given welding setup and with automatic voltage control, the
deeper electrode position indicates that a hemispherical
arc cavity has developed that will result
in a reduction of
penetration and (2) variation in penetration due
to changes
in electrode position is as great as that due to changes
resulting from the classic parameters.

Other Problems. Investigations a l s o were made of

""

various other problems including:

1) Accuracy of inert-gas flowmeter
2) Variation in tungsten-electrode resistance
3) Variation in torch resistance
4) Shielding gas contamination
5) Effect of tungsten electrode on welding parameters.

Statis-tical_-Analysis
-~ -~~- of Effects on Welding
~~ ~

Parameters
---. --. on Weld Qualities

Procedures. Table 8-2 shows three values for each of

nine independent parameters used for GTA weldsin 1/4- and
3/4-inch plate. A constant-current, voltage-control GTA
system was used. Table 8-3 shows how the nine parameters were
changed in the experimental design for each of
36 specimens.
The letters H (high), M (medium), andL (low) are used to
represent the value for each parameter as shownin Table 8 - 2 .

8- 11
 TABLE 8-2. PARAMETERSFORGTA WELDING 2219-T87 ALLOYPLATES 1 /4 AND 3/4 IN. THICK.
1
Code 1/ 4-in. Thick Welds * 3/4-in. Thick We
Letter High Medium Low High Medium

Arc current C 2. 85 2. 73 2.60 4. 40 4.20

Arc voltage V 12.5 12.75 11.5 12.2511.35 11.2

Travel speed T 23 21 19 10 9 8

Wire deposite per inch Wd 1.228 0.955 0.682 0.3835 0.1817 0

00 of weld
I
P
N

Shielding-gas purity GP 0.90 1.50 0.30 1.50 0. 90 0.30

Shielding-gas flow Gf 1.25 1.00 0.75 1.25 1.00 0.75

~~

Work temperature "F 1.13 1.50 0. 75 1.50 1.13 0.75

Joint gap J 0.020 0.010 0 0.020 0.010 0

Electrode tip diameter D 0.125 0.108 0.090 0.135 0.122 0.108

*One-pass weld

:::kWo-pass weld (one pass fromboth surfaces)

TABLE 8-3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR GTA WELDS 1/4 AND 3/4 IN. THICK.
- --
I
- tieices C
____
V T Wd GP
-
Gf "F J
-
D

1 L L L H L H L L H
2 H L L H L H H H L
3 M M M M M M M M M
4 L L L L H H L H L
5 L H L L H L L L H
6 L L H H H L L H H

7 H L L L H H H L H
8 L H H L L H L H H
9 H H L H L L H L H
10 M M M M M M M M M
11 L H L H H H H H H
12 L H H L H L H H L

13 H L L L L L L L L
14 L L L H H L H L L
15 L H L L L H H L L
16 H H H H L L L H L
17 L H H H L L H L H
18 L L L L L L L L L

19 L L H L H H H L H
20 M M M M M M M M M
21 H H H L L H H L L
22 H H L H H H L L L
23 L H H H H H L L L
24 H L H L L L H H H

25 L L H H L H H H L
26 M M M M M M M M M
27 L L H L L L L L L
28 H H H L H L L L H
29 H L H H L H L L H
30 H L H H H L H L L
__. .~ ~.
~ - -
8- 13
 TABLE 8-3. (Concluded)

Sequences C

L
T Wd

L
GP

L
Gf

L
"F

H
H H H L L
H H H L H H
34 H L H H L H L
35 L H H L L H L
36 H H L L L H L H H

TABLE 8-4. PARAMETERS FOR GMA WELDING 2219-T87 ALLOY ?h IN. THICK.
~~
"

Code Letter High Medium Low

Arc current C

Arc voltage V 24. 5

Travel speed T 26 24 22

Torch angle A 20 10 0

Distance from contact CP 0.500 0.450 0.400

tube to work
~ . . ~. ~~

8- 14
 Table 8-4 shows values of parameters used. GMAfor
welds
in 1/4-inch plate. The variables were changed in the three
levels shownso that welds were made under
21 different
conditions.
Figure 8-3 shows how specimens were prepared from both
GTA and GMA welds. (16) Three tensile-test specimens, one
cross-section specimen, and one longitudinal-section specimen,
were prepared from each weld. On all weldments the follow-
h g 14 responses were measured: ultimate tensile strength
~ F T V lI yield strength (FTY), elongation (E), melt area(M),
melt crown area (Mc) , melt fall-through area(Mf) , heat-
affected area (HI, penetration (P), build up (B), electrode
position (Ep), porosity (X), maximum temperature of back
bead (Mt), time above 450° F (Tt), and area under temperature
.
curye above4 5 0 O F (At)
A multiple stepwise regressive analysis was made, using
an IBM 7094 computer to determine the correlation between
of the responses.
the independent variables and each

Results
". - - of Statistical
~. Analyses. Table 8-5 summarizes
results o f the regression analyses. Regression equations and
the coefficient of determination, which is the square of the
multiple coefficient, are shown. For example, the ultimate
tensile strength, Ftu, of the 1/4-inch weldsis
Ftu = 446.1 - 21.62 (T) + 9.247 (C-T)- 172.9 (C)
- 60.02 (T'D) + 1138 (D) - 0.2276 (TmWd) (8-1)

where,
Ftu = Ultimate tensile strength, ksi
T = Travel speed, ipm
C = Arc current, amp/100
D = Electrode tip diameter, inch
Wd = Volume of filler wire deposited per inch of weld,
inch3 x 100/inch

8- 15
TENSILE TEST SPECIMENT FOR
DETERMINING YIELD, ULTIMATE
AND ELONGATION

A-A AND ETCHEDFORMACRO

TlON

Figure 8-3. Weld test specimen of 1/4 and 3/4 in.thick 2i19-T87 aluminumalloy.
TABLE 8-5. RESULTS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF THE EFFECTS OF WELDING PARAMETERS ON WELD
QUALITIES.

Coefficient of
Determination,
Regression Equations Determined percent

1) 1/4-in. GTA weld

Ftu = 446.13854 - 21.61667 ( T ) + 9.24738 ( C . T) - 172.85070 ( C )

- 60.01508 (T D) + 1138.0066 (D) - 0.22755 ( T * Wd) 86

-
Fty = 29.75927 - 10.05339 (T* D) + 62.75876 ( C D) + 0.68234 ( T . Gp)
- 4.74571 ( C * Gp) - 2.89151 (Gf) 55

M = 0.05805 - 0.00597 (T)+ 0.00480 ( C * D) + 0.00040 ( T . O F )

- 0.00060 ( T * Wd) - 0.00047 ( T Gf) 86

H = 0.07413 - 0.00495 (T)+ 0.00526 ( C * V) 57

P = 3.94197 - 0.19187 ( T ) + 0.07597 ( C * T) - 1.25753 ( C ) 61

B = 0.09253 + 0.00138 ( T * Wd) - 0.00309 ( C * V) + 0.01063 (T* D) 54

 TABLE 8-5. (Continued)

Coefficient of
Determination,
Regression Equations Determined percent

2) 3/4-in. GTA weld

Ftu = 173.89012 - 4.53235 (T)+ 78.89110 ( E p ) - 8.37078 ( V ) - 2.18180 (Gp) 74

Fty = 118.32079 + 68.89160 (Ep) - 2.47662 ( T ) - 5.53961 ( V ) 56

E = 17.68104 - 0.68521 ( T ) + 16.18741 ( E p ) - 1.08126 ( V ) + 1.53388 ( C ) 64

M = 0.11159 - 0.01110 ( T ) + 0.06422 ( C ) + 0.30611 ( E p ) - 0.38142 (D)

+ 0.00959 ( "F) + 0.01059 ( V ) 82

Q = 0.75779 - 0.07020 ( T ) + 0.03589 (Gp) + 1.37834 ( E p ) + 0.17712 (C)

- 0.05904 ( V ) - 1.32220 (D) 87

H = - 0.63726 - 0.02646 ( T ) + 0.16348 (C)+ 0.66632 ( E p ) + 0.94564 ( V )

- 0.87501 (D) + 0.02070 ( 'F) 85

P = 0.28945 - 0.03090 ( T ) + 1.19985 ( E p ) + 0.13459 ( C ) - 1.48151 (D)

+ 0.01139 (Gp) 82

B - 0.03320 + 0.02956 ( W d ) + 0.02293 ( C ) - 0.00375 (T)+ 0.00446 (Gp)

+ 0.00570 ( OF) 65
 TABLE 8-5. (Concluded)

Coefficient of
Determination,
Regression Equations Determined percent

3) 1/4-in. GMA weld

Fty = 49.18872 - 3.42473 ( A . Cp) + 0.02603 (A2) + 0.16532 ( V - A)

- 0.03485 (V2)- 2.39324 ( A ) - 0.01963 ( T . A) 71

M = - 0.06014 + 0.08260(C) - 0.00006 (T2) 53

Q = - 0.83123 + 0.40188(C) - 0.00021 ( V . T) + 0.07513 ( A )

- 0.00034 (A') - 0.00115 ( V - A) + 0.35249 (Cp) - 0.1747 ( A Cp)
- 0.00032 ( T . A) 88

P = - 0.28764 + 0.25248(C) - 0.00038 ( V . T) + 0.03060 ( A ) - 0.00020 (A2)

- 0.00917 ( C * A) + 0.01113 ( T Cp) - 0.01714 ( A Cp)
* 70
The coefficientof determination inthis case was 86 percent;
that is, the variables expressed in the regression equation
accounted for 86 percent of the variation observed in Ftu.
Regression equations are not given in Table 8-5 for those
items with less than 5 0 percent coefficient of determination.

In reviewing the regression equations, it was noticed

that travel speed(T) is a significant parameter for many
responses, especj.ally for GTA welds. Table8-6 shows the
most significant parameter for each response and the percent-
age of response explained by that parameter. Travel speed
was the most significant parameter for5 of the 6 responses
listed for l/l-inch thick welds and6 of the 8 responses
listed for 3/4-inch thick welds. For example,Ftu decreased
as T increased, and the change Tin was responsible for over
40 percent of the changes in Ftu.
On GMA welds, the coefficient of determination was more
than 50 percent for only4 responses, as shownin Table 8-5.
The accuracy of the three equations which had coefficients
of determination better than70 percent, Fty, Q, and P, are
questionable because many terms are involved.For this
reason, the regression analysis for GMA welds are not consi-
dered reliable, as pointed out by the Lockheed investigations.

Analysis and Evaluation

of the Lockheed
~~~~Study -~
~ on
~ ..

Transferability of Setup Parameters

Summary of the Lockheed Study. It has been found that

in order to transfer weld quality in the GTA process good
instrumentation must be providedfor the six basic GTA
welding variables, travel speed, electrode position, current,
voltage, gas purity, and electrode tip diameter, listed in
their order of importance. The instrumentation should have
high resolution, with trace-type potentiometric recorders

8-20
TABLE 8-6. PERCENTAGE OF VARIATIONINRESPONSEEXPLAINED
BY THE INDICATED PARAMETER IN REGRESSION
ANALYSIS FOR WELDS 1/4 AND 3/4IN. THICK.

1/4-in.
Thick
Welds
Percentage
I 3/4-in.
Thick
Welds
Percentage
of Response of Response
Parameter Explained Explained

T 43 44
T 14 41
- - 43
T 53 51
~~~

-
29
30
25 Wd 30
-. ..

only are included.

8-2 1
preferred. Where t h ec o n d i t i o n sa b o v e are m e t , a l o n gw i t h
d u p l i c a t e c o n d i t i o n s of w e l d - j o i n t p r e p a r a t i o n , t o o l i n g ,
a n dw e l d i n gp o s i t i o n ,d u p l i c a t e trace r e c o r d i n g s i n d i c a t e
d u p l i c a t e welds.
No definiteconclusionshavebeendrawn by t h e Lockheed
i n v e s t i g a t o r sr e g a r d i n gp a r a m e t e r sw h i c hn e e d to beduplicate
for a successful transfer of GMA w e l d s .

I n t e g r a t o r ' s Comments on t h.~e S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y.s- i s. .

~~ ~ ~

W e l d i n ge n g i n e e r sh a v ea l w a y sn e e d e d a reliable, r a t i o n a l
means o fs e l e c t i n gp r o p e rw e l d i n gp a r a m e t e r s .T h e r e are
many v a r i a b l e s s u c h as w e l d i n g c u r r e n t , arc v o l t a g e ,t r a v e l
s p e e d , e t c . , a n dt h e r e are many f a c t o r s t o b ec o n s i d e r e d
i n c l u d i n gp e n e t r a t i o n ,w e l ds h a p e ,m e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r t i e so f
t h ej o i n t , e t c . So f a r ,t h es e l e c t i o n of p r o p e rp a r a m e t e r s
hasbeen made p r i m a r i l y o n t h e b a s i s of p a s t e x p e r i e n c e a n d
e m p i r i c a ld a t a . I t i s v e r yi m p o r t a n tt od e v e l o p a scientific
techniqueforthisselection.
There i s n o d o u b t t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s would be
u s e f u lf o ra n a l y z i n ge x p e r i m e n t a ld a t a . The a t t e m p t si nt h i s
d i r e c t i o n b yL o c k h e e di n v e s t i g a t i o n s are worthwhile. However,
their results are n o tc o m p l e t e l ys a t i s f a c t o r y .
First of a l l , r e s u l t s o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s are
n o tc o n s i s t e n t .T h i s i s shown i nt h er e g r e s s i o ne q u a t i o n s
i n Table 8 - 4 . For e x a m p l e ,t h eu l t i m a t et e n s i l es t r e n g t h ,
F t u , w a s a f u n c t i o n of T , C x T ( i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n C and T ) ,
C , T x DD
, , and T x Wd f o r 1 / 4 - i n c h GTA w e l d s ;w h i l e it w a s
a f u n c t i o no f T , Ep, V , and Gp f o r3 / 4 - i n c h GTA welds. No
significant correlation existed between Ftu and independent
v a r i a b l e sf o r1 / 4 - i n c h GMA welds. The y i e l ds t r e n g t h so f
welds were f u n c t i o n s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s :

8- 22
 1/4-in. GTA Welds 3/4-in. GTA Welds 1/4-in. GMA Welds

T x D EP A x Cp
C x D T A2

T x Gp V V X A

C x Gp V2

Gt A

T x A
L

A secondshortcoming in the statistical analysis is the

f a c t t h a t little a t t e n t i o n w a s p a i d t o t h e p h y s i c s of t h e
p r o b l e m ss t u d i e d . As anexample, l e t u s d i s c u s sp r o b l e m s
r e l a t e dt ot h eu l t i m a t et e n s i l es t r e n g t h of a w e l d .I nt h e
L o c k h e e ds t u d y ,t e n s i l e t e s t s were made on t r a n s v e r s e s p e c i -
mens, a s shown i n F i g u r e 8 - 4 . Many w e l d sc o n t a i n e dv a r i o u s
d e g r e e s of i n c o m p l e t ef u s i o n , as shown i nF i g u r e 8-3. Mecha-
n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of s u c hw e l d ss h o u l db ed e t e r m i n e db yt h e
amount of i n c o m p l e t ef u s i o n ,w h i c h i s a mechanical f a c t o r ,
as w e l l as by p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e w e l d metal, h e a t - a f f e c t e d
zone,and t h e b a r e m e t a l , which a r e m a t e r i a l o r m e t a l l u r g i c a l
f a c t o r s . The u l t i m a t et e n s i l es t r e n g t ho f the w e l l w i l l
d e c r e a s e a s t h e a m o u n to fi n c o m p l e t ef u s i o ni n c r e a s e s . It is
a l s o known t h a t w e l d s t r e n g t h i n 2219-T87 aluminum a l l o y
d e c r e a s e s as t h e w e l d h e a t i n p u t i n c r e a s e s , as shown i n
F i g u r e 3-2. T h e s em e c h a n i c a la n dm e t a l l u r g i c a lf a c t o r s
a f f e c t t h e s t r e n g t h of w e l d s p r e p a r e d u n d e r v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s .
F i g u r e 8-4 shows s c h e m a t i c a l l y how w e l d i n g c o n d i t i o n s
c o u l da f f e c tt h es t r e n g t h of a weldment. When a s q u a r e b u t t
j o i n t i s welded w i t h v e r y low heat input, l o w arc c u r r e n t
a n dh i g h t r a v e l s p e e d , t h e p e n e t r a t i o n i s s h a l l o w , as shown
i n F i g u r e 8-4aandweldstrengthwouldbevery low.
When a
j o i n t i s weldedwith medium h e a t i n p u t t o obtain complete

8-23
 INCOMPLETE
PENETRATION

a. WELDWITH LARGE AMOUNT OF INCOMPLETE FUSION,

VERY LOW STRENGTH

b. WELDWITH COMPLETE PENETRATION, HIGHSTRENGTH

C. WELDWITH EXCESSIVE HEAT INPUT, NOT VERY

HIGH STRENGTH

~ ~ ~~ ".

INCOMPLETE
/PENETRATION

de WELDWITHMISMATCH, VERY LOW STRENGTH

Figure 8-4. Effects of welding parameters on cross section and strength of weldments.

8- 24
p e n e t r a t i o n , as shown i n F i g u r e 8-4b,weldstrengthwouldbe
high. When a j o i n t i s w e l d e dw i t hh i g hh e a ti n p u t ,e x c e s s i v e
penetrationresults, as shown i n F i g u r e 8 - 4 c , a n d w e l d s t r e n g t h
wouldnotbeveryhigh,becauseofmetallurgicaldamagesdue
t o t h ee x c e s s i v eh e a t . When weldsmadefrom eitherside are
mismatched, as shown i n F i g u r e 8 - 4 d ,w e l ds t r e n g t hw o u l db e
very low.

I n a n a l y z i n g effects ofweldingparametersonthestrength
o fw e l d s , it i s importanttoseparatethemechanical effect
a n dt h em e t a l l u r g i c a le f f e c t .S i n c et h es t r e n g t ho fw e l d s
w i t hi n c o m p l e t ep e n e t r a t i o n has, i n t h i s case, no p r a c t i c a l
meaning, t h e a n a l y s i s s h o u l d be l i m i t e d t o w e l d s w i t h com-
p l e t ep e n e t r a t i o n . However, many w e l d si n c l u d e di n the
L o c k h e e ds t u d yc o n t a i n e dv a r i o u sa m o u n t so fi n c o m p l e t e
penetrationC
. onsequently, t h e u s e f u l n e s so ft h er e g r e s s i o n
e q u a t i o n s , shown i n T a b l e 8-5, o n m e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r t i e s i s
questionable. For e x a m p l e ,c o n s i d e r t h e r e g r e s s i o na n a l y s i s
o fu l t i m a t et e n s i l es t r e n g t h . The e q u a t i o ni n d i c a t e st h a t
travelspeedhad the greatest effect on ultimate strength
and t h a t s t r e n g t hd e c r e a s e d as t r a v e ls p e e di n c r e a s e d . The
resultsmightactually be d u e p r i m a r i l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
sectionalareaof t h e s p e c i m e nd e c r e a s e d as t h e t r a v e l s p e e d
i n c r e a s e d .F u r t h e rs t u d i e sn e e dt o be made of p h y s i c a l
meanings of r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s f o r t h i s a n d o t h e r r e s p o n s e s .

8-25
 8.2 DevelopmentofWelding Process C o n t r o lS y s t e m s

When w e e v a l u a t e t h e c u r r e n t w e l d i n g p r a c t i c e , we find
t h a t w e h a v ev e r y l i t t l e c o n t r o ld u r i n gw e l d i n g .F o re x a m p l e ,
l e t u s t a k e a case o fp r e v e n t i n gw e l dp o r o s i t y . By c o n d u c t i n g
variousstudies, w e havefoundthatshieldinggasmustbe
pureandthe metal s u r f a c e m u s t be c l e a n i n o r d e r t o produce
p o r o s i t y - f r e ew e l d s . What do w e u s u a l l y d o a f t e r t h a t ?

F i r s t , w e b u yp u r es h i e l d i n gg a sa n d make s u r e t h a t all
jointsbetweentubesleading t o theweldingtorch are t i g h t .
However, w e haveno way ofknowing how p u r e s h i e l d i n g g a s is
as it comes f r o mt h et o r c h . We do t h e b e s t w e can t o c l e a n
t h es u r f a c e . We may e v e nd e c i d e t o m a c h i n et h e metal s u r f a c e
justbeforewelding,perhapsusingsuch a t o o l developed a t
I I T R I ( r e f e r t o Chapter 5 . 3 ) . However, a g a i n , w e do n o t
know w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s u r f a c e is sufficiently clean.

I t would be v e r y d e s i r a b l e i f w e coulddeterminethe
purityofshieldinggasandthecleanlinessof metal s u r f a c e
j u s t beforewelding, o r evenmonitorthemduringwelding
o p e r a t i o n .A l t h o u g h n os u c hs y s t e mh a sn o tb e e nf u l l yd e v e l -
o p e d ,t h er e c e n td e v e l o p m e n t a t t h eB o e i n g Company i s a
s i g n i f i c a n ta d v a n c e m e n tt o w a r dt h a td i r e c t i o n .S i n c er e s u l t s
o ft h eB o e i n gs t u d yh a v eb e e nc o v e r e di nC h a p t e r 5, t h e
followingpagesdescribebrieflysubjectswhich are d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o manufacturingprocesssystemcontrol.

P r e v e n t i o no fP o r o s i t y byMonitoringShielding-Gas
P u r i t v a n d S u r f ace C l e a n l i n e s s

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t B o e i n g ' 2 8 )h a v ed e s i g n e d a prove
w h i c hc o u l dc o n t i n u o u s l ys a m p l e a v e r y small p o r t i o n of g a s

8-26
and deliver it to a mass spectrometer for analysis. Such a
monitoring device, when it
is perfected, can be used during
actual fabrication of space vehicles.
Investigators at IITRI ( 2 0 ) and Boeing( 2 8 ) have developed
techniques for analyzing surface contaminants on metal
surfaces. A device can further be developed which is capable
of determining whether or not a metal surface is clean enough
for welding. When the surfaceis not clean enough, a surface
cleanlng device, such as that developed by IITRI, can then
be used to clean the surface on the spot.

Comnuter
"
"
- -
.~
Simulation
""-
of Welding Processes to
Predict Thermal Effects

Computer programs developed at Battelle M.I.T.

and have
proved to be useful in analyzing thermal stresses during
residual stresses and resulting residual stresses. Without
a computer, such calculations would need monthsof engineers
time e
By using computersit should be possible to simulate
welding processes to predict various thermal effects:
material degradation due to metallurgical changes as aswell
residual stresses.

8-27
8-28
 CHAPTER 9
Summary and Practical Recommendations.

This chapter summarizes important findings obtained

during the NASA-sponsored studies
on welding aluminum. Also
presented here are practical recommendations generated during
this integration study. The following subjects are discussed:
1. Effects of porosity level on weld-joint performance
2. Mechanisms of porosity
3. Sources of porosity
4. Methods of controlling and eliminating porosity
5. Weld thermal effects
6 . Welding with high density power sources
7. Time-temperature control by cryogenic cooling
8. Analysis of thermal stresses during welding and
residual stresses
9. Reduction of warpage and residual stresses by
controlling thermal pattern during welding
10. Development of nondestructive techniques for
determining residual stresses and fatigue damage
in metals
11. Transferability of setup parameters
12. Selection of welding parameters
13. Recommendations for weld inspection
14. Recommendations for weld repair
15. Closing comments
16. List of important future work
1. E f f e c t s of P o r o s i t y Level on Weld J o i n t Performance

E f f e c t s of p o r o s i t y l e v e l on weld j o i n t performance w e r e
i n v e s t i g a t e d i n Study 5 a t t h e Martin Company. ( 1 4 ) The sub-
j e c t w a s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t a t t h e Boeing
Company. (8 1

S t a t i c T e n s i l e S t r e n g t h of Transverse-Weld Specimens.
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h i s loss i n s t r e n g t h s h o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e loss of s e c t i o n a l a r e a due t o p o r o s i t y
i n t h e p l a n e of t h e e x p e c t e d f r a c t u r e .
I n t h e e x p e r i m e n t s conducted a t t h e M a r t i n Company,
i n v e s t i g a t o r s p r e p a r e d specimens from welds made w i t h s h i e l d -
i n g g a s contaminated w i t h w a t e r vapor. They found a marked
d e c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h due t o p o r o s i t y when o n l y p o r e s 1 / 6 4
i n c h i n d i a m e t e r and l a r g e r were counted i n f i g u r i n g loss of
s e c t i o n a l area. A 5 p e r c e n t loss of s e c t i o n a l a r e a caused
as much a s 30 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e n g t h .
A close i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e specimens had
a l a r g e number o f v e r y f i n e pores less t h a n 1 / 6 4 i n c h i n
diameter. I n a l a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l l pores w e r e counted,
and i t w a s found t h a t t h e loss of s t r e n g t h due t o p o r o s i t y
w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r e d u c t i o n of s e c t i o n a l area. T h e
t h e o r y w a s f u r t h e r v e r i f i e d i n an e x p e r i m e n t i n v o l v i n g
specimens t a k e n from p r o d u c t i o n welds.
Although t h e c o n c l u s i o n reached a f t e r a l l i s s i m p l e ,
t h e s e s t u d i e s have p r o v i d e d i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s and p r a c t i c a l
h i n t s as f o l l o w s :

1) Aluminum welds may have a number of s m a l l p o r e s ,

t h e r e f o r e , do n o t d i s c o u n t s m a l l p o r e s i n i n s p e c t i o n .
2) P o r o s i t y o b t a i n e d i n h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n welding
a p p e a r s t o be more damaging t o mechanical p r o p e r t i e s '

9- 2
 t h a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n s because t h e p o r e s are n o t
randomly d i s t r i b u t e d throughout a l l p o s s i b l e f r a c -
t u r e planes. They are i n s t e a d f a v o r a b l y s i t u a t e d
i n a g i v e n p l a n e which i s normal t o a t r a n s v e r s e
load. T h i s becomes a plane of weakness.
3) When conducting a n experiment on p o r o s i t y u s i n g
a r t i f i c i a l l y contaminated s h i e l d i n g g a s , be c a r e f u l
a b o u t t h e r e s u l t s . You may b e making welds which
are r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m p r o d u c t i o n welds.
Shapes and d i s t r i b u t i o n s of weld d e f e c t s may b e
d i f f e r e n t and some material d e g r a d a t i o n may have
taken place.

S t a t i c T e n s i l e S t r e n g t h of Longitudinal-Weld Specimens.
R e s u l t s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
of l o n g i t u d i n a l weld specimens a r e much l e s s a f f e c t e d by
p o r o s i t y t h a n a r e t h o s e o f a transverse-weld specimen b e c a u s e
t h e weld metal r e p r e s e n t s o n l y a f r a c t i o n of t h e cross s e c t i o n
of t h e specimen.

F a t i g u e T e s t s o f Transverse-Weld Specimens. I t h a s been

found i n t h e t w o programs t h a t f a t i g u e l i f e d e c r e a s e s w i t h
porosity. For example, 1 0 % p o r o s i t y c a u s e s :

Reduction i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h f o r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c l e
l i f e from over 2 0 k s i t o 1 2 k s i ( 4 0 % l e s s t h a n
t h a t of t h e sound w e l d )
Reduction i n t h e number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e
Under 2 0 k s i : from over lo4 t o around lo3 (1/10
t h a t of t h e sound weld)
4
Under 1 0 k s i : from over lo6 t o around 5 x 10
(1/20 t h a t of t h e sound w e l d )

9- 3
2. Mechanisms of Porosity

Astudy was made of welding parameterson the nucleation

and growth of porosity. (111 However, there appears to be
reasons f o r questioning the reliability of some of the
equations used in the statistical analysis. More studies are
needed before conclusive statements can be on made
the
mechanisms of porosity formation.

3. Sources of Porosity

Sources of porosityin aluminum weldments can be

classified as: (1) contamination of shielding gas, (2) sonta-
mination of the joint or filler-metal surfaces, and( 3 ) com-
position of base plate and filler metal.

Shielding-Gas Contamination. It has been found that

shielding-gas contamination can be one of the major sources
of porosity in aluminum weldments. However, it also has
been found that commercial shielding gas is normally accept-
ably pure as received. In the NASA-sponsored programs con-
ducted at Boeing, ( 8 ) Battelle, (9'10) Douglas, and
Martin, (141 investigators reported that it was always
necessary to intentionally contaminate the shielding gas to
produce an appreciable amount of porosity. Welds made in
the laboratory didnot contain appreciable amounts of poro-
sity when they were made with proper procedures, that is,
when plates were cleaned properly and commercially pure
shielding gas was used.
The effect of individual gas contaminants were studied
by making weldsin an atmospheric-control chamber containing
various levels of gas contamination.
(8) The metal studied
was 1/4-inch thick,2219-T87 aluminum alloy, welded in the
horizontal position by the GTA process using 1/16-inch

9-4
diameter, 2 3 1 9 aluminum-alloy f i l l e r w i r e . The f o l l o w i n g
r e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d :

1) I n c r e a s i n gh y d r o g e nc o n c e n t r a t i o ni n c r e a s e d
porosity.
2) I n c r e a s i n g water v a p o ri n c r e a s e dp o r o s i t y .
3) I n c r e a s i n go x y g e nd i dn o ti n c r e a s ep o r o s i t y :i n
some cases, a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n p o r o s i t y was
observed.
4) I n c r e a s i n gn i t r o g e nh a d l i t t l e e f f e c t o np o r o s i t y .

The B o e i n g i n v e s t i g a t o r s p r e s e n t e d F i g u r e 5-3 as a
g u i d e f o r c o n t r o l l i n gs h i e l d i n g - g a sc o n t a m i n a t i o n . (*) The
c o n t a m i n a t i o n levels shown i n d i c a t e where o c c u r r e n c e of a
w e l d - q u a l i t yc h a n g e i s i n i t i a l l yo b s e r v e d . The f i g u r e
indicates that 250 ppm of e i t h e r h y d r o g e n or water vapor
w a s necessarybeforesignificantqualitychanges were
observed. A s shown i nF i g u r e5 - 3 ,s h i e l d i n g - g a sc o n t a m i -
nationcausedvariouseffectsincluding surface d i s c o l o r a -
t i o n ,u n d e r c u t ,a n dr e d u c t i o ni n arc s t a b i l i t y . Such
(9,10,11,14)
phenomena a l s o were o b s e r v e d i n o t h e r p r o g r a m s .

F i g u r e 5-4 g i v e s t h e c a l c u l a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , as
d e t e r m i n e db yt h eB o e i n gi n v e s t i g a t o r s ,b e t w e e np e r c e n t of
w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d a i r i n t h e basegasandresultinghydrogen
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . (8) The f i g u r ei n d i c a t e st h a t a t 70' F , f o r
e x a m p l e ,a na d d i t i o no f 0.6 p e r c e n t s a t u r a t e d a i r t o pure
helium would r e s u l t i n 2 5 0 ppm hydrogen i n t h e s h i e l d i n g g a s .

On t h e b a s i s of e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n the c u r r e n t
programs, i t i s b e l i e v e d - t h a t t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o change
t h e p r e s e n t NASA s p e c i f i c a t i o n (MSFC-364A) f o r s h i e l d i n g
gas. N o r m a l commercial gaseswhich meet t h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n
are b e l i e v e d t o h a v e s u f f i c i e n t p u r i t y .

However, g a s c o n t a m i n a t i o n c a n o c c u r w i t h i n t h e b o t t l e ,
o r sometimes b e t w e e nt h eb o t t l ea n dt h et o r c hn o z z l e . Con-
taminationcouldoccurin a p a r t i a l l y empty b o t t l e , f o r

9- 5
instance. O r , i t c o u l do c c u rd u e t o defective c o n n e c t i o n si n
t h et u b i n gs y s t e m .T h i s subject w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n a n o t h e r
p a r t of t h i s r e p o r t .

S u r f a c eC o n t a m i n a t i o n . The B o e i n gi n v e s t i g a t o r s , based
upon t h e i r f i n d i n g o n s h i e l d i n g - g a s c o n t a m i n a t i o n , r e p o r t e d
t h a t a singlefingerprintcouldcausethree times t h e minimum
level of h y d r o g e nn e c e s s a r y t o c a u s e p o r o s i t y ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) .
A t h o r o u g h e v a l u a t i o n of s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s as a p o t e n t i a l
s o u r c e o f weld p o r o s i t y w a s u n d e r t a k e n a t I I T R I . ( 2 0 1
Table 5-2 summarizes t h e s u r f a c e p r e p a r a t i o n s a n d a
d e s c r i g t i o n of d e f e c t s . A l l t e s t s welds c o n t a i n e ds i g n i f i c a n t
p o r o s i t ye x c e p tt h em a c h i n e ds p e c i m e n s( F i g u r e 5-8) t h a t
received no f u r t h e rt r e a t m e n t .F i g u r e 5-9 shows l a r g ep o r o -
s i t y e n c o u n t e r e d when t h e s u r f a c e w a s n o t m a c h i n e d b u t w a s
s o l v e n td e g r e a s e d .F i g u r e s5 - 1 0 , 5-11, and 5-12 show photos
t a k e n of m a c h i n e d s u r f a c e s w i t h a s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n micro-
scope:numerous t e a r s and smears are p r e s e n t .F i g u r e 5-13
shows a f r a c t u r e d s p e c i m e n w i t h a r e s i d u e of t r i c h l o r o -
e t h y l e n en e a rt h es u r f a c e .F i g u r e 5-14 shows r e a c t i o n
p r o d u c t s from c h e m i c a l c l e a n i n g .
F i g u r e 5-15 p r e s e n t s t h e f i n d i n g i n a simplemanner.
Shown here are weld-defect p o t e n t i a l of v a r i o u s s u r f a c e
p r e p a r a t i o n s .F i g u r e 5-16 i s a similar p r e s e n t a t i o n ,b u t
it includes the effect of storage t i m e ondefectpotential.
As-machined s u r f a c e s have t h e lowest defect p o t e n t i a l .

Composition of Base P l a t e and F i l l e r Metal. An

i n v e s t i g a t i o n was made a t B a t t e l l e of t h e e f f e c t s o f f o u r
f a c t o r so np o r o s i t y . (9’10) The f o u r f a c t o r s , l i s t e d i n t h e
order of t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n p o r o s i t y level, are:
1) S h i e l d i n g - g ams o i s t u r ce o n t e n t
2) A l l o y i negl e m e n t s
3) Metallic i m p u r i t i e s
4) I n t e r n ahl y d r o g e nc o n t e n t .

9- 6
The program w a s c o n d u c t e d i n t w o p h a s e s , t h e f i r s t p h a s e
u s i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l base metals and f i l l e r metals, and the
s e c o n dp h a s eu s i n g commercial materials. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e
thatbase-plateandfiller-metalcompositions are n o t l i k e l y
t o besignificantsources of p o r o s i t y as l o n g a s (1) s h i e l d i n g
g a sa n ds u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n a r e c o n t r o l l e d a t l o w levels and
(2) base plates and f i l l e r metals a r e c a r e f u l l y p r e p a r e d t o
meet t h e p r e s e n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n w i t h n o g r o s s h y d r o g e n c o n t a -
mination. I t h a sb e e nh y p o t h e s i z e dt h a tt h e r e is a synergistic
e f f e c t of a l l o y a n d metal i m p u r i t y c o n t e n t , a n d e x t e r n a l
c o n t a m i n a t i o n( s h i e l d i n gg a sa n ds u r f a c e ) ,w h i c hc a u s e s
s i g n i f i c a n tp o r o s i t y .T h i sh a sn o ty e tb e e ns u b s t a n t i a t e d .
B e c a u s eo ft h e s ef i n d i n g s ,t h ei n t e g r a t o r recommends
no changes i n t h e p r e s e n t NASA s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r b a s e - p l a t e
a n df i l l e r - m e t a lc o m p o s i t i o n s .

4. Methods of Controlling and -

Eliminating Porosity

I n t h e NASA research programonweldingaluminum,

several a t t e m p t s were made t o d e v e l o p m e t h o d s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g
a n de l i m i n a t i n gp o r o s i t y .S u b j e c t ss t u d i e di n c l u d e :
1. S u r f a c eh y d r o g e na n a l y s i s
2. S u r f a cpe r e p a r a t i o n
3. M o n i t o r i n gs h i e l d i n gg a sp u r i t y
4. O t h e r m e t h o d si n c l u d i n g (1) u s eo fh y d r o g e ng e t t e r s ,
( 2 ) m a g n e t i c a r c s h a p e sa n dm o l t e n metal stirrer,
and ( 3 ) c r y o g e n i cc o o l i n g .

_"S u r f a.c-
e Hydrogen Analysis. Analytical techniques for
d e t e r m i n i n gs u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a n t s w e r e f i r s t s t u d i e d a t I I T R I (201
and a f u r t h e r s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e B o e i n g Company. (28)

T h r e et e c h n i q u e s w e r e found t o be e f f e c t i v e i n d e t e c t i n g
hydrogencontaminants. The f i r s t o n e w a s gaschromatography.

9-7
I t i s r e a d i l y calibratable methodwhichcouldmeasureadsorbed
s u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a n t s . I t does n o tr e a d i l yl e n d itself to
manufacturingapplicationssincetheinstrumentationand
samplingtechniques are q u i t e complex.
The s e c o n dt e c h n i q u ei n v o l v e sr a d i o a c t i v e tracers. This
method i s c a p a b l e o f r e v e a l i n g t h e c o m p l e t e a d s o r p t i o n /
d e s o r p t i o n c y c l e w i t h minimum d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e surface b e i n g
measured. The r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r method, however, i s mainly
a researchtool.

The t h i r dt e c h n i q u e was s p a r ke m i s s i o ns p e c t r o s c o p y . It
essentiallyheats,desorbs,dissociates, a d excitescertain
s p e c i e s which e x i s t on t h e s u r f a c e . The methodofmeasurement
involvesthequantitativedeterminationofrelativefilm
d e n s i t i e s produced by exposure t o s p a r k e x c i t e d s p e c t r a .
T h i s s p a r k e m i s s i o n methodof surface analysis appears to
rate surfaces in accordance w i t h t h e i r r e l a t i v e hydrogen-
c o n t a m i n a t i o nl e v e l s .

Surface Preparation. ~~ ~ A s t u d y w a s conducted a t I I T R I

t o d e v e l o p new t e c h n i q u e s f o r p r e p a r i n g c l e a n metal s u r f a c e s
a d e q u a t ef o rw e l d i n g . A p r a c t i c a ls y s t e mf o rp r e p a r i n g the
weldingsurfacesof aluminumcomponents was developedand
demonstrated. The s y s t e mc o n s i s t so fd r ym i l l i n g the a b u t t i n g
e d g e sa n da d j a c e n ts u r f a c e so f aluminum t o remove contaminated
s u r f a c el a y e r sa n de x p o s e a f r e s h s u r f a c e w i t h a low defect
p o t e n t i a l . A p r o t o t y p ed e v i c e was d e s i g n e da n df a b r i c a t e d
todemonstratethefeasibilityof t h e system.

The p r o t o t y p e d e v i c e was u s e d t o p r e p a r e t h e weldsurfaces

of f l a t and curved aluminum p l a t e s w i t h a s q u a r e b u t t w e l d
j o i n tc o n f i g u r a t i o n .T h e s es u r f a c e s were e v a l u a t e do n t h e
bases o f g a s t u n g s t e n - a r c s p o t a n d seam w e l d soundness,
Proficordermeasurements,andscanningelectronmicroscopy.
R e s u l t sf r o mt h e s ee v a l u a t i o n sp r o v e d t h e technique, system,
andprototypedeviceto be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e i n t e n d e d
application.
9- 8
 An a t t e m p t a l s o w a s made f o r u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l d i s c h a r g e
t e c h n i q u e sf o rp r e p a r i n g clean metal s u r f a c e s .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
a l l ofthethreetechniquesinvestigatedfailedtoproduce
surfaces with l o w weld defect potential.

M o n i t o r i n gS h i e l d i n g G a s . A s t u d y w a s conducted a t t h e
Boeing Company, ( 2 8 1 withthefollowingobjectives:
1. D e f i n et h es h i e l d i n gg a sp r o f i l e so ft y p i c a l
production weld torches.
2. D e t e r m i n e t h ed e g r e eo fc o n t a m i n a t i o ni n t r o d u c e d
into the arc region as a r e s u l t o f j o i n t d e f e c t s .
3. C o r r e l a t et h e abovewithweldporosity.
A special probe was designed which could continuously
sample a v e r y small p o r t i o n o f t h e g a s a n d d e l i v e r it t o a
mass s p e c t r o m e t e rf o ra n a l y s i s . By means of t h em o t o rd r i v e n
probe i t was p o s s i b l e t o s c a n t h e g a s s h i e l d a n d r e l a t e
compositiontopositionandtoreconstruct t h e contamination
profile. The mass s p e c t r o m e t e r w a s s e t t oc o n t i n u o u s l y
monitoroxygen. A t y p i c a ls c a n i s shown i n F i g u r e 5-31.
From t h e s e scans t h e d i s t a n c e s a t whichoxygen-reached 1 0 ,
100, 1 0 0 0 , and 5000 ppm were r e c o r d e d .

The t e s t r e s u l t s may be summarized a s follows’:

1. If s h i e l d i n g gas flow r a t e i s adequate,gaps do

not perturb t h e contaminationprofilebut if
flowratesarereducedto w h e r e gaps may cause
c o n t a m i n a t i o n , t h e n movement of t h e t o r c h a n d
other slight drafts disturb the shielding gas
enough t o c o m p l e t e l y o v e r s h a d o w a n y e f f e c t of t h e
gap.Thiscondition w a s a l s o found t o e x i s t f o r
m i s f i t s( F i g u r e5 - 3 2 ) , t h a t i s , e i t h e r no change
i n t h e p r o f i l e was found o r d r a f t s overshadow
the effect.

9-9
 2. A helium f l o w rate t h a t i s adequate f o r s h o r t
t o r c h t o work d i s t a n c e becomesinadequate a t
l o n g e rd i s t a n c e s . When c a r r i e d t o e x t r e m e ,t h e
r e g i o n of z e r o c o n t a m i n a t i o n d e c r e a s e s to a
small cone. A t t h e s h o r t e r t o r c h t o work
d i s t a n c e s t h e work forces t h e s h i e l d g a s o u t ,
t h u st h e r e i s a d e q u a t ec o v e r a g e . When a gap
i s e n c o u n t e r e d ,t h ep r o f i l ee x h i b i t s a transition
t o thatobservedwithno work p r e s e n t , when t h e
gap i s l a r g e e n o u g h .

3. The a b o v e - m e n t i o n e dt r a n s i t i o n i s dependentupon
heliumflow r a t e . A t a f l o w r a t e highenough to
p r o v i d ea d e q u a t ec o v e r a g et h et r a n s i t i o no c c u r s
a t a l a r g eg a p . A t lower f l o w r a t e s t h eg a s
shield is unstablewithrespect to slight air
movement a n d t h e t r a n s i t i o n c a n n o t b e s e e n .
Thesedataindicatethatjointvariations may
h a v ev e r y little i n f l u e n c e o n s h i e l d i n g .

4. The d a t a o b t a i n e d s o f a rs t r o n g l ys u g g e s t st h a t
mechanicaljointdefects do n o t l e a d t o p o r o s i t y .
That i s , m e c h a n i c a l j o i n t d e f e c t s do n o t e a s i l y
p o r d u c ep o o rs h i e l d i n ga n d i f t h e yc o u l d , atmos-
p h e r i cc o n t a m i n a t i o n ,p a r t i c u l a r l y moist a i r ,
cannotenterthe arc r e g i o n i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n -
t i t i e s t o p r o d u c ep o r o s i t yi n aluminumevenunder
t h e most adverse p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .

Methods f o r R e d u c i n gP o r o s i t y . I t hasbeen shown t h a t

h y d r o g e nc o n t a m i n a t i o nc a n be reduced o r e l i m i n a t e d t h r o u g h
p r o p e rs u r f a c ep r e p a r a t i o n ,c l e a n l i n e s sp r e c a u t i o n sd u r i n g
thehandlingofthe m a t e r i a l s , a n dw e l d i n gp r o c e d u r e s .
However, c a r e f u l l y t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s are o b s e r v e d ,t h o u g h ,
some hydrogen may s t i l l be p r e s e n t i n t h e m o l t e n p u d d l e .

9- 10
Thus, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o d e v i s e a means w i t h i n t h e w e l d i n g
p r o c e s s t o e l i m i n a t e o r n e u t r a l i z e h y d r o g e n t h a t may be
p r e s e n t ,a n dt h u sr e d u c ep o r o s i t y .T h r e es e p a r a t e means
of doing this w e r e studied in different programs.
1. Hydrogen Getters. I t i s known t h a t c e r t a i n
e l e m e n t s w i l l a c t as s c a v e n g e r s of hydrogen,
e i t h e r e l i m i n a t i n g it o r combining with i t i n
a harmlessform. The problem i s how t o i n t r o -
d u c et h e s ee l e m e n t s t o theweldingprocess.
A t S o u t h e r nR e s e a r c hI n s t i t u t e ,e x p e r i m e n t s
were made of s t u d y i n g t h e u s e of s c a v e n g i n g
e l e m e n t si n c l u d i n g T i , Z r , C e and C a . I nt h e
workconducted so f a r , n o s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c -
t i o n i n p o r o s i t y was o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h u s e of
powders as s c a v e n g e re l e m e n t s ,a n di n some
cases t h e s e v e r i t y of p o r o s i t y was i n c r e a s e d .
The r e s u l t s , h o w e v e r ,d on o tn e c e s s a r i l y mean
t h a t t h e t h e o r y of s c a v e n g e re l e m e n t s i s wrong.
F u r t h e r work s h o u l d b e d o n e t o developother
methods of u s i n g t h e s e e l e m e n t s .

2- Macrnetic A r c ShaDerandMolten-Puddle Stirrers.

Anotherpossiblemethodofreducingporosity is
t h e u s e of m e c h a n i c a l d e v i c e s t h a t e i t h e r a g i t a t e
t h ep u d d l eo r o s c i l l a t e o r s h a p et h ep l a s m a .B o t h
puddlestirringandplasmaoscillationhaveproved
successfulinreducingthe level o f p o r o s i t y ,
althoughthepercentreduction was relatively
small. However, a t t a i n i n gt h i sr e d u c t i o nr e q u i r e s
t h ea d d i t i o no fc o m p l i c a t e de q u i p m e n t to the
w e l d i n gt o r c h .

3. CryogenicCooling. The r e s u l t so b t a i n e d a t Harvey

Aluminum have shown t h a t p o r o s i t y c o u l d b e r e d u c e d

9-11
 b yc r y o g e n i cc o o l i n gd u r i n gw e l d i n g . However, t h e
p e r c e n t a g e of p o r o s i t y r e d u c t i o n w a s r e l a t i v e l y
small. The u s e of t h i s m e t h o di n t r o d u c e st h er i s k
of c o n t a m i n a t i n g t h e w e l d a n d f u r t h e r c o m p i i c a t e s
t h ew e l d i n gp r o c e s s . More s t u d y i s n e e d e db e f o r e
c o n c l u s i v es t a t e m e n t sc a nb eg i v e n on t h i s subject.

5. Weld T h e r m aE
l ffects

I t i s known t h a t t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t r e n g t h of a weldment
i n c r e a s e s as w e l d i n gh e a ti n p u td e c r e a s e s .F i g u r e 3-2
s u m m a r i z e st h ee x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t so b t a i n e da t MSFC on t h e
effectsofweldingheatinput on t h e u l t i m a t e tensile strength
of welds i n 2219-T81 and 2219-97.86 alloys. ( 4 , 6 , 7 )

When t h e w e l d h e a t i n p u t i s between 4 0 , 0 0 0 and 1 0 0 , 0 0 0

2
joules/in , theultimatestrengthof a weld i s between
37,500and 42,000 psi. A s t h eh e a ti n p u td e c r e a s e s ,t h e
w e l ds t r e n g t hi n c r e a s e ss h a r p l yr e a c h i n g as h i g h as 57,000 p s i
w i t h a 1 0 , 0 0 0 j o u l e s / i n 2 h e a t i n p u t b ye l e c t r o n - b e a mp r o c e s s .
The2218-T87 b a s e metal h a s a s t r e n g t h of 6 9 , 0 0 0 p s i , a b o u t
1 0 , 0 0 0 p s i of w h i c hs t r e n g t h i s due t o s t r a i nh a r d e n i n g . The
s t r e n g t h of t h e a l l o y i n t h e u n s t r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n , T-62, i s
l i s t e d a t 59,000 p s i , n e a r l y r e a c h e d i n e l e c t r o n - b e a m w e l d s
of 1 0 , 0 0 0 j o u l e s / i n . 2

T i m e - T e m p e r a t u r eE f f e c t .J a c k s o n ( 5 7 ) p r o p o s e dt h e
t i m e - t e m p e r a t u r ec o n c e p t to studytheeffectsofheatinput
o nt h es t r e n g t ho f aluminumwelds. (5) F i g u r e 6-2 shows t h e
temperaturechangeduringweldingof a p o i n t i n a weldment.
Maximum t e m p e r a t u r e is d e f i n e d as t h ep e a kt e m p e r a t u r ew h i c h
thematerialbeingjoinedexperiencesduringthewelding
h e a tc y c l e . T i m e a t t e m p e r a t u r e i s d e f i n e d as t h e time t h a t
thematerialbeingjoined i s a b o v et h et e m p e r a t u r et h a t

9- 12
adversely affects s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of 2219-T87 aluminum
a l l o y are found t o be a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d a b o v e 450' F .
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s made t o d e v e l o p r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between weld heat input and strength characteristics of 2 2 1 9
aluminumwelds. By t h e u s e of m u l t i v a r i a t e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y -
s i s of e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among maximum
t e m p e r a t u r e , t i m e a t t e m p e r a t u r e ,a n dm e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r t y
characteristicsincludingyieldstrength, ultimate t e n s i l e
strength, and elongation w e r e determined.
The f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e drawn as a r e s u l t
ofthisinvestigation.

1. Maximum t e m p e r a t u r ea n d t i m e a t t e m p e r a t u r e were
found t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t i n m e a s u r i n g e f f e c t i v e
weld heat input.
2. t r a v e l s p e e d were t h eo n l yc o n t r o l l a b l e
C u r r e n ta n d
independent variables that significantly affected
t i m e a t temperaturewhilevoltage,currentand
tungsten length affected maximum t e m p e r a t u r e .

3. D e f i n i t em a t h e m a t i c a lr e l a t i o n s h i p s can be developed
describingtheinteractionsbetweenweldheatinput
and f a c t o r s t h a t r e q u i r e o p t i m i z a t i o n .

6. Welding
. with High Density
~~ Power Sources

A s shown i n F i g u r e 3-2, higherstrengths are o b t a i n e d

w i t hw e l d s made w i t h lower e n e r g i e s .E x p r e s s e dd i f f e r e n t l y ,
welds made w i t h h i g h power d e n s i t i e s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e p a r a -
meters w i l l p r o d u c eh i g h e rs t r e n g t h s .A t t e m p t s were made t o
weldwithhighdensity power s o u r c e s .

Experiments t o I n c r e a s e GTA Power D e n s i t y .

~" A study w a s
conducted a t Lockheed-Palo A l t o ( 2 5 ) t o i n v e s t i g a t e

9- 13
possibilitiestosignificantlyincreasethe power d e n s i t y of
GTA w e l d i n g .S u b j e c t ss t u d i e di n c l u d e (1)m o d i f i c a t i o no ft h e
e l e c t r o d e( c a t h o d e ) , (2) m o d i f i c a t i o no ft h ew o r k p i e c e( a n o d e ) ,
(3) m o d i f i c a t i o no ft h es h i e l d i n gg a s ,a n d ( 4 ) useofmagnetic
f i e l d s t o c o n s t r i c tt h ea r cp l a s m a . The i m p o r t a n tf i n d i n g s
obtainedinthestudy are as f o l l o w s :
S i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n a r c power d e n s i t y as
measuredbynarrowingof t h e continuum, were
notedforadditionsof 2 0 v o l % hydrogen t o
helium o r a r g o ns h i e l d i n gg a s .N i t r o g e na d d i t i o n s
to helium also increased power d e n s i t y , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of 4 0 vol % o r g r e a t e r .
The g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e m e a s u r e d , h o w e v e r , was w i t h
t h ea d d i t i o no f 0 . 5 vol % SF t o h e l i u m .
6
The improvement i n weld p e n e t r a t i o n a n d d e p t h - t o -
width r a t i o o b t a i n e d i n the bead-on-plate tests
i s much s m a l l e r t h a n s u g g e s t e d by the continuum
d a t a :f o re x a m p l e ,a ni n c r e a s e of a b o u t 3 0 % com-
pared t o a t e n f o l d i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o n t i n u u m power
d e n s i t ym e a s u r e df o rt h e SF6 addition.Moreover,
nitrogenadditions,actually r e s u l t e d i n lower
d e p t h - t o - w i d t hr a t i o s i n stainless steel.
The u s e o f m a t e r i a l s w i t h h i g h t h e r m i o n i c e m i s s i o n
f o rt h ee l e c t r o d e( c a t h o d e ) shows some promise
w i t h up t o a 6 0 % i n c r e a s e i n power d e n s i t y , a s
measured by thecontinuum,andabout a 30% i n c r e a s e
i n d e p t h - t o - w i d t hr a t i o s ,f o rt h et i pc o n f i g u r a t i o n s
studied.
The use of a l o n g i t u d i n a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d r e s u l t e d
i n a slightnarrowingof the current width on the
copperanodebutcausedseveredistortionofthe
weldpoolunderpracticalweldingconditionsinthe
bead-on-plate t e s t s .

9-14
 N o improvement i n power d e n s i t y w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t s t o modifytheanode.

The depth-to-width r a t i o s a t t a i n a b l e by t h e e l e c t r o n
beam w e l d i n g p r o c e s s are over t e n times g r e a t e r t h a n
t h e best GTA c o n d i t i o n s . The t o t a l power f o re a c h
p r o c e s s i s of t h e o r d e r o f 5 KW y e t b e c a u s e of t h e
difference in the size of t h e h e a t source as i t
impingesonthe work t h e maximum e l e c t r o n beam power
d e n s i t y i s of t h e o r d e r o f 109W/cm2 w h e r e a s t h e GTA
t h e maximum power a v a i l a b l e i s of t h e o r d e r of
5
1 0 W/cm2. The r e s u l t so ft h i ss t u d yd e c r e a s e da b o u t
1/2 thedifferenceof power d e n s i t y b e t w e e n t h e two
methods b u t t h e power d e n s i t y o f e l e c t r o n beam
welding w i l l still b ea b o u t 1 0 0 times t h a t of t h e
tungsten arc process.

E l e c t r o n Beam Welding.In1963, MSFC made i t s f i r s t

effort to use an electron-beam welding system for fabricating
l a r g ea e r o s p a c es t r u c t u r e s . A " s p l i t - c h a m b e r "c o n c e p t as
d e s i g n e d by t h eS c i a k yB r o t h e r s Company w a s u s e d . MSFC chose
the33-footdiameterringthat makes t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a
bulkhead t o a c y l i n d e r i n the Saturn V f i r s t s t a g e . The
c r o s s s e c t i o n o ft h er i n g forms a Y , as shown i n F i g u r e 6-7.
Threesegments were j o i n e d w i t h EB s y s t e m i n t o a complete
ring.

Non-Vacuum
.~ E l e c t r o n Beam Welding. A newly developed
high-voltage, non-vacuum electron-beam welding system was
d e l i v e r e d t o MSFC i n 1 9 6 9 byWestinghouse. (22 1

Poweredby i s of a u n i q u e
1 5 0 KV s u p p l y , t h e w e l d e r
compactdesign. The powersupplyandweldinggun,complete
w i t h a l l h i g h vacuum pumps a n d a c c e s s o r i e s , are assembled
i n t o a 2 1 0 - l b packagethatcanbemounted in either the

9- 15
downhand o rh o r i z o n t a lw e l d i n gp o s i t i o n( F i g u r e 6-9). It is
mountedon a c o n v e n t i o n a l side beam c a r r i a g e . F l e x i b l e low
vacuum l i n e s p e r m i t t h e w e l d i n g h e a d t o be traversed four
feet i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The c o m p l e t eu n i t i s e n c l o s e d i n a
l e a d s h i e l d e d room.
Welding has beendoneon 1/4-inch t h i c k aluminumand
1/8-inchand1/2-inch t h i c k steel.

But t o o b t a i n non-vacuum EB welds i n aluminum t h a t a r e

similar i n shape t o h a r d vacuum welds, weldingmust be done
a t more t h a n 2 0 0 in/min. Narrow welds made a t anyspeed
impose s t r i c t a c c u r a c yr e q u i r e m e n t s .T r a n s v e r s ed e v i a t i o n s
of t h e beam from t h e center of t h e j o i n t , and j o i n t gapsof
more t h a n 0 . 0 0 5 i n c hc a nr e s u l t i n l a c k of f u s i o n . The
s i t u a t i o n i s g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d when t h e gun i s moving a t
2 0 0 in/min. A t t h i s speed a seam t r a c k i n g device would
have t o move t h e gun s y s t e m l a t e r a l l y 0 . 0 0 5 i n c h i n 3 1 / 3
inchesofforward movement p e rs e c o n d .I na d d i t i o n ,
shieldingofpersonnel from x-rays generated by t h e high
v o l t a g e means t h a t remote monitoring of welding i s n e c e s s a r y .
Much a n a l y s i s ,d e v e l o p m e n t ,a n dp l a n n i n ga r en e c e s s a r y
b e f o r e the systemcan be c o n s i d e r e d a p p l i c a b l e a n d thus
versatile.

PlasmaElectron Beam Welding. A s t u d y was conducted a t

G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c t o d e v e l o p a plasma electron-beam (PEB)
s y s t e m . (26 1 PEB i s a new k i n d o f e l e c t r o n beam source based
on a c o l dh o l l o wc a t h o d eg a sd i s c h a r g e( F i g u r e 6-10). With
a p r e s s u r eo fa b o u t 1 0 microns of n i t r o g e n , f o r e x a m p l e , a
bodyofplasma f i l l s t h e cathode and an electron beam forma-
t i o n takes p l a c e .
Capabilityofthisequipment was demonstratedby a
narrowpenetrationweld 1 3/4 i n c h e s d e e p i n t o 5456 m a t e r i a l .

9- 16
Porosity w a s not present a t t h e r o o t of t h e w e l d , i n d i c a t i n g
good e l e c t r o n beam s t a b i l i t y as compared t o c o n v e n t i o n a l
e l e c t r o n beam w e l d i n gs y s t e m s . The p r i n c i p l e of o p e r a t i o n
is discussed in detail in the final report f r o m General
Electric. PEB o f f e r st h ea d v a n t a g e s of l o n gc a t h o d e l i f e and
good performance under poor vacuum c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e g a s e o u s
c o n t a m i n a n t s may be p r e s e n t . P a r t s c a n be welded i n an
atmosphere of a b o u t 75 m i c r o n s .F o rw e l d i n gs t r u c t u r e s too
large t o b e c o n t a i n e d i n a vacuum chamber, i t would seem
f e a s i b l e t o e x t r a c t t h e e l e c t r o n beam i n t o a small chamber
which moves a l o n g t h e w e l d seam m a i n t a i n i n g a r e d u c e d p r e s s u r e
bymeansof a s l i d i n g seal.

7. Time-Temperature
.- C o n t r o l-by Cryogenic Cooling

A s t u d y w a s made a t Harvey Aluminum (I5) of c r y o g e n i c

c o o l i n g as a means of s h o r t e n i n g t h e r m a l c y c l e s a n d t h u s
i m p r o v i n gt e n s i l ep r o p e r t i e so f aluminumweldments.General
increasesof 4 to 10 percent in yield strength were o b t a i n e d
by c r y o g e n i cc o o l i n g . The u l t i m a t et e n s i l es t r e n g t h also
i n c r e a s e d t o some e x t e n t by c r y o g e n i cc o o l i n g . The u l t i m a t e
t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s of t h e u n c h i l l e d w e l d s , as r e p o r t e d by
Harvey, were i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 4 0 k s i . T h i s a p p e a r s t o be
onlythe s t a r t of the upswingof the heat i n p u t - s t r e n g t h
c u r v e( F i g u r e 3-2). Much h i g h e rs t r e n g t h s a r e y e ta v a i l a b l e
by f u r t h e rr e d u c i n gh e a ti n p u t . The e f f e c t i v e n e s so fc r y o -
geniccooling may become g r e a t e r as t h e w e l d h e a t i n p u t
decreases.

However, t o a t t a i n t h e improvement, a r i s k i s t a k e no f
c o n t a m i n a t i n gt h ew e l d , e i t h e r by t h e c o o l i n g j e t o r by
c o n d e n s a t i o no nt h es u r f a c e .F u r t h e rs t u d i e s are needed
to obtainconclusiveresultsonthissubject.

9- 17
8. Analysis of Thermal Stresses during Welding and
Residual Stresses

Several aerospace companies have encountered distortion

V components
problems during fabrication of the Saturn
including welded fuel and oxidizer tanks. Although produc-
tion practices have been developed to temporarily overcome
these problems, they are empirical solutions and little
is
known about the mechanisms causing such distortion. It is
essential to understand the mechanisms in order to develop
methods for minimizing distortion effects during fabrication
of future vehicles.
MSFC recognized the importance of conducting research
on mathematical analysisof thermal stresses and metal
movement during welding and supported studies at Battelle (29)
and M.I.T.. ( 3 0 ) Computer programs have been developed to
calculate transient thermal stresses during welding and
resulting residual stresses.

Existing One-Dimensional Programs. The Battelle study

uses the technique which was originally developed in
1964
by Tall. ( 5 9 6 0 ) The Battelle analysis was one-dimensional.
It was assumed that (1) the stress component parallel to
the direction of welding, ox, is a function of the lateral
distance from the weld,y, only and (2) o and T are zero
XY Y
(see Figure7-1).
The Battelle computer program is written in FORTRAN
IV
computer language for use on a Control Data Corporation (CDC)
6400 computer system including a Cal-Comp plotter. The
program is written for bead-on-plate welds made in any
material (provided its mechanical and physical properties
with various temperatures are available) under any welding
conditions.

9- 18
I

The Battelle program was imporved during a study at M.I.T.

completed in October,1970. Table 7-1 shows comparison be-
tween the Battelle and theM.I.T. programs. Major differences
are :
11 Strain hardeningof the material is considered in the
M.I.T. program, while the materialis assumed to be
perfectly plastic in the Battelle program. In both
programs, however, the yield strength,cs y s , changes
with temperature.
2) The M.I.T. program includes the analysisof stresses
and strains, while the Battelle program analysesonare
stresses only. The analysis of strainis important
in comparing results of the theoretical study with
experimental data, because strains are usually
measured in an experiment.
The M.I.T. program is written in FORTRAN
IV for use on
an IBM 360/65 computer.

M.I.T. Two-Dimensional Analysis. Under a current contract

for MSFC, a study is being conducted at M.1.T to develop a
two-dimensional analysis of thermal stresses during welding.
All three components, ux, u and ‘1: are analyzed as functions
Y XY
of x and y . The analysis used the finite-element method.

Examples of Analytical Results. Figures 7-3 through 7-6

show results obtainedon a sample weld. Figure7-6 shows the
isostress pattern around the welding arc. There is a high
compressive stress area shortly aheadof the heat source;
however, values of compressive stresses are very low in high-
temperature areas very close to the heat source. There is a
narrow tensile-stress zone along the center line behind the
heat source, and compressive-stress zone expands outwards in
a horse-shoe shape.

9-19
 ,.,. , . ,, ,., ...... . . . . . . ..

From the standpoint

of metal movement in the thickness
direction during welding, which causes joint mismatch, the
compressive stress zone appears to ofbeparticular impor-
tance. If the plate is thin,or the compressive-stress zone
is large, the plate may buckle during welding. Distortion
in the thickness direction also may be caused if the tempera-
ture and stress distributions are not uniform
in the thick-
ness direction.

Effects of Welding Parameters. M.I.T. researchers

studied effects of welding parameters on thermal stresses
during welding of2219-0 aluminum plates and resulting
residual stresses. The analysis included effects of welding
parameters on:
1) High tensile thermal stresses in areas behind the arc
2) Compressive thermal stresses in areas ahead of the arc
3) Size of plastic zone
4) Residual stress distributions

The maximum value of tensile residual stress at the

weld center is as high as the yield stress of the material
at room temperature, regardless of welding conditions.
However, the width of tensile residual stress zone is
affected by welding parameters.
As shown in Figures7-9 and 7-10, linear net heat input,
h joules/in/in, is the most significant factor that affect
the widthof tensile residual stress zone, and it increases
with increasing heat input. The effect of heat input, however,
is not linear. The increase in the width of tensile residual
stress zone per unit increase in heat input decreases as heat
input increases.
From the practical viewpoint, the results clearly show
the advantageof using low welding heat input to reduce
residual stresses and distortion.

9-20
 Effects of Material Properties. An analysis was made of
effects of material properties
on residual stresses. Materials
studied include low-carbon steel, ultrahigh strength steel,
solumbium, and tantalum as well as aluminum alloys.
f o r ultrahigh-strength
The width of tensile residual stress
steel is very narrow. This is primarily due to the fact that
only a very narrow zone undergoes plastic deformation during
welding.
On the other hand, the widths of tensile residual stress
zones are very large for welds
in columbium and tantalum.
Since both columbium and tantalum have relatively
1 . oyield
~
stresses at a wide temperature range, very large areas of
plastic deformation occur during welding. The results suggest,
that residual stresses and distortion can be quite a problem
during welding some refractory metals including columbium
and tantalum.

Experimental Investigation. An experimental investigation

was made at M.I.T. to evaluate the accuracy of the mathematical
analysis. To simplify the investigation, experiments were
conducted on bead-on-plate welds made in2219-0 aluminum alloy.
Temperature changes during welding were measured by thermo-
couples, while strain changes were measured by strain gages
mounted on specimen surfaces.
On the basisof comparison between experimental and
analytical results, it has been concluded that one-dimensional
stress analysis developeaat M.I.T. can be used as an appro-
of stress changes
ximate analysis to investigate general trends
during welding and resulting residual stresses. However, the
current analysis is not adequate to study complex stress
2hanges near the welding arc.

9- 21
9. Reduction of WarpageandResidual Stresses by
ControllingThermalPatternduringWelding

A s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d a t Harvey Aluminum t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of r e d u c i n g w a r p a g e a n d r e s i d u a l stresses i n
aluminumweldmentsby controllingthethermalpatternduring
welding. ‘ 2 4 ) The c o n c e p ti n v o l v e st h eu s e of c r y o g e n i c
liquidsandauxiliary heat s o u r c e s t o p r o d u c e c o n t r a c t i o n a n d
e x p a n s i o n o f metal i n t h e v i c i n i t y of w e l d s i n s u c h a manner
as t o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e e x p a n s i o n a n d c o n t r a c t i o n c a u s e d b y
welding.
A s shown i n Table 7 - 3 , i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o produce
unwarpedpanelseitherwith o r withouttheuseofcryogenic
cooling. The problem, however, was l o w r e p e a t a b i l i t y of
e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t s .C h i l l i n g a l s o was found t o r e d u c e
r e s i d u a l stresses.
The s t u d y a t Harvey Aluminum proved the f e a s i b i l i t y of
a p p l y i n gt h ec o n c e p t of b a l a n c i n g thermal stresses d u r i n g
w e l d i n g t o c o n t r o ld i s t o r t i o na n dr e s i d u a l stresses. The
computerprogramsdeveloped a t M . I . T . can be u s e f u l f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e optimum t h e r m a l p a t t e r n t o m i n i m i z e distor-
tionandresidual stresses.

10. Development of N o n - d e s t r u c t i v eT e c h n i q u e sf o rD e t e r m i n i n g
R e s i d u a l Stresses a n d F a t i g u e Damage i n Metals

A s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e Bensonand Associates t o
developnon-destructivetechniques f o r n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e mea-
s u r i n g r e s i d u a l stresses a n d f a t i g u e damage. ( 2 7 )

U l t r a s o n i c Stress M e a s u r e m e n t s .A f t e re v a l u a t i n g the
currentstatusofvariousultrasonicsystems, i t was d e c i d e d
t h a t d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s be made o n t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o systems:

9-22
 (1) Modified t i m e of f l i g h ts y s t e m( F i g u r e 7-23)
(2) F r e q u e n c yn u l sl y s t e m( F i g u r e 7-24).

A f t e r c o n d u c t i n gf u n d a m e n t a li n v e s t i g a t i o n su s i n g
s p e c i m e n sw i t h known stress v a l u e s , a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
made t o a p p l y t h e u l t r a s o n i c t e c h n i q u e s o n w e l d m e n t s .

Although i t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t t h e u l t r a s o n i c t e c h -
n i q u e s may b e u s e d for determiningresidual stresses, more
s t u d i e s are n e e d e d b e f o r e t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s c o u l d b e u s e d
formeasuringresidual stresses i n e n g i n e e r i n g s t r u c t u r e s .

D e t e c t i o no fF a t i g u e Damage. A l i m i t e ds t u d y w a s made
to establishrelationshipsbetween electrical surface
r e s i s t a n c ea n df a t i g u e damage.The f o r m a t i o no fm i c r o c r a c k s
due t o f a t i g u e damage a t t h e s u r f a c e may b et h o u g h t of as a
l o c a l i z e di n c r e a s ei ns u r f a c er o u g h n e s s . An a t t e m p t w a s
made t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a n g e of s u r f a c er o u g h n e s sb ym e a s u r -
ing the increase in surface resistivity using high fre-
quency waves.

11. T r a n s f e r a b i l i t yo fS e t u p Parameters

Inthestudy a t Lockheed-Georgia(17), i t was found t h a t

d u p l i c a t e trace r e c o r d i n g s of s i x b a s i c GTA w e l d i n g v a r i a b l e s
i n d i c a t ew e l d s , i f w e l d - j o i n tp r e p a r a t i o n ,t o o l i n g ,a n d
w e l d i n gp o s i t i o nh a v eb e e nd u p l i c a t e d . The s i x v a r i a b l e s ,
inorder of i m p o r t a n c e , are t r a v e l s p e e d , e l e c t r o d e t i p
p o s i t i o n ,c u r r e n t ,v o l t a g e ,g a sp u r i t y ,a n de l e c t r o d et i p
diameter. On t h eb a s i s of e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t sc o n d u c t e d
on GMA w e l d s , t h e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s u s e d were n o t c o n s i -
dered reliable andnofinalconclusionshavebeen made.

Experimentaldata were s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d t o
determine analytical relationships among w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s
a n dw e l dp r o p e r t i e si n c l u d i n gp e n e t r a t i o n ,n u g g e ts h a p e ,a n d
m e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r t i e s of t h ej o i n t . However, t h e s e r e s u l t s

9- 23
are n o tc o m p l e t e l ys a t i s f a c t o r y .F u r t h e rs t u d yn e e d st o be
made of t h e physicalmeanings of the e q u a t i o n s u s e d .

12. SelectionofWeldingParameters

Selecting proper welding parameters has been an

importantproblem for w e l d i n ge n g i n e e r s . When f u s i o n
w e l d i n g h i g h - s t r e n g t h heat-treated aluminum a l l o y s , t h e
f o l l o w i n g two majorproblemsneed t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n
s e l e c t i n gp a r a m e t e r s : (1) m e c h a n i c a lp r o p e r t i e so f weld-
mentsand (2) p o r o s i t y . O t h e r p r o b l e m ss u c ha ss u s c e p t i -
b i l i t y f o r weldcrackingalsoneedto be c o n s i d e r e d .

In order to improve the mechanical properties of weld-

ments, i t i s recommended t h a t w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s t h a t pro-
ducesmall heat i n p u t be used. A lowerweldingcurrentand
a h i g h e r a r c t r a v e l speed produce smaller heat i n p u t .
F i g u r e A-4 can be used as a g u i d e f o r e v a l u a t i n g the effect
of heat i n p u t on the s t r e n g t h o f a welded j o i n t .
The s e l e c t i o n o f p r o p e r w e l d i n g parameters t o c o n t r o l
p o r o s i t y r e q u i r e s more a n a l y s e s . The u s e of h i g h heat
i n p u t w i t h slowcoolingtendstocause a s m a l l number of
l a r g e p o r e s ; loss of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a may be l o w , b u t
the loss of s t r e n g t h d u e t o w e l d i n g t h e r m a l effect is great.
U s e of a s m a l l heat i n p u t w i t h f a s t c o o l i n g t e n d s t o c a u s e
a l a r g e number o f f i n e p o r e s ; loss o f s e c t i o n a l a r e a due t o
p o r o s i t y may be h i g h . More s t u d y i s needed t o develop a
techniqueforscientificallyselectingweldingparameters.

13. Recommendations f o r Weld I n s p e c t i o n

Recommendations f o r t h e r e v i s i o n of t h e c u r r e n t i n s p e c t i o n
s t a n d a r d s i s o u t s i d e t h e scope of t h i s r e p o r t . However, i t

9- 24
seems e s s e n t i a l t o r e v i e w some p o i n t s t h a t a r e s u g g e s t e d by
thecurrentprogramsand are p e r t i n e n t t o t h e s e s t a n d a r d s .
Only g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s are g i v e n h e r e .

SmallPores. A l a r g e number of f i n ep o r e s ,s a y less

t h a n 0 . 0 3 i n c h i n d i a m e t e r ,c a nc a u s es i g n i f i c a n tr e d u c t i o n
of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , r e s u l t i n g i n c o n s i d e r a b l e loss of
s t r e n g t h . However, p r e s e n ti n s p e c t i o ns t a n d a r d st e n d to
p l a c ei n a d e q u a t ee m p h a s i so nt h ei m p o r t a n c eo f t h e f i n e poxes
thatareoften found i n aluminum w e l d s .F u r t h e rs t u d ys h o u l d
be made t o d e t e r m i n e more e x a c t l y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e
pores.

Stress S t a t eo f a Joint. Welds t h a t a r e l o a d e d p a r a l l e l

to the welding direction are l e s s s e n s i t i v e i n t h e i r mechani-
calbehaviortodefectsthanweldsthatareloadedtransverse
t ot h e w e l dd i r e c t i o n .C o n s e q u e n t l y ,d i f f e r e n ta c c e p t a n c e
levels ofporositymightbeused,depending upon t h e l o c a t i o n
of a w e l d a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e w e l d r e l a t i v e t o t h e
directionofloadexpectedduring service.

ImprovedNondestructiveTesting.Improvednondestructive
testingtechniquesshouldbedeveloped f o r d e t e r m i n i n gt h e
totalcross-sectionalareaofflaws i n theexpectedfracture
p l a n e .M u l t i p l e X-ray s h o t s a p p e a r t o o f f e r t h e b e s tp r o m i s e .

14. Recommendations f o r Weld Repair

I t i s known t h a t r e p a i r w e l d s , u n l e s s t h e y are made v e r y

c a r e f u l l y , may h a v ep r o p e r t i e si n f e r i o r t o normalwelds. The
r e p a i r w e l d s can c r e a t e h i g h r e s i d u a l stresses a n d a d d i t i o n a l
d i s t o r t i o n .F a i l u r e si nv a r i o u ss t r u c t u r e sh a v eb e e nt r a c e d
d i r e c t l yt or e p a i rw e l d s .I n many c a s e s ,p o r o s i t yd o e sn o t
causehigh stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d loss o f s t r e n g t h d u e t o

9-25
p o r o s i t y i s r a t h e rm i n o r . I t is recommended t h a t w e l dr e p a i r s
be k e p t t o a minimum. I n some cases w h e r ed e f e c t s are n o t
c r i t i c a l , weldsmight b e t t e r be l e f t u n r e p a i r e d .

15. C l o s i n g Comments

The NASA e f f o r t s havebeen directed t o w a r d t a k i n g t h e

blackmagicoutofthe a r t of welding and transform it into
a s c i e n c e . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t w e haveachieved some p r o g r e s s
t o w a r dt h eg o a l .
A t theendofthisintegrationreport,fourpractical
precautionsarepresentedthatshouldbefollowedduring
welding f a b r i c a t i o n o f aluminum s t r u c t u r e s :
1. The s u r f a c e c l e a n l i n e s s i s i m p o r t a n t t o a s s u r e good
w e l dq u a l i t yw i t h o u tp o r o s i t y . A techniquewhich
appears t o be most e f f e c t i v e i s t o remove a t h i n
surface layer of metal immediately before welding.
2. Commercial s h i e l d i n g g a s e s t h a t m e e t t h e p r e s e n t
NASA s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y p u r e .

3. The p r e s e n t NASA s p e c i f i c a t i o n s on chemical

compositionsofbasemetaland f i l l e r metal a r e
alsoadequate,asfarasthe weld p o r o s i t y i s
concerned.

4. It i s important to weld with high heat d e n s i t y ,

because i t c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e i n j o i n t s t r e n g t h ,
a reductionindistortion, and i n h i b i t s t h e
growth of hydrogen porosity.

T h e above comments a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o l a r g e ,
c r i t i c a l ,a e r o s p a c es t r u c t u r e s . However, b a s i cp r i n c i p l e s
c a n a l s o be a p p l i c a b l e t o o t h e r aluminum s t r u c t u r e s .

9-26
16. ". i s t ". of I m p o r t a n t
L F u t u r e Work

from t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n
From t h e m i s t a k e s o f y e s t e r d a y ,
of problems,and from each b i t o f p r o g r e s s , come t h e p l a n s
for futureresearch.
To p u r s u e t h e u l t i m a t e p u r p o s e o f t h e NASA w e l d i n g
r e s e a r c h , t h a t i s , t o i m p r o v et h ep e r f o r m a n c ea n dr e l i a b i l i t y
ofspacevehicles,furtherresearchshouldbeconductedon a
number of s u b j e c t s . Some of t h ec u r r e n ts t u d i e ss h o u l d be
carriedfurther,andstudieson new subjects need t o b e
initiated. The f o l l o w i n g l i s t shows some of t h es t u d i e s
which are i m p o r t a n t t o f u r t h e r i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f w e l d s
in high-strength heat-treated aluminum a l l o y s :

1. Develop a way f o r mechanized removal o f a t h i n

l a y e r o f metal from s u r f a c e s t o bewelded.

2. Develop a method f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e p u r i t y of
shieldinggas a t t h e w e l d i n gt o r c h .

3. D e t e r m i n eg a ss h i e l d i n ga d e q u a c yw h e r ej o i n t s
h a v eg a p s ,o f f s e t s , etc.

4. F u r t h e r correlate welddefectsandservice
performanceto e s t a b l i s h more r a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
of t h e w e l d q u a l i t y .

5. F u r t h e rd e v e l o pa n a l y t i c a lm e t h o d sf o re s t i m a t i n g
and controlling weld mismatch and distortion.

6. Improve t h e s t r e n g t h of a weldmentby altering

mechanismsofstrengtheningaluminumwelds.

The new k n o w l e d g e o b t a i n e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s s h o u l d b e
usefulforaerospaceand other i n d u s t r i e s .

9-27
9-28
 References

(1) Falkowski, E., "Saturn Illustrated Chronology," MHR-r,

G. C. Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA, May, 1965
of
(2) NASA Facts, NF-8/12-67, "Space Launch Vehicles," Office
Public Affairs, NASA, 1967
(3) Parks, P. G., "New Developmentsin Aluminum Welding," a paper
presented at the National Aeronautic Metting, New York, Apri
25-28, 1966, Society of Automotive Engineers
(4) Hasemeyer, E. A., "Aluminum Welding for Space Vehicles and
Welding in Outer Space," a report prepared'by Welding Deve
opment Branch, Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory,
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(7) Masubuchi, K., Hoppes, R. V., and Parks, P. G., "Quality
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(8) Strobelt, W. E., "Inert Gas Weldment Effects Study," Phase

I
Report (July, 1965-November, 19651, Phase I1 Report (Jan-
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D2-23647-4, D2-23647-5, and D2-23647-6
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P o l l o c k , DD. . , Mixon, W. V . , a n dR e i n h a r d t , W. W . , "Mechanisms
of P o r o s i t y F o r m a t i o n i n Aluminum Welds," F i n a l R e p o r t u n d e r
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D i v i s i o n s ,D o u g l a sA i r c r a f t Company, I n c . ,D o u g l a sR e p o r t
Sfi-52039, J u n e , 1 9 6 6

A l e t t e r d a t e dS e p t e m b e r 9 , 1 9 6 6 , f r o m S. F .F r e d e r i c k ,S e c t i o n
C h i e f ,R e s e a r c h Projects, MR & PM, Douglas Missile andSpace
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Willhelm, A. C . , "StudyonDevelopment of S a t u r nM a n u f a c t u r i n g
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Hydrogen P o r o s i t y , " F i n a l R e p o r t u n d e r C o n t r a c t NAS8-20307
f r o m S o u t h e r nR e s e a r c hI n s t i t u t e , October, 1 9 6 6

Rupert,, E . J . , andRudy, J . F . , " A n a l y t i c a la n dS t a t i s t i c a l

StudyontheEffects of P o r o s i t y Level on Weld J o i n t P e r f o r -
m a n c e , "T e c h n i c a l Summary R e p o r t u n d e r C o n t r a c t NAS8-11335
from M a r t i n Marietta C o r p o r a t i o n , M a r t i n Company, March, 1 9 6 6
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ofControlsforTime-TemperatureCharacteristicsin Aluminum
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October, 1 9 6 6

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S t u d yo fI n e r t - G a sW e l d i n gP r o c e s sT r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of Set-Up
Parameters," F i n a l R e p o r t u n d e r C o n t r a c t NAS8-11435 from
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K i z e r , D . E . , S a p e r s t e i n , Z . P . , a n dS c h w a r t z b a r t , H.,
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o fT e c h n o l o g yR e s e a r c hI n s t i t u t e , November, 1 9 6 6

"Material P r e p a r a t i o n a n d I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r W e l d i n g S-IC
C o m p o n e n t s , "F i n a lR e p o r tu n d e rC o n t r a c t NAS8-20363 from
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10-2
(21) Cushman, E. H., "Saturn Manufacturing Technology for Welding
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10-3
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10-4
(43) McClintock, F. A., and Argon, A. S.,(editors) Mechanical
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10-5
 . . .. . ." .

Libowitz, G. G., "Nonstoichiometry in Metal Hydrides, 'I

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LJ.
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Determining Residual Stress and Fatigue Damage in Metals--
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paper for the subject 13.39, Analysis of Techniques for
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E. Hasemeyer entitled"A Method of
Estimating Residual Stresses in
0.25 inch Thick 2219-T87
Aluminum Alloy Plate Weldments," September
11, 1 9 6 7

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