Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Engineering: Dalat University

Dalat University
Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Engineering
Nguyễn Đăng Chiến, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Course
Chapter 2: Symmetry Principles
Chapter 3: The Calculus of Variations
Chapter 4: The Principle of Virtual Work
Chapter 5: Lagrangian Mechanics
Chapter 6: Conservation Laws
Chapter 7: Hamiltonian Mechanics
1
3 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws
Contents of Chapter 6
I. Invariance Transformations
II. Noether’s Theorem
III. Energy Conversation Law
IV. Momentum Conservation Law
V. Angular Momentum Conservation Law
VI. Center of Mass Theorem
2
 Generalized coordinates transformation: (dependent variables)
• Consider a 1-1 transformation of generalized coordinates:
= , ,…, ,
→ :
= ( , ,… , )
Note: Generalized coordinates (or ) are dependent variables.
• This new set of coordinates results new Lagrangian:
, ̇ , = ( , ), ̇ ( , ̇ , ), [≡ , ̇ , ],
we can demonstrate that the Lagrange’s equations do not change

under generalized coordinates transformation.
 Proof:
• From the total differential of :
= + ⇔ ≡ ̇ = ̇ +
̇
⟹ =
̇
• In the other hand:

̇ =
= ̇ +
̇
= ̇ + +
= ̇ + =
3
 Proof:
′ ̇
⟹ = + = +
̇ ̇
′ ̇
⟹ = + =
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
= (functions do not contain ̇ )
⟹ = +
̇ ̇ ̇
⟹ − = −
̇ ̇
 Proof:
• Because the determinant
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ≠ (due to the transformation ↔ is 1-1)

⋯
⟹ − = ⟺ − = , ( = , ,…, )
̇ ̇
 The form of Lagrange’s equations does not change under the

transformations of generalized coordinates (dependent variables).
4
 Dependent & independent coordinates transformation:
• To avoid unnecessary clutter, consider a system with 1-degree of

freedom. The generalization to many degrees is trivial.
o Dependent coordinate:
o Independent coordinate:
• Consider the [passive] transformation

in configuration space:
= , , = ( , )
• Two observers:
o “prime” stands in ( , )
o “unprimed” stands in ( ′, ′)
 Covariance of Lagrange’s equation:
• If path is a possible actual motion of the system, then the action:
is stationary and is given as a solution

= , , of Lagrange’s equations:
=
( / )
• Since 2 coordinates are equivalent,

the unprime observer writes: ′ = ′ , , ′=
and he still finds that is a possible actual path, i.e.

′ ′
=  Lagrange’s equation is covariant
′ ( ′/ ′) ′
5
Mathematically, prove that Lagrange’s equation is

covariant, i.e. maintains the same general form, under
arbitrary transformations of the dependent and
independent variables.
• Solution:
Do similar procedure as before, but
take attention to time-derivatives
(see Calkin, p. 93).
Transformation: active point of view
 Non-uniqueness of Lagrangian:
• Consider a Lagrangian ′( , ̇ , ) that differs from ( , ̇ , ) by a term

which is a total derivative of a function of & :
, ̇, = , ̇, + ( , )
• The actions of and are: = ′ , ̇, , = , ̇,
• We have: = ′ = ( + )= + ⟹ =
= ( is a definite function)
= ⟺ =  ′( , ̇ , ) and ( , ̇ , ) lead to the

same explicit equations of motion.
6
 Condition for invariance:
• Definition: A transformation is considered as an invariance

transformation if the explicit equations of motion before and after
applying the transformation are the same.
• Strictly in mathematics, an invariant transformation makes the

Lagrangian itself invariant, i.e.
o Dependent-variable transformation:
→
, ̇, = ′, ̇ ′, = ′, ̇ ′,
o Dependent- & independent-variables transformation:

, → ,
, ̇, = ′, / ′, ′ = ′, / ′, ′
 Condition for invariance:
• However, from the non-unique property of Lagrangian, an invariance

transformation if the Lagrangian varies as:
o Dependent-variable transformation:
→
, ̇, = ′, ̇ ′, = ′, ̇ ′, + ( ′, )
o Dependent- & independent-variables transformation:

, → ,
, ̇, = ′, / ′, ′ = ′, / ′, ′ + ( ′, )
• Integrating both sides: , ̇, = ′, / ′, ′ ′ + ( ′, )
⟹ − = ∆ = − ( ′, )  This is invariance condition

expressed in terms of the action
7
 Condition for invariance under Infinitesimal transformations:
• The invariance condition for general transformations in previous page

is expressed in terms of new variables ( , ).
• For Infinitesimal transformations = + , = + , we have:
∆ , ̇, =− + , + =− [ , + , ]
• Because ∆ = if = = , we have:
= , = =
⟹ ∆ , ̇, =− [ , ] ⟺∆ =− ( , )
For the motion in 1 dimension of a free particle of

mass m, consider the transformation: ⟶ = + .
Determine the function ( ) so that it is an invariant
transformation.
• Solution: ( , ̇, ) = ̇ ; ̇ = ̇+ ̇
⇒ , ̇ , = ̇ − ̇ = , ̇ , − ̇ ̇ + ̇
⇒ ′, =− ̇ ̇ + ̇ ⟺ ′, =− ̇ + ̇
⇒ =− ̇ ; = ̇
′ = + ( , : constants)
=− ̈ ; = ⇒ ̈ =
′ ′
8
 Infinitesimal transformations [of dependent variables]:
• Usually, transformations contain adjustable parameters " “ :
⟶ = ; ,
; , =
• Transformations for which the parameters are infinitesimally close to

, and for which the new coordinates differ infinitesimally from the
old , are called Infinitesimal transformations.
• For Infinitesimal transformations, we have:
= +
=
⟶ = +
 Variation of Lagrangian:
• Lagrangian varies under Infinitesimal transformations as:

transformation
, ̇, ′, ̇ ′,
⟶ = +
• For an invariance transformation, must have the form:
′, ̇ ′, = ′, ̇ ′, + , , = , =
(definition)
= + , ̇+ ̇, + ( + , )
, ̇, = , ̇, + , ̇, + [ , + , ]
⟺ , ̇, + , =
9
 Constant of the motion:
• Using the expression of the variation of under virtual displacement

(see Ch. 5, p. 22), we have:
− + + ,…, , =
̇ ̇
• The first term vanishes since the generalized coordinates satisfy

Lagrange’s equations of motion. Therefore, the quantity:
+ ,…, ,
̇
is the constant of the motion.
 Generalization for both dependent & independent variables:
• Consider a infinitesimal transformation

of configuration space with both
dependent & independent variables:
= +∆ , , = +∆ ( , )
• Note that ∆ is used to distinguish

with virtual change (time-frozen).
∆ ∆
⟹ = + , = +
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
⟹ = + + ≈ − +
 The change in the generalized velocity is no longer simply the time

derivative of the change in the generalized coordinate.
10
 Consideration in the view point of virtual displacement:
• The change ⟶ ′ by the transformation

= +∆ , , = +∆ ( , )
can also be performed by a virtual

displacement
= + ,
with the time frozen, but is a function of ∆
= ∆ − ̇∆ .
• Proof:
in the picture of virtual displacement: = + ∆ − ̇∆
∆ ∆ ̇ ∆ ∆
⟹ = + − − ∆ ≈ − +
 Variation of the action ∆ :
• The action for path ′ based on the

transformation of both , variables:
[ ]= ′, / ′, ′ ′
• The action for path ′ based on the virtual

displacement:
(Note: ′s in the two integrands

[ ]= ′, / ,
are different)
⟹∆ = ′, / , − , ̇,
11
 Calculation for ∆ :
= ′, / ,
= ′, / , + ′, ′/ , + ′, / ,
• Since − =∆ | and − =∆ | are infinitesimal, functions

in the 1st and 3rd integrals are approximately considered as constants:
⟹∆ = , , − , , + ∆ = + ∆
 Calculation for ∆ :
• Using the expression of the variation of under virtual displacement

(see Ch. 5, p. 22)
= − +
̇ ̇
& noting that is an actual path, we have: ⟹ ∆ = + ∆

̇
• Finally, recalling that = ∆ − ̇ ∆ , we can express ∆ as:
∆ = ∆ − ̇− ∆ = ∆ − ∆
̇ ̇ ̇
where = ̇− is called the Hamiltonian.

̇
12
 Constant of the motion: (for arbitrary invariance transformation)
• From the condition of invariance for an infinitesimal transformation

(expressed in term of the action)
∆ =− ( , ) ⟹ ∆ − ∆ + , =
̇
• Generalizing to many degrees of freedom, therefore, the quantity:
∆ − ∆ + ,…, , , with = ̇ − ,
̇ ̇
is the constant of the motion.
 Noether’s theorem: for each symmetry of the Lagrangian there

corresponds a conservation law (and vice versa).
 What is ?
• If the constraints are time-independent, i.e.
⟹ ̇ = ̇ (p. 14, ch. 5)
⟹ = ̇ = ̇ = ̇ ̇
• In the other hand = = ̇ (pp. 15, 20, ch. 5)

̇ ̇
⟹ = ̇ ̇ − = − = +
 is the total energy. In any event, thought of as “generalized energy”.
13
 Energy conversation
• Performing a time displacement: = + , = , ∆ =
• The time-uniform property requires that

, → ,
, ̇, = ′, / ′, ′ = ′, / ′, ′ + ( ′, )
• If does not depend explicitly on the time:
, = + , , = ⟹ = ∆ = ∆ , ∆ =
• From the invariance condition expressed in terms of the action, the

constant of the motion is given by:
− ∆ + = − + ∆ = ⟹ =
 The uniformity of time leads to the conversation of energy.
IV. Momentum Conversation Law
 Spatial displacement
• Consider a closed system of particles interacting with one another

via potentials which depend only on the distances between them:
( ,…, , ̇ ,…, ̇ , ) = ̇ − − , ≠
• Performing a spatial displacement, we have:
= ⟹∆ = , = +
where = = , ∀
⟹ ̇ = ̇
⟹ − = −
14
IV. Momentum Conversation Law
 Momentum Conversation
• The Lagrange itself is invariant under this transformation:
,…, , ̇ ,…, ̇ , = ( ,…, , ̇ ,…, ̇ , )
⟹ = ⟹ = ⟹ =
 The space is homogeneous.

= ̇ = = ⟹ =
̇
 The uniformity of space leads to the conversation of momentum.
V. Angular Momentum Conversation Law
 Spatial rotation

( ,…, , ̇ ,…, ̇ , ) = ̇ − − , ≠
• We rotate the system through an infinitesimal

angle about the -axis:
= cos − sin = −
= sin + cos = +
= , = ⟹ ∆ =
⟹ =− , = , =
15
V. Angular Momentum Conversation Law
 Angular momentum Conversation
• Since the length of vectors is an invariance, the Lagrange itself is

invariant under this transformation:
⟹ = ⟹ = ⟹ =
 The space is isotropic.

+ + = − ̇ + ̇ = =
̇ ̇ ̇
 Similarly for , ⟹ =
 The isotropy of space leads to the conversation of angular momentum.
 Galilean transformation

( ,…, , ̇ ,…, ̇ , ) = ̇ − − , ≠
• For Galilean transformation, we give

each of the particles of the system an
additional velocity :
= + ⟹ =
⟹ ̇ = ̇ +
but the time is invariant: =
16
 Variation of Lagrangian
• The new Lagrange is given by:
= ̇ − − − − +
= − ̇ +  is not invariant .
• Since Galilean transformation is an invariance transformation, the

variation of must satisfy:
, ̇, + , =
⟹ =− +
 Center of mass theorem
• The constant of the motion is given by:
+ = ̇ − + +
̇
= ( ̇ − ) = − =
is radius vector to
= is the total mass =
the center of mass.
⟹ − = = ⟹ = +
 Theorem: the center of mass of a closed

system moves with a constant velocity: = =
17
Assignments (due on next class)
The motion of a particle of mass which moves vertically in the

uniform gravitational field near the surface of the earth can be
described by an action principle with Lagrangian
= ̇ −
1. Show that the action principle is invariant under the

transformations
a) = +
where , are any constants
b) = +
2. Find the associated constants of the motion.

Exercise 5.02: see Calkin, Solution,p. 103.
18

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Dalat University

Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Engineering

Nguyễn Đăng Chiến, Ph.D.

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Course

Chapter 2: Symmetry Principles

Chapter 3: The Calculus of Variations

Chapter 4: The Principle of Virtual Work

Chapter 5: Lagrangian Mechanics

Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

Chapter 7: Hamiltonian Mechanics

II. Noether’s Theorem

III. Energy Conversation Law

IV. Momentum Conservation Law

V. Angular Momentum Conservation Law

VI. Center of Mass Theorem

4 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

 Generalized coordinates transformation: (dependent variables)

• Consider a 1-1 transformation of generalized coordinates:

Note: Generalized coordinates (or ) are dependent variables.

• This new set of coordinates results new Lagrangian:

we can demonstrate that the Lagrange’s equations do not change

5 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

• In the other hand:

6 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

= (functions do not contain ̇ )

7 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

• Because the determinant

⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ≠ (due to the transformation ↔ is 1-1)

 The form of Lagrange’s equations does not change under the

8 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

 Dependent & independent coordinates transformation:

• To avoid unnecessary clutter, consider a system with 1-degree of

• Consider the [passive] transformation

9 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

 Covariance of Lagrange’s equation:

• If path is a possible actual motion of the system, then the action:

is stationary and is given as a solution

• Since 2 coordinates are equivalent,

and he still finds that is a possible actual path, i.e.

10 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

Mathematically, prove that Lagrange’s equation is

Transformation: active point of view

11 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

• Consider a Lagrangian ′( , ̇ , ) that differs from ( , ̇ , ) by a term

• The actions of and are: = ′ , ̇, , = , ̇,

= ⟺ =  ′( , ̇ , ) and ( , ̇ , ) lead to the

12 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

 Condition for invariance:

• Definition: A transformation is considered as an invariance

• Strictly in mathematics, an invariant transformation makes the

o Dependent- & independent-variables transformation:

13 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws

 Condition for invariance:

• However, from the non-unique property of Lagrangian, an invariance

o Dependent- & independent-variables transformation:

• Integrating both sides: , ̇, = ′, / ′, ′ ′ + ( ′, )

⟹ − = ∆ = − ( ′, )  This is invariance condition

14 Chapter 6: Conservation Laws