COMPUTER HARDWARE AND

NETWORKING
POWER SUPPLY AND I/O DEVICES

JANUARY 18, 2020

ELECTRONICS S6
MODULE 1
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SMPS (SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY)

Fig: block diagram of SMPS

We give high voltage AC Input and low frequency which is available on power outlet, the first stage
of SMPS is Rectifier and filter hence the high AC becomes High Voltage DC from this operation we
eliminate high spikes and surge, High voltage DC is controlled by High Frequency switching device
(50KHz-120KHz) vary depends on design this switching block samples the high voltage DC with
feedback path reference.
The tiny ferrite core transformer step down the voltage as required depends on design, then the second
stage is Rectifier and filter section, it gives Rectified constant DC output Voltage without current
fluctuations.
Some portion of output is taken as feedback signal and this signal compared with reference voltage
and the error (if present) is amplified depends on the error PWM pulse changes its frequency hence
the switching device regulates the output. So the minimum changes in output DC regulated instantly
without affecting load.

Advantages of SMPS
1) The switch mode power supply has a smaller in size.
2) The SMPS has light weight.
3) It has a better power efficiency typically 60 to 70 percent.
4) It has a strong anti-interference.
5) SMPS has wide output range.
6) Low heat generation in SMPS.

Disadvantages of SMPS
1. The switch mode power supply (SMPS) is more complex.
2. The SMPS has higher output ripple and its regulation is worse.
3. It can be used only as a step down regulator.
4. It has only one output voltage.
5. It has high frequency electrical noise.
6. SMPS also cause harmonic distortion.

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AT AND ATX POWER CONNECTORS

There are well-accepted sets of cables to power the motherboard. The AT configuration and
the ATX configuration.
The AT configuration uses two 6-pin Molex connectors (usually marked P8 and P9), which
are inserted adjacent to each other. The rule here is “black wires together”. It provides 4 voltage levels
(+5v, -5v, +12v, and -12v) along with a “power good signal”

The ATX power supply uses a slightly different 20-pin single-connector scheme, which includes a
+3.3v supply along with the other conventional voltages. An AT power supply connectors will not
mate with an ATX mother board and vice versa.

I/O DEVICES
Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with the outside world by moving data
into and out of the system.
An input device is used to bring data into the system. Some input devices are:
1. Mouse
It is a pointing device. There are various types: serial mouse, PS/2 mouse,
USB and a bus mouse.
Serial and PS/2 mouse are basically the same thing the port
connectors are just a bit different. A bus mouse uses an expansion card as a
dedicated mouse controller. A USB mouse simply connects to a USB port on
the PC, or USB hub. There is also a choice between 2-button and 3-button
mouse. Most only recognize 2 buttons (left click or right click). A middle button is generally used
only by specialised programs like CAD software.

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2. Keyboard
Every computer needs a keyboard. There are different sizes, shapes and feature for a keyboard. There
are some key points to consider. First, make sure that the keyboard connector is compatible with the
keyboard is compatible with the keyboard connector on the motherboard. You have 2 keyboard styles
to choose from: QWERTY and DVORAK
The QWERTY style is the conventional typewriter key
layout. DVORAK keyboards use a more efficient placement of keys,
which results in less finger and movement. This reduces hand strain and
makes typing a bit faster.

3. Joystick
They are not required for a PC, but if the customer plans to do any serious flight
simulation, or other interactive 3D gamming, a good quality joystick is used. All
joysticks require a 15- pin game port to function. Most sound boards and I/O
boards incorporable a game port already.

An output device is used to send data out of the system. Some output devices are:
1. Monitor
A monitor is an electronic visual computer display that includes a
screen, circuitry and the case in which that circuitry is enclosed. Older
computer monitors made use of CRTs. Nowadays, flat screen LCD
monitors are used in devices like laptops. LCD monitors are higher and
more energy efficient. A monitor is also known as screen or a visual
display unit (VDU).

2. Printer
A printer is a device that accepts text and graphic output form a computer
and transfers the information to paper. Printers vary in size, speed, and
cost. In general, more expensive printers are used for higher-resolution
colour printing.

3. Speaker
A computer speaker is an output hardware device that connects to a
computer to generate sound. The signal used to produce the sound that
comes from a computer speaker is created by the computers sound card.
DISPLAY ADAPTER/ DISPLAY CONTROLLERS
It is a plug in card in a desktop computer that performs graphics processing. Also commonly called a
“graphic card” or “video card”. Modern display adapters use the PCI express interface, while earlier
cards used PCI and AGP. The display adapters determines the maximum resolution, Refresh rate and

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number of colours that can be displayed, which the monitor must also be able to support. On most
PCs, these graphics circuits are built into the motherboards chipset. A separate plug-in card is requires
only to greatly enhance rendering for video games or other fast motion applications.
There are various types of display adapters:
1. VGA(video graphics array)
It is the VGA that provides the familiar 640×480×16 screen mode. It was
analog signals rather than digital signals. The use of analog colour signals
allows VGA systems to produce a palette of 16 colours from 262,144 colours.
VGA provides backward compatibility for all older screen modes. For a fine,
VGA support was considered to be “standard equipment” for all new PCs, but
SVGA boards have rapidly replaced VGA systems, and most SVGA adapters
offer full VGA support.
2. SVGA(super video graphics array)
It is a set of graphic standards designed to offer grater resolution than
VGA. Unlike VGA, which adhered to strict hardware configurations,
there is no generally accepted standard on which to develop an SVGA
board- each manufacture makes an SVGA board that supports a variety
of different video modes. The SVGA standards supports a palette of 16
million colours, but the number of colours that can be displayed
simultaneously is limited by the amount of video memory installed in a system. One SVGA system
might display only 256 simultaneous colours while another displays the entire palette of 16 million
colours. The SVGA standards are displayed by a consortium of monitor and graphics manufactures
called VESA (video electronics standards association).
3. XGA(extended graphic array)
It is a 32 bit high performance video adapter developed by IBM to support
micro channel- based PCs. They allow the adapter to take control of the
system for rapid data transfers. Earlier modes like VGA, EGA and CGA are
all supported for backward compatible. Several colour depths are available at
1024×768 resolution, and a photo-realistic 65,536 colours are available at
640×480 resolution. To improve performance even further, fast video RAM and a graphics co-
processor are added to the XGA design. XGA is generally limited to high-performance applications in
micro channel systems.

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PIN CONFIGURATION
VGA, SVGA, and XGA uses the same HD 15 connector. It is shown in figure.

Fig: pin configuration of VGA/XGA/SVGA connector. No need to study the description

VGA MONITOR BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram for a VGA monitor is shown in figure. 3 complete video drive circuits are needed.

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(One for each primary colour-red, green and blue). While early colours monitors used logic levels to
represent video signals, current monitors used analog signals, which allow the intensity of each colour
to be varied. The CRT is at designed to provide 3 electron beams, which are directed at corresponding
colour phosphors. By varying the intensity of each colour beam, virtually any colour can be produced.
For practical purpose, the colour monitor can be considered in 3 subsections: the video drive circuits,
the vertical drive circuit, and the horizontal drive circuit.
Video drive circuits:
There are 3 separate video drive circuits. The output from each of the drive circuit is coupled
directly to the corresponding CRT video control grid. Problems with the video circuits in colour
monitors rarely disable the image entirely. Even if one video drive circuit should fail, there are still
two others to drive the CRT. Of course, the loss of one primary colour will severally distort the image
colours, but the image still be visible.
Vertical drive circuit:
it is designed to operate the monitor’s vertical deflection yoke.
Horizontal drive circuit:
It is responsible for operating the horizontal deflection yoke. It is the circuit that sweeps the
electron beams left and right across the display.
The fly back circuit:
The presence of large positive potential on the CRTs anode is needed to accelerate an electron
beam across the distance between the cathode and CRT phosphor. Electrons must strike the phosphor
hard enough to liberate visible light. Under normal circumstances, this requires a potential of 15000 to
30000 volts. Monitors generate high voltage through the fly back circuit.
PRINTERS
Printer is used to get a hard copy of our results. i.e, . It is used to get permanent output which
can be viewed, field and may be used at a later stage.
Today, printers are capable of high quality monochrome and multi-colour printout at very
high speed. Most of the printers can also produce graphic. i.e, images other than plain text on the
paper.
Based on the printing mechanism, printers are categorized as impact and non-impact printers.
Printing mechanism refers to the method used by the printer to produce the image on the
output media such as paper.
1. Impact printers
They use impact to create an image on the output media. All impact printers smash a hammer of
some kind against an inked ribbon to squeeze ink from the ribbon onto the paper, this makes the
impact marks appear on the paper.
Eg: daisy-wheel printer, dot-matrix printer, chain printer, drum printer etc.
Advantages:

 Their design and functions are relatively straight forward and easy to understand compared to
a non-impact printer.
 They can be used to print on multiple copies of the documents at a time.

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 Because the impact printers strike the media to create an impression, they can points not just
through the ribbon but also through several sheets of paper and carbon to print multiple
carbon copies in a single pass.
Disadvantages:

 The hammer striking against the ribbon and paper which allows multiple copies to be
made also generates noise.
2. Non-impact printers
They do not strike any ribbon or paper to produce the image, instead they use ink spraying
electrostatic magnetization or heat process to produce the required image on the paper or any other
output media.
Eg: inkjet, thermal, laser, thermal wax-transfer and thermal dye-diffusion.
Disadvantages:
They cannot be used to print carbon copies or multiple copies in a single pass, which requires some
kind of impact to be applied.
DOT-MATRIX PRINTERS
Also known as matrix printers. They are bit image impact type of printers.
They form characters and images by placing the patterns of dots on the paper
by striking inked ribbon with a number of small pins. These printers use a
print head that shuttle’s back and forth across the width of the paper and a
number of thin print wires on the head act as hammers that strike the ribbon
and squeeze ink from ribbon to the paper.
Advantages:

 Simple operation
 Low maintenance
 Low running expense
 Ruggedness
 Facility to print on almost any type of paper
 Ease of serviceability
 They can print almost any kind of paper
Disadvantages:

 Noisy, but they are less noisy compared to daisy-wheel printers.

They can print any text character by character, so the speed of theses printers is expressed in
characters per second (CPS). Common printing speed ranges from 50 CPS to 500 CPS.
To speed up the operation, most of these printers print bidirectionally. i.e, they print one row
from left to right and then the next row from right to left. They can be broken down into 3 different
segments based on their capability.
o Extremely high-volume models useful for large heavy duty work.
o The high-volume models which are useful for people running small job works.
o The personal models useful for small business, offices, home etc.

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INKJET PRINTERS
They are bit image non-impact type of printers. These printers produce character shape and images by
spraying ink from tiny nozzles onto the paper generate the required image. As the inkjet printers do
not use any ribbon and ink is directly released to the paper, the image looks much smoother.
The motive force that forces the ink out of ink cartridge can be piezo-
electric crystal or a small resistor. A sharp, digital pulse of electricity
causes peizo-electric crystal to twitch and force ink through the nozzle
onto the paper. The same electricity when applied to a resistor makes
the resistor hot erecting a small air bubble, to force ink out through the
nozzle.
LASER PRINTERS
They are becoming very popular to its clear and sharp images. Drawing,
graphics, charts, etc. can be printed very easily and quickly. Provides
very fast output up to 16ppm (pages per minute) without producing any
noise.
The laser beam is chopped (switched on and off) according to
the image to be printed on the paper, as it scans the drum surface. The
drum is coated with a special photoconductive layer which makes the drum to lose its charge from
those areas wherever the laser beam strikes. The area which are exposed by the laser beam, attract a
black colours toner to the drum’s surface, which is then transferred to the paper to the form the image.
Laser printers can produce 300-1800 DPI resolution. This higher resolution allows laser printers to
produce very clear good quality images. The scanning of the drum’s surface is usually done by
bouncing the laser beam off a multisided mirror which rotates rapidly. Each face of the rotating mirror
scans the beam across the drum. Once the line of image is drawn on the photoconductive surface of
the drum, the drum rotates slightly for the laser beam to draw the second line. When the drum starts
rotating, during the same time a sheet of paper is fed to the printer, by a series of roller and gears. The
toner from the photoconductive drum go to transferred to this sheet of paper which is later passed
through a fuser roller assembly to melt the toner and permanently fuse the image onto the paper.

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SCANNERS
A scanner can be termed as a device that enables the conversion of a picture or a graphic on a surface,
into a digital code that can be understood by the computer memory, for it to display it on the screen.
1. Flatbed scanner:
A flatbed scanner will typically have a glass window, that is the surface
where the object to be scanned is placed. Along with the glass bed, the scanner
has a source of light, which is in-built. The light used may be LED or fluorescent.
This light is regulated by a voltage regulator or a similar device. This enables the
light to spread evenly across the document. This light source then illuminates the
document, this is when the actual encoding of the document takes place. The
scanner contains a lens, mirror a filler and a CCD array that are fixed on the top,
called scan head. Thus combined mechanism then rolls or moves over the entire document. The scan
head takes help of a belt. The scan head is fixed to a bar that acts like a stabilizer. So the entire
process takes place smoothly, without any deviation. An angled mirror then reflects the image of the
document on another mirror. After the image is reflected again on the lens. This lens then projects the
captures image on to the CCD array, through a filter. This is how the encoding takes place and once in
the CCD array, it gets decoded by the computer.
2. Hand held scanner:
A handheld scanner is a bar-shaped electronic device that digitally captures and stores images. They
are portable and running on batteries. It has controls and a display for selecting different scan mods,
showing the amount of memory available for documents and indicating the status of a scan.
Detectors and rollers: the heart of the handheld scanner is its detector array a set
of tiny light sensors formed into a line that takes up most of the scanners length
as it passes over a document, the scanner illuminates the page, and the sensors
pick up the image or text as a set of points of light. Rollers on the scanner touch
the document and measure the length of surface over which the scanner passes
allowing the scanner to correctly scale the image.
Electronics: a handheld scanners electronic circuiting does the same job a
desktop scanner does, converting points of light from the sensors into colour or grey scale signals
before turning the electronic signals into digital data. The circuits assign a number value for every
level of grey or red-green-blue colour combination, and store the number as digital data files in a mini
SD or other portable memory device.
MATRIX KEYBOARD ORGANISATION
In the keyboard keys are not interpreted individually. i.e, each switch is not wired directly to
the motherboard. Instead, keys are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns, as shown below:
When a key is presses, a unique row (top to bottom) and column (left to right) signal is generated to
represent the corresponding key.
Advantages:

 A huge array of keys can be identified using only a few row and column signals.
 Wiring from the keyboard is vastly simplified.

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Method of encoding a key press: when a key is pressed, the row and column signals that are generated
are interpreted by a keyboard interface chip (typically located on the keyboard assembly itself). The
keyboard interface converts the row and column signals into a single-byte code (called key code or
scan code). Two unique scan codes are produced during a keystroke cycle. When the key is depressed,
a make code byte is sent along to the system. When the key is released, a break code byte is
generated. Both codes are transmitted to the host computer of 1Eh is sent when the A key is pressed. A
9Eh code is sent when code is sent when the A key is subsequently released.
Once a key is pressed and the keyboard interface converts the key matrix signals into a
suitable scan code, that code must be transmitted to the KBD (keyboard controller) on the host
computer’s motherboard. Once key data reaches the KBC, the KBC converts it to parallel data, which
in turn generates an interrupt that forces the system to handle the key. The actual transfer of scan
codes between the keyboard and PC is accomplished serially using keyboard interface.

KEYBOARD CONNECTORS
There are 3 types of keyboard connectors
1. 5 pin DIN connector
2. Mini DIN (or PS/2) connector
3. USB connector
There are 3 important signals in a keyboard interface. The keyboard clock (KBCLOCK), the
keyboard data (KBDATA), and the signal ground. The flow of data from keyboard to controller is
accomplished synchronously data bits are returned in sync with separate clock signals. The signal
ground provides a common reference for the keyboard and system. The keyboard is powered by
+5v dc, which is provided through the keyboard interface.

Fig: 6 PIN MINI-DIN connector

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Fig: 5 PIN DIN connector

*D=data

OPTICAL MOUSE
The mouse is a pointing device which helps us to operate the computer. Nowadays, we get varieties of
mouse with different technologies in the market. Of these, the widely used on is the optical mouse.
The main components of the optical mouse are:
 Inbuilt optical sensor
 High speed camera which can take 1000 pictures at a time.
 LED
These optical mouses do have an inbuilt optical sensor. The optical sensor reads the movements of the
optical mouse (moved by the user) with the help of the light rays which comes out from the bottom.
When the user moves the optical mouse, the LED present inside the
mouse emits the light according to the minute movements. These
movements are send to the camera as light rays. The camera
captures the difference in light rays as images. When the camera
captures the images, each and every pictures are compared to one
another with the digital technologies with the comparison, the speed
of the mouse are rapidly calculated. According to the calculation,
the pointer moves on the screen.
MOUSE CONNECTORS
1. Serial mouse:
A serial mouse connects to an existing RS-232 serial port at the PC (usually COM1
or COM2) using a standard DB-9F or DB-25F connector.
DB-9F- 9PIN DB-25F- 25 PIN WIRE NAME COMMENTS
Shell 1 Protective ground ------
3 2 Receive data Serial data from host
to mouse
2 3 Transmit data Serial data from
mouse to host
7 4 RTS Request to send

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8 5 CTS Clear to send

6 6 DSR Data set ready
5 7 Signal ground ------
4 20 DTR Data terminal ready

2. Bus mouse
A bus mouse uses a standalone mouse controller board (a bus mouse controller) and mouse fitted with
a bus mouse connector. This is usually a male sub miniature D-type connector or a miniature male
DIN (circular) connector.

PIN 1 SW 2 MOUSE BUTTON 2

PIN 2 SW 3 MOUSE BUTTON 3
PIN 3 GND GROUND
PIN 4 XB X POSITION
PIN 5 YA Y POSITION
PIN 6 YB Y POSITION
PIN 7 SW1 MOUSE BUTTON 1
PIN 8 VCC +5V POWER
PIN 9 XA X POSITION

3. PS/2 mouse
PS/2 ports are basic serial interfaces that are ideal for keyboards and mouse. PS/2 mouse uses a 6-pin
DIN connector, as shown below.

PIN WIRE NAME

1 Data
2 Reserved
3 Ground
4 +5v supply
5 Clock
6 Reserved

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4. USB mouse
Most current computer are fitted with one or 2 USB connections and can accommodate a USB mouse.
The advantage of USB ports is their convenience. You can connect and disconnect USB devices with
the system running. USB also allows you to mix and match many different types of USB devices on
the same port, so you can connect a USB mouse directly to the computer’s main USB port, or to a
connector on any USB hub attached to the system. The simple 4 pin USB connection follows this
layout:
Pin1: power
Pin2: data-
Pin3: data +
Pin4: ground
5. Wireless mouse
This is the latest type of mouse that does not use a cable to connect to the back of your
computer. It is a neat type of mouse to use because it eliminates the clutter of cables on
your desktop. Some of the wireless mouse can connect via a USB receiver while others
make use of the Bluetooth connection. The mouse is powered by a pair of batteries,
usually AA type.
AGP AND PCIe
Now a days, computers have become the essential part of the human life. Computer which have very
high transfer rate of data is used for communication. High transfer rate is achieved by the data bus
which is used in computer. The AGP and PCIe are two important bus architecture.
AGP
The accelerated graphics port is a high speed point to point channel for attaching a graphics card to a
computers motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. Some mother
boards have been built with multiple independent AGP slots. AGP is slowly being phased out in
favour of PCI express. High bandwidth is the key to AGPs power. The 66MHz AGP interface is
positioned between the PCs chipset and graphics controller as shown below. This architecture
significantly increase the bandwidth available to a graphics accelerator.

Fig AGP slots in motherboard

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Fig: block diagram of AGP interface

Available versions:
1. AGP IX, using a 32 bit channel operating at 66MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 266
Mbps, 3.3v signalling.
2. AGP 2X, using a 32 bit channel operating at 66MHz. 2 bytes can be passed on every AGP
clock for a bandwidth of 532 Mbps. 3.3v signalling.
3. AGP 4X, using a 32bit channel operating at 66MHz quad pumped to an effective 266 MHz
resulting in a maximum data rate of 1066Mbps (1Gbps), 1.5v signalling.
4. AGP 8X, using a 32 bit channel operating at 66MHz, storing, 8 times per clock, resulting in a
maximum data rate of 2133Mbps (2Gbps), 0.8 v signalling.
Advantages:

 Deeply pipelined memory read and write operations.

 Demultiplexing of address and data on the bus, allowing almost 100% bus efficiency.
 New AC timing for the 3.3 v electrical specification that provides for one (AGP 1X) or two
(AGP 2X) data transfer per 66MHz clock cycle, allowing for real data trough in excess of
500Mbps.
 A new low-voltage electrical specification that allows four (AGP 4X) data transfer per
66MHz clock cycle providing real data through put over 1Gbps.
PCIe
PCIe (peripheral component interconnect express) is a serial expansion bus standard used for
attaching are or more peripheral devices (mouse, image scanners, digital cameras, etc.) with the
computer. It is a serial expansion bus which transfers the data between the interface hardware of the
computer (including CPU and RAM) and peripheral devices. It is a standard bus that allows for the
exchanging the data from one point of a computer to another point.

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Each peripheral device which is connected

with motherboard through the PCIe link has a
dedicated point to point connection with the
PC. This means that devices are ready to
communicate with the PCs but due to
different bandwidth with PC units they will
not share the same bus.
To communicate with the multiple devices, PCIe uses switches for establishing the
connection. PCIe switches works as an end point and this end point can connect with multiple PCI
switches. Thus multiple devices can connect with PC.
Features:

 It is point to point master-slave configuration

 It is a serial bus architecture which requires fewer pins than parallel bus
 Scalable: means that if a single lane is able to transfer the data 2Gbps than another lane can
transfer 4Gbps this is the scaling of the bandwidth.
 It is a packet based transmission protocol
 The data integrity and error handling capability of PCIe is better than the PCI
PCIe topology
The CPU will access the root complex in order to configure the IP and CPU will also configure the
different point with the help of root complex. The root complex can directly access the memory. Thus
the PCIe endpoints will communicate with the CPU and memory with the help of root complex as
shown below:

fig: PCIe topology block diagram

We can attach many PCIe endpoints with the root complex with the help of PCIe switches. These
different components will communicate between the CPU or memory and peripheral devices through
the PCI express expansion bus. These PCIe end points can read and write data from the memory.
Advantages:

 Compared with PCI bus, the single lane transmission rate of PCIe has been greatly increased.

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 As a serial bus, PCIe allows each lane to have its own exclusive bandwidth and thus lanes
will not affect each other.
 PCIe adopts point to point transaction, which could greatly decreases the costs of the system
development and manufacturing.
CENTRONICS INERFACE
It is a standard I/O interface for connecting printers and other devices. The centronics interface, also
known as parallel port, became the standard means of connecting printers to personal computers. The
interface typically includes a 36- pin male and female connector at the printer or other device. The
cable plugs into a 25 pin parallel port on the computer.
Data flows in one direction only, from the computer to the printer or other device. In addition to 8
parallel data lines, other lines are used to read status information and send control signals. IBM used
this interface as an alternative to the slower one bit at a time serial interface.

DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera consists of the following basic parts:

1. Lenses
It focuses the image, refracting the light rays comes from the object so that they converge into a
coherent image.

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2. Diaphragm
It determines the amount of light enters through the lenses. It measures as f-
number, the greater the f-number the smaller the opening of the diaphragm.
3. Shutter
It determines the amount of time of exposure. It is measured in fractions of a
second. The faster the shutter the smaller the exposure.
4. CCD (charge coupled device)
These are a group of sensors that converts light into corresponding electric charge.

Working principle
Capturing image: lenses focused the light rays comes from the object made into a coherent image.
Diaphragm determines time of exposure. Then lights made fall onto sensor (CCD) to get
corresponding electric charge.
Binary system processing: to convert analogue signal (electric charge) to digital signal in binary form
an ADC converter is used. Each of the charge stored assigns to a binary value, storing them as pixels.
A pixel is a point sample of an image which contains 3 basic colour (RGB [red, green, blue])
components. Pixel per square inches determines the resolution of the camera which indicates the size
and quality of image.
Compression and storage: once the image is digitalized, it is compressed by a microprocessor and
stored as image file (eg: JPEG, PNG, GIF)

*****figures with margins (outline) – need to study (important) - others only for reference
Thanks to: Shamila (lecturer in electronics/gptc Kannur), Google, noteblock (application)
Click “link” to other notes: link

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