Chapter 4

Transformations of Graphs
Reference: “Calculus”, by James Stewart.
Suppose that we know the graph of y = f (x) . The aim of this chapter
is to learn how to sketch graphs corresponding to the following equations:

Column A Column B

y = f (x) + c y = f (x + c)

y = f (x) − c y = f (x − c)

y = cf (x) y = f (cx)

y = −f (x) y = f (−x)

y = |f (x)|

y = (f (x))2

1
y=
f (x)

One crucial distinction which we make between the various transforma-

tions is whether a transformation is ‘inside’ the function or ‘outside’ the
function. For example,

• in each of the equations listed in Column A, the transformation is

‘outside’ the function. That is, the extra symbols are outside the
brackets for the function f (x) .

1
 In contrast,

• in each of the equations in Column B, the transformation is ‘inside’

the function. That is, the extra symbols are inside the brackets for
the function f (x) .

4.1 Translations, Reflections and Dilations

‘Outside’ the Function
If a transformation is ‘outside’ the function then we need to change y .

We apply the indicated operation to y . In the following table we

assume that c > 0 .

Equation Action Mathematical Description

y = f (x) + c Add c to the y–values. A translation up by c.

y = f (x) − c Subtract c from the y–values. A translation down by c.

y = cf (x) Multiply the y–values by c. A dilation by a factor

of c parallel to the y–axis.

y = −f (x) Multiply the y–values by −1. A reflection in the x–axis.

Example 1.

(a) Sketch the graph of y = 2x + 1 .

(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 1 .

(c) Sketch the graph of y = 2 sin x .

(d) Sketch the graph of y = −(2x ) .

2
Solution: (a) We start by sketching the graph of y = 2x (which is one of
the basic graphs from the previous chapter). We then observe that the
graph of y = 2x + 1 is obtained by translating the graph of y = 2x up
one unit. Note that since the x -axis is a horizontal asymptote for the
graph of y = 2x , then there is a horizontal asymptote for the graph
of y = 2x + 1 which is obtained by translating the line y = 0 up one
unit.

2
y = 2x + 1
1 y=1
y = 2x
x

(b) We start by sketching the graph of y = 2x . Observe that the graph

of y = 2x − 1 is obtained by translating the graph of y = 2x down
one unit. Note that since the x -axis is a horizontal asymptote for the
graph of y = 2x , then there is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of
y = 2x − 1 which is obtained by translating the line y = 0 down one
unit.

1
y = 2x
x
y = 2x − 1 y = −1

3
(c) We start by sketching the graph of y = sin x . Observe that the graph
of y = 2 sin x is obtained by dilating the graph of y = sin x by a
factor of two in the vertical direction.

2
y = 2 sin x
1 y = sin x
−2π −π π 2π
x
−1

−2

(d) We start with the graph of y = 2x . The graph of y = −(2x ) is

obtained by reflecting the graph of y = 2x in the x -axis.

1
y = 2x
x
y = −(2x )
−1

4
4.2 Translations, Reflections and Dilations
‘Inside’ the Function
If a transformation is ‘inside’ the function then we need to change x .
We apply the opposite of the indicated operation to x .

Equation Action Mathematical Description

y = f (x + c) Subtract c from the x–values. A translation to the left by c.

y = f (x − c) Add c to the x–values. A translation to the right by c.

1
y = f (cx) Divide the x–values by c. A dilation by a factor of
c
parallel to the x–axis.

y = f (−x) Divide the x–values by −1. A reflection in the y–axis.

Example 2. (a) Sketch the graph of y = 2x+1 .

(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x−1 .

(c) Sketch the graph of y = sin(2x) .

(d) Sketch the graph of y = 2−x .

Solution: (a) We start by sketching the graph of y = 2x . Observe that

the graph of y = 2x+1 is obtained by translating the graph of y = 2x
one unit to the left. We find the y –intercept of y = 2x+1 as follows:

x=0 =⇒ y = 2x + 1
= 20+1
=2

Note that x –axis is the horizontal asymptote for y = 2x+1 .

5
 y

2
y = 2x+1 1
y = 2x
x

(b) We start by sketching the graph of y = 2x . The graph of y = 2x−1 is

obtained by translating the graph of y = 2x one unit to the right.
We find the y –intercept of y = 2x−1 as follows:

x=0 =⇒ y = 2x−1
= 20−1
1
=
2
Note that x –axis is the horizontal asymptote for y = 2x−1 .

y = 2x+1
1

1
y = 2x 2
x

(c) We start by sketching the graph of y = sin x . Observe that the graph
of y = sin(2x) is obtained by dilating the graph of y = sin x by a
factor a half in the horizontal direction.

6
 y

1
y = sin(2x)
y = sin x
−2π −π π 2π
x

−1

(d) We start with the graph of y = 2x . The graph of y = 2−x is obtained

by reflecting the graph of y = 2x in the y –axis.

y = 2−x y y = 2x

Exercises
On the same set of axes, sketch:

(a) y = cos x and y = − cos x (b) y = log2 x and y = log2 (−x)

(c) y = x2 and y = x2 − 2 (d) y = x2 and y = (x − 3)2

1 1
(e) y= and y = (f) y = x3 and y = x3 − 8
x x+2

7
4.3 Combinations of Transformations
Often we need to sketch graphs for equations which involve more than one
transformation. The method is to build the complicated–looking functions
from easier functions, using the transformations considered earlier.

The transformations which are “outside” the function should

be applied in the usual arithmetic order.
For example, suppose that we want to sketch the graph of y = af (x)+d .

The arithmetic order of operations is to multiply by a first, and

then to add d . Thus we should

• first apply the transformation involving the a , and

• then apply the transformation involving the d .

Suppose that we want to sketch the graph of y = m (f (x) + r) .

The arithmetic order of operations is to add r first, and then

to multiply by m . Thus we should

• first apply the transformation involving the r , and

• then apply the transformation involving the m .

The transformations which are “inside” the function should

be applied in the OPPOSITE of the usual arithmetic order.
For example, suppose that we want to sketch the graph of y = f (bx+c) .

The arithmetic order of operations is to multiply by b first,

and then to add c . We should apply these operations in the
opposite order. That is, we should

• first apply the transformation involving the c , and

• then apply the transformation involving the b .

Finally, suppose that we want to sketch the graph of y = f (n(x + p)) .

The arithmetic order of operations is to add p first, and then

to multiply by n . We should apply these operations in the
opposite order. That is, we should

• first apply the transformation involving the n , and

• then apply the transformation involving the p .

8
 If the function involves some transformations which are “outside” the
function, and some transformations which are “inside” the function, then
it does not matter whether the “outside” transformations are considered
before the “inside” transformations or vice versa.

√
Example 3. Sketch the graph of y = 3x − 12 .
√ √
Solution: We start with y = x . The graph of y = 3x − 12 is obtained
by applying two “inside” transformations. To sketch the graph we need to
apply these in the order that is opposite to the usual arithmetic order. We
will sketch graphs in the following order:
√
(1) y = x (One of the basic graphs.)
√
(2) y = x − 12 (This is obtained from graph (1) by translating 12 units
to the right.)
√
(3) y = 3x − 12 (This is obtained from graph (2) by dilating horizontally
by a factor of 31 .)

y y
√ √
y= x y= x − 12

x 12 x

√
y= 3x − 12

4 x

9
Exercises
Sketch graphs for each of the following functions:

1. (a) y = x2 (b) y = (x − 1)2 (c) y = (x − 1)2 + 1

2. (a) y = 2x2 (b) y = 2(x − 2)2 (c) y = 2(x − 2)2 − 4
1 1 1
3. (a) y = (b) y = (c) y = − 3
x x+1 x+1
4. (a) y = sin x (b) y = sin(2x) (c) y = sin(−2x)
5. (a) y = 3x (b) y = 3−x (c) y = 3−x + 2
6. (a) y = log2 x (b) y = log2 (x + 1) (c) y = − log2 (x + 1)
7. (a) y = x3 (b) y = (x + 1)3 (c) y = 1 + (x + 1)3

4.4 Absolute Values

We want to sketch graphs for functions of the form y = |f (x)| .
Since the absolute value symbols are ‘outside’ the function, then (just
like in Section 4.1) we need to apply the indicated operation to the y –
values in the y = f (x) graph. That is, we just need to

take the absolute value of the y –values

in the y = f (x) graph.
Recall that absolute value satisfies the following rules:

• If y ≥ 0 then |y| = y . That is, the positive y –values do not change.

• If y < 0 then |y| = −y . That is, the negative y –values change from
negative to positive.

10
 y y

x x

y = f (x) y = |f (x)|

4.5 Squaring
 2
We want to sketch graphs for functions of the form y = f (x) .
Since the squaring symbol is ‘outside’ the function, then (just like in
Section 4.1) we need to apply the indicated operation to the y –values in
the y = f (x) graph. That is, we just need to
square all the y –values
in the y = f (x) graph.

We should start with the y –values which remain unchanged. Note that

y2 = y ⇒ y 2 − y = 0.
i.e. y(y − 1) = 0.
i.e. y = 0 or y = 1.

So we have two special y –values, namely 0 and 1.

• If y = 0 then y 2 = y .

Thus any point with y = 0 will not change if we square the function.
Similarly,
• if y = 1 then y 2 = y .

Thus any point with y = 1 will not change if we square the function.

11
 We will also need to consider other points on the graph (which are not
special). It is helpful to consider at least one point from each “section” of
the graph.

• Note that we always have y 2 ≥ 0 .

 2
That is, the graph of y = f (x) will be in the upper half of the
plane.
• If y > 1 then y 2 > y e.g. 22 is bigger than 2.
• If 0 < y < 1 then y 2 < y e.g. ( 21 )2 = 1
4
is smaller than 1
2
.

y y
k2

y=1

x x

−k

y = f (x) y = [f (x)]2

4.6 Reciprocals
1
We want to sketch graphs for functions of the form y = .
f (x)

Since the reciprocal symbol is ‘outside’ the function, then (just like in
Section 4.1) we need to apply the indicated operation to the y –values in
the y = f (x) graph. That is, we need to
take the reciprocal of all the y –values
in the y = f (x) graph.

We should start with the special y –values.

12
 1
• The first special y –value is 0. Note that if y = 0 then is not
y
defined.
Therefore, we draw a vertical asymptote through any point with
y = 0.

The other special y –values are those which remain unchanged. Note
that
1
=y ⇒ 1 = y2.
y
i.e. y = ±1.
1
• If y = 1 then = y . Thus y = 1 remains unchanged.
y
1
• If y = −1 then = y . Thus y = −1 remains unchanged.
y

We will also need to consider other points on the graph (which are not
special).
It is helpful to consider at least one point from each “section” of the
graph.
Note that
1 1
• if y is large then y
is small. e.g. 10 is large but 10
is small.

Similarly,
1 1
• if y is small then y
is large. e.g. 4
is small but 4 is large.

13
 y y = f (x)

y=1

y = −1

1
y=
f (x)

4.7 Addition of Ordinates

We want to sketch graphs for functions of the form y = f (x) + g(x) .
Since the plus symbol is ‘outside’ the functions, we should apply the
indicated operation to the y –values. That is, we just add the y –values in
the y = f (x) and y = g(x) graphs.
An easy way to add ordinates is to draw arrows, as described below:

• Starting on the x –axis, draw a vertical arrow to either one of the

two graphs.
(Note that it is neater if you draw the arrow to the closer graph.)

• Then copy that arrow onto the other graph, without changing the
x –value!
This second arrow now points to where the graph of y = f (x) + g(x)
should be.

See the Addition of Ordinates examples on TCOLE.

14
Exercises
On the same set of axes, sketch

(a) y = x2 − 3x and y = |x2 − 3x|

(b) y = x − 2 and y = |x − 2|
1 1
(c) y = and y = 2
x x
(d) y = x2 and y = x4
1
(e) y = x3 and y =
x3
1
(f) y = x2 − 4x and y =
x2 − 4x
(g) y = 2x , y = 2−x and y = 2x + 2−x
1 1
(h) y = x2 − 1, y = and y = x2 − 1 +
x+1 x+1

15
4.8 Answers to Chapter 4 Exercises
4.2:
(a) y

1 y = cos(x)

x
− 3π
2
− π2 π
2
3π
2
−1 y = − cos(x)

y
(b)

x
−1 1

y = log2 (−x) y = log2 x

(c) y y = x2
y = x2 − 2

√ √ x
− 2 2

−2

16
(d) y y = x2 y = (x − 3)2

x
3

y 1
(e) y= x

1
2
−2
x

1
y= x+2

17
 (f) y y = x3 − 8

x
2
y = x3

−8

4.3
1. (a) (b) (c)
y y y
2

1 1

x 1 x 1 x
y = x2 y = (x − 1)2 y = (x − 1)2 + 2
(c)
2. (a) (b)
y y y

8
4 2
√
2− 2 x
√
x 2 x 2+ 2
−4
y = x2 y = 2x2 y = 2(x − 2)2
y = 2(x − 2)2 − 4

18
 (c)
3. (a) (b) y − 23
y
y −1
x
1 −2
−1
x x −3
1 1
y= x
y= x+1

1
y= x+1
−3
4. (a) (b) (c)
y y y
1 1 1

−2π 2π −π π − π2 π
2
−π π x − π2 π
2 x −π π x
−1 −1 −1
y = sin(x) y = sin(2x) y = sin(−2x)

5. (a) (b) (c)

y y y

1 1 2

x x x
−x
y = 3x y=3 y=3 −x
+2
6. (a) (b) (c)

y y y

1 x −1 x −1 x

y = log2 (x) y = log2 (x + 1) y = − log2 (x + 1)

19
 7. (a) (b) (c)
y
y y 2

1 1
−2
x −1 x −1 x
y = x3

y = (x + 1)3 y = 1 + (x + 1)3
4.7
1. (a) (b)
y y = |x2 − 3x| y y = |x − 2|
9
4
2

x
3 x
2
3 2

−2
− 94
y = x2 − 3x y =x−2
(c)
y (d)
y

1
1
1 x

−1 1 x

y= 1
y= 1 y = x2 y = x4
x x2

20
 (f)
(e) y
y = x2 − 4x

y
1
y= x3
1 2
4 x
−1 − 14
1 x −4

−1
y = x3
1
y= x2 −4x

(g)
y

1
y= 2x y = 2−x

x
y = 2x + 2−x

(h)
y

y = x2 − 1

1
√
1
−1− 5
2
y= x+1

x
√
−1+ 5
2

−1

1
y = x2 − 1 + x+1

21