IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO.

9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2595

Noncoherent Physical-Layer Network Coding with

FSK Modulation: Relay Receiver Design Issues
Matthew C. Valenti, Senior Member, IEEE, Don Torrieri, Senior Member, IEEE,
and Terry Ferrett, Student Member, IEEE

ΓS (u1 ) ΓS (u1 ) ΓS (u2 )

Abstract—A channel-coded physical-layer network coding Time Slot 1 N1 R N2 N1 R N2

strategy is refined for practical operation. The system uses

frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation and operates noncoher- ΓS (u2 ) ΓR (u) ΓR (u)
Time Slot 2 N1 R N2 N1 R N2
ently, providing advantages over coherent operation: there are no
requirements for perfect power control, phase synchronism, or
estimates of carrier-phase offset. In contrast with analog network ΓR (u) ΓR (u)
Time Slot 3 N1 R N2
coding, which relays received analog signals plus noise, the system
relays digital network codewords, obtained by digital demodula- (a) (b)

tion and channel decoding at the relay. The emphasis of this paper Fig. 1. (a) Link-layer network coding, and (b) Physical-layer network coding.
is on the relay receiver formulation. Closed-form expressions are
derived that provide bitwise log-likelihood ratios, which may be
packets, and each terminal is able to recover the information
passed through a standard error-correction decoder. The role
of fading-amplitude estimates is investigated, and an effective from the other terminal by subtracting (or adding, modulo-
fading-amplitude estimator is developed. Simulation results are 2) its own packet from the received signal. With physical-
presented for a Rayleigh block-fading channel, and the influence layer network coding (PNC), the first two slots are combined
of block length is explored. An example realization of the by having the two terminals transmit their packets at the
proposed system demonstrates a 32.4% throughput improvement
same time [2]. The relay receives a combination of both
compared to a similar system that performs network coding at the
link layer. By properly selecting the rates of the channel codes, modulated packets during the first slot, which it broadcasts
this benefit may be achieved without requiring an increase in (after appropriate processing) to the two terminals during the
transmit power. second slot. PNC-based strategies capable of supporting more
Index Terms—Network coding, Two-way relay channel, than just two source terminals over the TWRC may be found
Frequency-shift keying, Noncoherent reception, Channel estima- in [4].
tion. The transmission schedules for LNC and PNC are illustrated
in Fig. 1. The source terminals N1 and N2 transmit messages
I. I NTRODUCTION u1 and u2 , respectively, where each message is a packet
In the two-way relay channel (TWRC), a pair of source containing many information bits. The messages are (channel)
terminals exchange information through an intermediate relay encoded and modulated by the function ΓS (·). In the case of
without a direct link between the sources [1]. The exchange LNC, the two messages are sent in orthogonal time slots, while
can occur in two, three, or four orthogonal time slots, depend- in the case of PNC, they are sent to the relay at the same time
ing on how the information is encoded [2]. With a traditional over a multiple-access channel (MAC). For both LNC and
transmission scheduling scheme, the exchange requires four PNC, the relay broadcasts the encoded and modulated signal
slots. In each of the first two slots, one of the terminals ΓR (u) in the final time slot, where u is the network codeword
transmits a packet to the relay, while in each of the last two and ΓR (·) is the function used by the relay to encode and
slots, the relay transmits a packet to each of the terminals. modulate the network codeword. Using the received version
By using network coding [3], the number of slots can be of ΓR (u) and knowledge of its own message, each terminal
reduced. With link-layer network coding (LNC), the third and is able to estimate the message sent by the other terminal.
fourth slots are combined into one slot by having the relay add There are several options for implementing PNC. The relay
(modulo-2) the packets that it receives from the two terminals. may simply amplify and forward the signal received from the
During the third step, the relay sends the sum of the two end nodes, without performing demodulation and decoding.
This PNC scheme is referred to as analog network coding
Paper approved by G. Bauch. Manuscript received January 12, 2011; revised (ANC) in [5] and PNC over an infinite field (PNCI) in [6].
March 25, 2011; accepted May 20, 2011.
Portions of this paper were presented at the IEEE Military Communication Another option is for the relay to perform demodulation and
Conference (MILCOM), San Jose, CA, Oct. 2010. decoding in an effort to estimate the network codeword, which
M.C. Valenti’s contribution was sponsored by the National Science Founda- is remodulated and broadcast to the terminals. This scheme
tion under Award No. CNS-0750821 and by the United States Army Research
Laboratory under Contract W911NF-10-0109. is simply called PNC in [2] and PNC over a finite field
M. C. Valenti and T. Ferrett are with West Virginia University, Morgantown, (PNCF) in [6], but in this paper we refer to it as digital
WV (email: [email protected]). network coding (DNC) to distinguish it from ANC. Under
D. Torrieri is with the US Army Research Laboratory, Adelphi, MD (email:
[email protected]). many channel conditions, DNC offers enhanced performance
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCOMM.2011.063011.110030 over ANC. This is because the decoding operation at the relay
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2596

helps DNC to remove noise from the MAC phase, while the square and linear-minimum-mean-squared error estimation. In
noise is amplified by the relay when ANC is used. However, [16], we propose a blind channel estimator for the relay of the
ANC avoids the computational complexity of demodulation noncoherent DNC system.
and decoding at the relay. In this paper, we investigate receiver-design issues related
Symbol timing is a critical consideration in systems em- to the use of noncoherent FSK in DNC systems. While
ploying PNC. Synchronization of the clocks and packet trans- noncoherent FSK has been previously proposed for DNC
missions at the two source nodes can be achieved by network sytems in [10], we make the following specific contributions:
timing updates. These updates are routine in networks with 1) We provide closed-form expressions for the relay re-
scheduling mechanisms, such as cellular networks. When the ceiver decision rule with different types of CSI. This
propagation times of the signals from the sources differ, the is in contrast with [10], which resorted to numerical
symbols arrive at the relay misaligned. The timing offset is methods to solve the decision rule (see the comment
τ = ∆d /c, where c is the speed of light, and ∆d is the below equation (8) in [10]).
difference in link distances from the sources to the relay. For 2) We consider the use of a turbo code for additional
insignificant delay, we need τ << Ts /2, where Ts denotes data protection. This requires that the relay receiver be
the symbol period. This constraint limits the symbol rate. As formulated so that it produces bitwise LLRs, which may
an example, assume ∆d = 300 meters. Then, Ts >> 2 µs is be passed through a standard turbo decoder.
required, and the symbol rate is limited to 250 kilosymbols/s. 3) We provide results for Rayleigh block-fading channels.
An alternative is to delay the transmission of the node closer The results in [10] were only for a phase-fading channel.
to the relay by τ . However, this requires tracking the distances 4) We propose a channel estimator that is capable of
between the sources and the relay. determining the fading amplitudes of the channels from
A common assumption made in the PNC literature is that the the two terminals to the relay. The estimator does not
signals are coherently demodulated and that perfect channel- require pilot symbols.
state information (CSI) is available at the receivers. For The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section
instance, decode-and-forward relaying has been considered for II presents the system model used throughout the paper. Sec-
binary phase-shift keying [7] and minimum-shift keying [8] tion III derives the relay receiver, while Section IV discusses
modulations, but in both cases the relay must perform coherent channel-estimation issues. Section V provides simulation re-
reception. An amplify-and-forward protocol is considered in sults, and Section VI concludes the paper.
[9], which allows the decision to be deferred by the relay to the
end-node, though detection is still coherent. When two signals II. S YSTEM M ODEL
arrive concurrently at a common receiver, neither coherent
detection nor the cophasing of the two signals (so that they The discrete-time system model shown in Fig. 2 gives
arrive with a constant phase offset) is practical. The latter an overview of the processing at all three nodes. Terminal
would require preambles that detract from the overall through- Ni , i ∈ {1, 2}, generates a length-K information sequence,
put, stable phases, and small frequency mismatches. To solve ui = [ui,1 , ..., ui,K ]. The two terminals channel-encode and
this problem, frequency-shift keying (FSK) was proposed for modulate their information sequences using the function ΓS (·),
DNC systems in [10] and [11]. A key benefit of using FSK which is common to both nodes. A rate-r1 turbo code is used,
modulation is that it permits noncoherent reception, which and the resulting length LS = K/r1 turbo codeword generated
eliminates the need for phase synchronization. An alternative by Ni is denoted by bi = [bi,1 , ...bi,LS ] (not shown in the
to noncoherent FSK is to use differential modulation, which diagram). The signal transmitted by node Ni during signaling
has been explored in [12]. interval kTs ≤ t ≤ (k + 1)Ts is
r    
In PNC systems, it is desirable to protect the data with 2Ei bi,k
a channel code. The combination of channel coding and si (t) = cos 2π fci + (t − kTs ) (1)
Ts Ts
physical-layer network coding is considered in [13] In [11],
we investigate the use of a binary turbo code in a noncoherent where Ei is the transmit energy, fci is the carrier frequency
DNC system. When using a binary turbo code in a DNC of node Ni (in practice, the carrier frequencies of the two
system, the relay demodulator must be able to produce bitwise nodes are not necessarily the same), and Ts is the symbol pe-
log-likelihood ratios (LLRs) that are introduced to the input riod. Note that (1) is continuous-phase frequency-shift keying
of the channel decoder. (CPFSK) with a unity modulation index, which is orthogonal
Channel estimation is an important issue, especially when under noncoherent demodulation and has a continuous phase
a channel code is used. A training-based channel estimation transition from one symbol to the next [17]. The orthogonally-
scheme for PNC at the relay assuming amplify-and-forward modulated signal si (t) may be represented in discrete time by
operation is considered in [14]. The relay estimates channel the 2 × LS matrix Xi = [xi,1 , ..., xi,LS ] with k th column
(
parameters from training symbols and adapts its broadcast [ 1 0 ]T if bi,k = 0
power in order to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at the end xi,k = T
(2)
[ 0 1 ] if bi,k = 1.
nodes. Estimation of both channel gains in the two-way relay
channel at the end nodes, rather than the relay, is considered For the DNC system, the signals are transmitted simulta-
in [15]. Novel channel estimators are presented which provide neously by the two source nodes over a MAC channel. The
better performance than common techniques such as least- relay receives the noisy electromagnetic sum of interfered and
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2597

Node 1
u1 ũ2
û
X1 Z1 −1
ΓS (·) Γ (·)
R
MAC Y −1 u X Broadcast
Γ (·) ΓR (·)
S
X2 Channel Channel Z2 −1
ΓS (·) Γ (·)
Relay R
ũ
u2 ũ1
Node 2
Fig. 2. Discrete-time system model.

faded signals, Y, and applies the demodulation and channel- which case the received phase of the other signal would drift
decoding function Γ−1 S (·). The demodulation operation yields from one symbol to the next. To model this behavior, we let
a soft estimate of the network-and-channel-coded message the phase shift within a block vary independently from symbol
b = b1 ⊕ b2 (not shown), while the channel-decoding op- to symbol.
eration yields a hard-decision on the network-coded message The signal matrix Xi transmitted by node Ni may be
u = u1 ⊕ u2 . With the LNC system, the two sources transmit partitioned into Nb = LS /N blocks according to
during orthogonal time slots. The received versions of X1 and h
(1) (N )
i
X2 are demodulated independently to provide soft estimates Xi = Xi ... Xi b (3)
of b1 and b2 . These soft estimates are combined and turbo (ℓ)
decoded to yield a hard estimate of u. The key distinction where each block Xi , 1 ≤ ℓ ≤ Nb , is a 2 × N matrix, and
between DNC and LNC is that with the DNC system, the Nb is assumed to be an integer. The channel associated with
(ℓ)
estimate of b is obtained directly from Y, while with LNC it block Xi is represented by the N × N diagonal matrix
is found by independently demodulating the two source signals Hi
(ℓ) (ℓ) (ℓ)
= αi × diag(exp{jθi,1 }, ..., exp{jθi,N }) (4)
(ℓ)
and then combining them.
During the broadcast phase, the relay encodes and mod- (ℓ) (ℓ)
where αi is a real-valued fading amplitude and θi,k is the
ulates u using the function ΓR (·), which may be different (ℓ)
phase shift of the k th symbol. The {θi,k } are independent
than the function ΓS (·) used by the sources. The channel (ℓ)
code applied by the relay is a rate-r2 turbo code, yielding and identically distributed over the interval [0, 2π). The {αi }
a length LR = K/r2 turbo codeword. The code rates r1 are normalized so that the average power gain of the channel
and r2 used by the sources and relays, respectively, do not is unity, so Ei represents the average energy of terminal Ni
need to be the same. In the simulation results, we contemplate received by the relay. The ℓth block at the sampled output of
using a stronger code for the MAC phase than the broadcast the relay receiver’s matched-filters is then
phase, i.e. r1 < r2 . The relay broadcasts its encoded and (ℓ) (ℓ) (ℓ) (ℓ)
Y(ℓ) = X1 H1 + X2 H2 + N(ℓ) (5)
modulated signal, which may be represented in discrete-time
by the 2 × LR matrix X. The signal traverses two independent where N(ℓ) is a 2 × N noise matrix whose elements are i.i.d.
fading channels, and the end nodes receive independently circularly-symmetric complex Gaussian random variables with
faded versions of X: Z1 at N1 and Z2 at N2 . The end zero mean and variance N0 .
nodes demodulate and decode their received signals using
the function Γ−1R (·), and form estimates of u. Let û denote
III. R ELAY R ECEIVER
the estimate at N1 and ũ denote the estimate at N2 . Next, At the relay, each block Y(ℓ) of the channel observation
estimates of the transmitted information messages are formed, matrix Y is passed to a channel estimator, which computes
ũ2 = û ⊕ u1 at N1 and ũ1 = ũ ⊕ u2 at N2 . Since the (ℓ) (ℓ)
estimates of the α1 and α2 . A full description of the esti-
links in the broadcast phase are conventional point-to-point mator is given in Section IV. The fading-amplitude estimates
links, specific details of the receiver formulation will not be and channel observations are used to obtain soft estimates of
presented here. A detailed exposition of receiver design for the network-and-channel-coded sequence b. The demodulator
turbo-coded CPFSK systems in block fading channels can be operates on a symbol-by-symbol basis, and therefore we
found in [18]. may focus on a single signaling interval by dropping the
All of the channels in the system are modeled as block- dependence on the symbol interval k and the block index ℓ.
fading channels. A block is defined as a set of N symbols Let b1 and b2 be the turbo-coded bits transmitted by terminals
that all experience the same fading amplitude. The duration N1 and N2 , and let b = b1 ⊕ b2 be the corresponding network-
of each block corresponds roughly to the channel coherence coded bit. The relay demodulator computes the LLR
time. Ideally both sources transmit with the same carrier
P (b = 1|y) P (b1 ⊕ b2 = 1|y)
frequency fc1 = fc2 . However, due to instabilities in each Λ(b) = log = log (6)
source node’s oscillator and different Doppler shifts due to P (b = 0|y) P (b1 ⊕ b2 = 0|y)
independent motion, it is not feasible to assume that these where y is the corresponding column of Y. The event {b1 ⊕
two frequencies are the same at the relay receiver. At best, the b2 = 1} is equivalent to the union of the events {b1 = 0, b2 =
relay receiver could lock onto one of the two frequencies, in 1} and {b1 = 1, b2 = 0}. Similarly, the event {b1 ⊕ b2 = 0}
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2598

is equivalent to the union of the events {b1 = 0, b2 = 0} and 1) Coherent PNC Receiver: When the fading amplitudes
{b1 = 1, b2 = 1}. It follows that and phases are known, p (y|{b1 , b2 }) is conditionally Gaus-
sian. The mean is a two-dimensional complex vector whose
P ({b1 = 0, b2 = 1} ∪ {b1 = 1, b2 = 0}|y) value depends on the values of {b1 , b2 } and the complex fading
Λ(b) = log
P ({b1 = 0, b2 = 0} ∪ {b1 = 1, b2 = 1}|y) coefficients {h1 , h2 }, which are the corresponding entries of
P ({b1 = 0, b2 = 1}|y) + P ({b1 = 1, b2 = 0}|y) the H matrix. Let m[b1 , b2 ] be the mean of y for the given
= log
P ({b1 = 0, b2 = 0}|y) + P ({b1 = 1, b2 = 1}|y) values of b1 and b2 . When b1 6= b2 , the two terminals transmit
(7) different frequencies and
 T
where the second line follows from the first because the events m[0, 1] = h1 h2
are mutually exclusive.  T
m[1, 0] = h2 h1 . (13)

A. LNC Receiver When b1 = b2 , the two terminals transmit the same frequency
and
In the LNC system, the LLR’s of b1 and b2 are first
 T
computed independently during the orthogonal time slots and m[0, 0] = (h1 + h2 ) 0
are then combined according to the rules of LLR arithmetic.  T
m[1, 1] = 0 (h1 + h2 ) . (14)
The LLR of the signal sent from node Ni to the relay is
P (bi = 1|y) Since there is a one-to-one correspondence between the event
Λ(bi ) = log (8) {b1 , b2 } and the mean vector m[b1 , b2 ], it is equivalent to write
P (bi = 0|y)
p (y|{b1 , b2 }) as p (y|m[b1 , b2 ]), where
where y is the signal received during the time slot that node  2  
Ni transmits. When the fading amplitudes αi , i = 1, 2, are 1 1 2
p (y|m[b1 , b2 ]) = exp − ky − m[b1 , b2 ]k .
known, but the phases θi , i = 1, 2, are not known, then (8) is πN0 N0
found using [19] (15)
 √   √ 
2 Ei αi |y2 | 2 Ei αi |y1 | The coherent receiver computes each of the p (y|{b1 , b2 })
Λ(bi ) = log I0 − log I0
N0 N0 required by (12) by substituting the corresponding m[b1 , b2 ]
(9) defined by (13) and (14) into (15).
2) Noncoherent PNC Receiver with CSI: Suppose that
where I0 (·) is the zeroth-order Bessel function of the first the receiver does not know the phases of the elements of
kind and y1 and y2 are the components of y. If the fading the complex-valued m[b1 , b2 ] vectors, but does know the
amplitudes are not known, but have Rayleigh distributions, magnitudes of the elements. The knowledge of the magnitudes
then (8) is found using [19] constitutes a type of channel-state information (CSI). Define
(Ei /N0 )2  2 µ[b1 , b2 ] to be the two-dimensional real vector whose elements
Λ(bi ) = |y2 | − |y1 |2 . (10) are the magnitudes of the elements of the complex vector
1 + Ei /N0
m[b1 , b2 ]. When b1 6= b2 , both frequencies are used, and
Once the individual LLR’s from each end node are found  T  T
using (9) or (10), the LLR of the LNC system’s network µ[0, 1] = |h1 | |h2 | = α1 α2
 T  T
codeword can then be found from (7) and the independence µ[1, 0] = |h2 | |h1 | = α2 α1 . (16)
of b1 and b2 when y is given:
When b1 = b2 , only one frequency is used, and
eΛ(b1 ) + eΛ(b2 )  T  T
Λ(b) = log µ[0, 0] = |h1 + h2 | 0 = α 0
1 + eΛ(b1 )+Λ(b2 )  T  T
= max ∗ [Λ(b1 ), Λ(b2 )] − max ∗ [0, Λ(b1 ) + Λ(b2 )] (11) µ[1, 1] = 0 |h1 + h2 | = 0 α (17)
p
where max ∗[x, y] = log(ex + ey ). where α = |h1 + h2 | = α21 + α22 + 2α1 α2 cos(θ2 − θ1 ).
The pdf of y conditioned on µ[b1 , b2 ] may be found by
B. PNC Receiver marginalizing over the unknown phases
Z 2π Z 2π
In the PNC system, it is not sensible to compute Λ(b1 ) and p (y|µ[b1 , b2 ]) = p(φ1 , φ2 )p (y|m[b1 , b2 ]) dφ1 dφ2 .
Λ(b2 ) separately. Instead, use (7) and assume that the four 0 0
events are equally likely along with Bayes’ rule to obtain (18)

Λ(b)=log [p (y|{b1 = 0, b2 = 1}) + p (y|{b1 = 1, b2 = 0})] where φ1 and φ2 are the phases of the first and second
elements of m[b1 , b2 ], respectively.
− log [p (y|{b1 = 0, b2 = 0}) + p (y|{b1 = 1, b2 = 1})] . Assume that the αi are Rayleigh distributed so that the
(12) hi are circularly-symmetric zero-mean complex Gaussian∗ .
The computation of each p (y|{b1 , b2 }) by the PNC relay ∗ The receiver derived in this subsection is valid even for non-Rayleigh fad-
receiver given various levels of channel state information is ing, provided that the received phases over the two channels are independent
the subject of the remainder of this section. and uniform over (0, 2π).
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2599

When b1 6= b2 each element of m[b1 , b2 ] is a circularly- 3) Noncoherent PNC Receiver without CSI: Suppose that
symmetric zero-mean complex Gaussian and therefore has besides not knowing the phases θ1 , θ2 , the relay receiver does
uniform phase. On the other hand, when b1 = b2 , one element not know the magnitude vector µ[b1 , b2 ]. Then, the relay must
is h1 + h2 , which is the sum of two circularly-symmetric zero- operate without any channel state information except for the
mean complex Gaussians, while the other element is zero. average energies E1 , E2 and the noise variance N0 . When the
Since the sum of two circularly-symmetric complex Gaussians magnitudes µ[b1 , b2 ] are not known, then the conditional pdf
is also a circularly-symmetric complex Gaussian, it follows is found by marginalizing (21) over the unknown magnitudes
that h1 + h2 is a zero mean circularly-symmetric complex Z ∞Z ∞
Gaussian and therefore its phase is uniform. Since the other p (y|{b1 , b2 }) = p(µ1 , µ2 )p (y|µ[b1 , b2 ]) dµ1 dµ2 .
0 0
element is zero, its phase is irrelevant and may be set to any (25)
arbitrary distribution, which is most conveniently chosen to
be uniform. Thus, it follows that φ1 and φ2 are i.i.d. uniform. where µ1 and µ2 are the magnitudes of the first and second
Therefore, the pdf conditioned on the magnitudes is elements of µ[b1 , b2 ], respectively.
Z 2π   According to (16), when b1 6= b2 , one of the µk = α1 while
1 |y1 − µ1 [b1 , b2 ]ejφ1 |2 the other µk = α2 . Since α1 and α2 are independent and each
p (y|µ[b1 , b2 ])= exp − dφ1
πN0 0 N0 αi is Rayleigh with energy Ei , it follows that the joint pdf of
Z 2π  
1 |y2 − µ2 [b1 , b2 ]ejφ2 |2 µ1 and µ2 when (b1 , b2 ) = (0, 1) is
× exp − dφ2 (19)      
πN0 0 N0 2µ1 µ1 2µ2 µ2
p(µ1 , µ2 ) = exp − exp −
where µk [b1 , b2 ] is the k th element of µ[b1 , b2 ] and E1 E1 E2 E2
Z 2π   (26)
1 |yk − µk [b1 , b2 ]ejφk |2
exp − dφk for µ1 , µ2 ≥ 0, and when (b1 , b2 ) = (1, 0) it is
2π 0 N0      
    2µ1 µ1 2µ2 µ2
|yk |2 + (µk [b1 , b2 ])2 2|yk |µk [b1 , b2 ] p(µ1 , µ2 ) = exp − exp −
= exp − I0 . E2 E2 E1 E1
N0 N0
(20) (27)
Substituting (20) into (19), for µ1 , µ2 ≥ 0. Substituting (26) and (21) into (25) yields
2  
Y (µk [b1 , b2 ])2 |y1 |2 |y2 |2
p (y|µ[b1 , b2 ]) = β exp − p (y|{b1 = 0, b2 = 1}) = +
N0 N02 N02
k=1 E1+ N0 + N0
E2
 
2|yk |µk [b1 , b2 ] 
1

1 1

1 1
−1
×I0 (21) + log + + . (28)
N0 E1 E2 E1 N0 E2 N0
where Similarly, substituting (27) and (21) into (25) yields
 2   
2 |y1 |2 + |y2 |2
β = exp − (22) |y1 |2 |y2 |2
N0 N0 p (y|{b1 = 1, b2 = 0}) = +
N02 N02
which is common to all four {b1 , b2 } and will therefore cancel E2 + N0 E1 + N0
   −1
in the LLR (12). 1 1 1 1 1
For each event {b1 , b2 }, substitute the p (y|µ[b1 , b2 ]) given + log + + . (29)
E1 E2 E1 N0 E2 N0
in (21) with the µ[b1 , b2 ] given by (16) and (17) as the
As indicated by (17), when b1 = b2 , one of the µk = α
corresponding p (y|{b1 , b2 }) in (12). This results in
while the other µk = 0. As discussed below (18), in a
    
−α21 /N0 2α1 |y1 | −α22 /N0 2α2 |y2 | Rayleigh-fading environment, h1 and h2 are independent,
Λ(b) = log e I0 e I0 complex-valued, circularly-symmetric Gaussian variables, and
N N
  0  0 therefore h = h1 + h2 is also a complex-valued, circularly-
2 2α2 |y1 | −α21 /N0 2α1 |y2 |
+e−α2 /N0 I0 e I0 symmetric Gaussian variable. It follows that α = |h| is
N0 N
    0  Rayleigh with energy E1 + E2 , and the pdf of the nonzero
2 2α|y 1 | 2 2α|y2 |
− log e−α /N0 I0 + e−α /N0 I0 . µk is
N0 N0  
(23) 2µk µk
p(µk ) = exp − , µk ≥ 0. (30)
E1 + E2 E1 + E2
As discussed in Section IV, it is possible to accurately esti-
mate α1 and α2 in the considered block fading environment, For the µk = 0, its pdf may be represented by an impulse at
provided the blocks are sufficiently long. However, it is not the origin, i.e. p(µk ) = δ(µk ). Substituting these pdfs with
generally feasible to precisely estimate α because the phases the appropriate µ[b1 , b2 ] into (25) yields
θ1 and θ2 are varying on a symbol-by-symbol basis. Since   −1
1 1 1
E[cos(θ2 − θ1 )] = 0, a reasonable approximation when an p (y|{b1 , b2 }) = log +
E1 + E2 E1 + E2 N0
estimate of α is not available is to use 2
q |yi |
α ≈ α21 + α22 . (24) + N2 (31)
E1 +E2 + N0
0
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2600

where i = 1 when (b1 , b2 ) = (0, 0) and i = 2 when (b1 , b2 ) = interval. The signal ri is the noisy sum of two complex fading
(1, 1). coefficients, and therefore the fading-amplitude estimation
Substituting (28) and (29) for the two b1 6= b2 and (31) for algorithm proposed by Hamkins in [20] may be used. To
the two b1 = b2 into (12) yields determine the values of A and B, a system of two equations
  with two unknowns is required. The first equation, found by
ξ1 ξ2 taking the expected value of |ri |2 under the assumption that
Λ(b) = log
ξN0 the fading amplitudes are fixed for the block in question, is
    
|y1 |2 |y2 |2 |y1 |2 |y2 |2    
+ log exp − − + exp − − E |ri |2 = E α21 + α22 + 2α1 α2 cos(θi,2 − θi,1 )
ξ N0 N0 ξ  
 
|y1 |2 |y2 |2
 
|y1 |2 |y2 |2
 = E α21 + α22 = α21 + α22 = A2 + B 2 . (36)
− log exp − − + exp − −
ξ1 ξ2 ξ2 ξ1 The second equation is found by conditioning on the event
(32) {|r|2 > A2 +B 2 }, which is equivalent to {cos(θi,2 −θi,1 ) > 0}
where ξ1 = E1 + N0 , ξ2 = E2 + N0 , and ξ = E1 + E2 + N0 . and has expected value [20]
h  i 4AB
E |r|2 |r|2 > A2 + B 2 = A2 + B 2 +

. (37)
IV. C HANNEL E STIMATOR π
The goal of the channel estimator is to estimate the values Solving (36) and (37) for A and B yields
of the fading amplitudes α1 and α2 for a particular fading r r 
1 π π
block. Let the fading amplitudes of a block be represented A = X + (Y − X) + X + (X − Y )
2 2 2
by the pair {A, B}, where A ≥ B. Thus, A = max{α1 , α2 } r r 
and B = min{α1 , α2 }. Note that in (23), exchanging α1 and 1 π π
B = X + (Y − X) − X + (X − Y )
α2 does not change the final expression. Therefore (23) is 2 2 2
commutative in α1 and α2 , and may be written as (38)
 2 h  i

 
2A|y1 |
 
2B|y2 |
 where X = E |r| and Y = E |r|2 |r|2 > A2 + B 2 .
Λ(b) = max ∗ F +F , Since the expected values required for (38) are not known,
N0 N0

2B|y1 |
 
2A|y2 |
 they may be estimated by using the corresponding statistical
F +F averages, N
N0 N0 1 X
" √ ! √ !# X̂ = |ri |2
2 2
2 A + B |y1 | 2 A2 + B 2 |y2 | N i=1
− max ∗ F ,F
N0 N0 2 X
Ŷ = |ri |2 (39)
(33) N 2
i:|ri | >X̂
p
where the approximation α ≈ α21 + α22 has been used and where N is the size of the fading block and the factor 2/N
F (x) = log[I0 (x)], which may be efficiently and accurately used to compute Ŷ assumes that |ri |2 > X̂ for approxi-
computed through the following piecewise polynomial fit: mately N/2 symbols. If this assumption is not true, then
the multiplication by 2/N can be replaced with a division
F (x) = log[I0 (x)] ≈ by the number of samples that satisfy |ri |2 > X̂. As an


 0.22594x2 + 0.012495x − 0.0011272 0<x≤1 alternative to summing over the |ri |2 > X̂, Hamkins proposes
0.12454x2 + 0.21758x − 0.10782



 1<x≤2 summing over those |ri |2 greater than the median value of
0.028787x2 + 0.63126x − 0.56413



 2<x≤5 {|r1 |2 , ..., |rN |2 } [20].
 0.003012x2 + 0.88523x − 1.2115

 5 < x ≤ 15 The estimator works by computing estimates X̂ and Ŷ using
0.00053203x2 + 0.95304x − 1.6829 15 < x ≤ 30 (39) and the {r1 , ..., rN } for the block. These estimates are
 0.00013134x2 + 0.97674x − 2.0388


 30 < x ≤ 60 used in place of X and Y in (38), which yields estimates Â

 0.9943x − 2.6446

 60 < x ≤ 120 and B̂ of A and B. These estimates are then used in place of

 0.99722x − 3.0039

 120 < x ≤ 500 A and B in (33).

0.99916x − 3.6114 x > 500.
(34) B. Transmission-Case Detection
According to (35), the two elements of yi are always added
A. Fading Amplitude Estimator
together. When b1 = b2 , only one tone is used, and the noise
To estimate A and B, first add the two elements of each yi can be reduced if the receiver processes only the tone used and
to obtain ignores the other tone. This requires that the receiver be able
ri = yi,1 + yi,2 = hi,1 + hi,2 + ni,1 + ni,2 (35) to detect whether the first tone, the second tone, or both tones
| {z } were used, which may be implemented using a variation of the
νi “no-CSI” receiver described in subsection III-B3. In [16], we
where νi is circularly-symmetric complex Gaussian noise with contemplate an estimator that uses such a transmission-case
variance 2N0 , and hi,k is the channel coefficient between detector. However, we found that the performances with and
terminal Nk , k = {1, 2}, and the relay during the ith signaling without the transmission-case detector were virtually identical
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2601

0
and do not consider it further in this paper. At best, proper use 10
DNC: No CSI
of the transmission-case detector reduces the noise variance DNC: known α1, α2
from 2N0 to N0 during the symbol intervals that both nodes DNC: known α1, α2, α
transmit the same tone. As will be seen in the numerical −1
LNC
10
results, the estimator is resilient enough against noise that this
reduction in noise variance is not meaningful and does not
justify the additional complexity.

BER
−2
10
C. Amplitude Estimation for Single-Transmitter Links
During the broadcast phase, there is only a single trans-
mission, and the dual-amplitude estimator described in sub-
−3
section IV-A is not necessary. Similarly, the estimator is not 10
needed by the LNC system during the MAC phase since the
two transmissions are over orthogonal channels. To estimate
the fading amplitudes for the links involving only a single
−4
transmitter and receiver, the simple averaging technique given 10
0 10 20 30 40 50
by (29) in [21] is used, which is described as follows. Consider Eb/N0(dB)
the ith signaling interval during the ℓth fading block. Given Fig. 3. Bit error rate at the relay in Rayleigh fading when DNC and LNC is
transmission of tone k, in the absence of noise, the k th used and E2 = E1 . Depending on the amount of channel state information that
matched-filter output at the receiver is yk,i = αejθi , and has is available, the PNC system will use one of three different relay receivers.
magnitude |yk,i | = α. All other matched-filter outputs in the
With the DNC system, the two nodes transmit simultane-
ith signaling interval are 0. An estimate could be formed by
ously, and the relay receiver computes the LLR using (23)
taking the maximum |yk,i | over any column of Yℓ . In the
when the magnitudes µ[b1 , b2 ] are known or (32) when they
presence of noise, an estimate of α can be formed by averaging
are not. A hard decision is made on the LLR and a bit
across all columns of the fading block
error is declared if the estimate of the corresponding network
N codeword bit b is incorrect. We assume that the channel
1 X
α̂ = max |yk,i |. (40) estimates are perfect, and since there is no error-correction
N i=1 k
coding, the size of the fading block is irrelevant provided that
the channel coherence time is not exceeded.
V. S IMULATION S TUDY
Initially, we set the average received energy to be the same
This section presents simulated performance results for the over both channels, i.e. E2 = E1 = Es = Eb . Fig. 3 shows the
relay receiver described in Section III. The simulated link performance of the LNC and DNC systems in Rayleigh fading
model is as described in Section II, with specific simulation with equal energy signals. As anticipated, the LNC system
parameters given in the following subsections. The goal of offers the best performance, which is approximately 3 dB
the simulations is to compare the performance of comparable worse than a standard binary CPFSK system with noncoherent
DNC and LNC systems and to assess the robustness of the detection (the loss relative to conventional CPFSK is due to the
channel estimator proposed in IV. Because the relay-broadcast fact that both bits must usually be received correctly). Three
phase of the DNC and LNC systems operate in exactly the curves for the DNC system are shown in Fig. 3, corresponding
same manner and have the same performance, we only focus to receivers that exploit different amounts of available channel
on the performance of the MAC phase. state information. The best performance is achieved using a
receiver implemented with (23), which requires knowledge
A. Uncoded Performance with Perfect Channel Estimates of α1 , α2 , and α. The performance of the DNC system
We initially consider a system that does not use an outer implemented with (23) is only about 0.25 dB worse than that
error-correcting code, and thus bi = ui , i = 1, 2. We compare of the LNC system. The worst performance is achieved using
the performance of the LNC and DNC systems. With the LNC a receiver implemented using (32), which does not require
system, the two nodes transmit their messages in orthogonal knowledge of the fading amplitudes. The loss due to using
time slots and the relay receiver first generates the individual (32) instead of (23) is about 10 dB, indicating that estimating
LLR’s during each time slot using either (9) or (10), and then the fading amplitudes at the relay is necessary.
the two LLR’s are combined using (11). When there is no outer While it may be feasible to estimate α1 and α2 , estimating
error-correcting code, performance using (9) is approximately α may prove to be more difficult because it will depend on
the same as that using (10). A bit error is declared at the relay not only the individual fading amplitudes, but also on the
whenever a hard decision using (11) results in an erroneous phase difference between the two channels. Since the phase
decision on the corresponding bit of the network codeword b. difference might change more quickly than the individual
Such an error will usually occur if one of the two bits b1 , b2 amplitudes, it might not be practical to estimate α. If that
is received incorrectly, and therefore the error rate of the LNC is the case, then the approximation given by (24) can be used
system is approximately Pb ≈ 2p(1 − p) where p is the bit in place of the actual value of α. The performance using this
error rate of noncoherent binary FSK modulation [17]. technique is also shown in Fig. 3 and shows a loss of about 3
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2602

−1 −2
10 10
DNC: No CSI N=128
DNC: known α1, α2 N=32
N=8
DNC: known α1, α2, α Perfect Estimation

−2
10

BER
BER

−3
10

−4 −3
10 10
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Eb/N0(dB) Eb/N0(dB)

Fig. 4. Bit error rate at the relay in Rayleigh fading of DNC with three Fig. 5. Influence of fading-block length N on uncoded DNC error-rate
different receivers and either E2 = E1 (solid line) or E2 = 4E1 (dashed line). performance at the relay. In addition to curves for three values of N , a curve
is shown indicating the performance with perfect fading-amplitude knowledge.
dB with respect to the known-µ[b1 , b2 ] system, which requires 0
10
knowledge of α. N=128
N=64
The performance of DNC is sensitive to the balance of N=32
power received over the two channels. Performance is best N=16
N=8
when E1 = E2 . In order to evaluate how robust the DNC relay −1
10
receivers are to an imbalance of power, the simulations were
repeated with E2 = 4E1 , while keeping Eb = Es = (E1 +E2 )/2.
These results are shown in Fig. 4 for the three receiver
BER

−2
formulations that were considered in the previous figure. 10
When the power is imbalanced in this way, there is a loss
of about 2 dB. However, the loss is the same for all three
receiver implementations, suggesting that they are robust to
−3
an imbalance of power. 10

B. Uncoded Performance with Channel Estimation

−4
We now consider the influence of channel estimation, but 10
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
still assume that the system does not use error-correction Eb/N0(dB)
coding. In the simulations, the information frames generated
at the end nodes contain K = 2048 bits per frame. The fading Fig. 6. Influence of fading-block length N on turbo-coded DNC error-
rate performance at the relay. Two curves are shown for each value of
blocks are length N = {8, 32, 128} symbols per block. The N = {8, 16, 32, 64, 128}. Solid curves denote perfect fading-amplitude
DNC relay implements (23) with the approximation given by knowledge. Dashed curves denote estimated fading amplitudes.
(24) and then makes a hard decision on each information bit.
The bit error-rate performance of the uncoded system is sequences into length L = 2048 codewords, using a rate
shown in Fig. 5. The performance is shown with the estimator r1 ≈ 0.6 UMTS turbo code [22]. The relay performs turbo
using the three block sizes N = {8, 32, 128} as well as for decoding using the codeword LLR’s computed by (23) with the
the case of perfect estimates of α1 and α2 . A narrow range approximation for α given by (24). The fading-block lengths
of error rates is shown to better highlight the differences in simulated are N = {8, 16, 32, 64, 128} symbols per block.
performance. In general, smaller fading blocks lead to a less The error performance of the coded system is shown in
accurate estimation of the fading amplitudes, as the number Fig. 6, both with perfect channel estimates and with estimated
of samples available for estimation decreases. Moving from fading amplitudes. A good tradeoff between diversity and
block size N = 128 to 32 worsens performance by roughly estimation accuracy is achieved for block sizes N = 16 and
0.25 dB, and from N = 32 to 8 by 0.75 dB. N = 32, which exhibit the best performance of all systems that
must estimate the fading amplitudes. For N < 16 performance
degrades due to the lack of enough observations per block for
C. Performance with an Outer Turbo Code accurate channel estimates, while for N > 32 performance
Now consider a system that uses an outer turbo code. degrades due to the reduction in time diversity.
The terminals each encode length K = 1229 information Fig. 7 shows the SNR required to reach an error rate of
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2603

33 0
10
α1, α2 known N=128
32 α1, α2 estimated N=64
N=32
31 No CSI N=16
−1 N=8
30 10

29
Eb/N0(dB)

28

BER
−2
10
27

26

25 −3
10
24

23

22 −4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 10
Symbols Per Fading Block 12 14 16 18 20 22
Eb/N0(dB)
Fig. 7. Signal-to-noise ratio required to reach a bit error rate of 10−4 at the
relay as a function of fading-block length. The performance of three systems Fig. 8. Comparison of error-rate performance between the turbo-coded DNC
is shown: The noncoherent receiver with known {α1 , α2 }, the noncoherent and LNC systems at the relay. The solid lines denote DNC, while the dashed
receiver with estimated {α1 , α2 }, and the noncoherent receiver that does not lines denote LNC.
use CSI. All systems use a Turbo code with rate 1229/2048. 0
10
LNC, rate=4500/5056
−4 DNC, rate=4500/5056
10 at the relay as a function of the block length N . In each DNC, rate=4500/6400
case, information is coded with the same (2048, 1229) turbo
code used for Fig. 6. Curves for three systems are shown: The −1
10
noncoherent receiver with known {α1 , α2 }, the noncoherent
receiver with estimated {α1 , α2 }, and the noncoherent receiver
that does not use CSI. When {α1 , α2 } are not estimated,
BER

−2
performance improves with decreasing N because of the 10
increased number of blocks per codeword, which increases
the time diversity. However, when {α1 , α2 } are estimated,
the performance gets worse when the block size is smaller
−3
than N = 16. The loss of time diversity as the block size 10
increases is a common problem for any system operating over
a slow-fading channel, and the system proposed in this paper
is no exception. The performance gap between the known- −4
CSI and no-CSI receiver formulations widens with increasing 10
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
block length. Eb/N0(dB)
An error-rate performance comparison between DNC and Fig. 9. Comparison of the performance of turbo-coded DNC and LNC at
LNC is shown in Fig. 8. Both systems use the same the relay with block size N = 32. For the DNC system, two code rates are
(2048, 1229) turbo code. The LNC system outperforms the shown, with the lower rate code offering comparable performance to the LNC
system.
DNC system by margins ranging between 4 and 6 dB.
While the LNC system is more energy efficient than the LNC, consider the following transmission schedule for the
DNC system when the same-rate turbo code is used, the two systems. Assume the source terminals use rate r1 =
throughput of the LNC system is worse than that of the DNC 4500/6400 in DNC, and r1 = 4500/5056 in LNC. Assume
system because the two terminals must transmit in orthogonal operation at Eb /N0 = 24 dB, yielding approximately equal
time slots. The loss in energy efficiency from using DNC ver- relay error-rate performance. Further, assume that both sys-
sus LNC can be recovered by having the source terminals use tems use code rate r2 = 4500/5056 for relay broadcast,
a lower-rate turbo code. Consider the performance comparison yielding approximately equal end-to-end performance. DNC
shown in Fig. 9 for block size N = 32. At Eb /N0 ≈ 24 dB, requires 6400 channel uses for transmission to the relay versus
DNC using a rate r1 = 4500/6400 code matches the error- 2×5056 = 10112 for LNC. Both systems require 5056 channel
rate performance of LNC using a rate r1 = 4500/5056 code. uses for relay broadcast. The throughput for DNC is thus
Because the two terminals transmit at the same time, the end- T (DN C) = 9000/(6400 + 5056) = 9000/11, 456 bits per
to-end throughput of DNC is higher than that of LNC, even channel use, and for LNC T (LN C) = 9000/(3 × 5056) =
though the DNC terminals transmit to the relay with a lower- 9000/15, 168 bits per channel use. The percentage throughput
rate channel code. increase of DNC over LNC is thus (T (DN C) /T (LN C) − 1) ×
To illustrate the throughput improvement of DNC over 100 ≈ 32.4%.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 59, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011 2604

VI. C ONCLUSION [15] F. Gao, R. Zhang, and Y. C. Liang, “On channel estimation for
amplify-and-forward two-way relay networks,” in Proc. IEEE Global
A throughput-improving technique for relaying in the two- Telecommun. Conf. (Globecom), Dec. 2008.
way relay network, digital network coding, is refined for prac- [16] T. Ferrett, M. C. Valenti, and D. Torrieri, “Receiver design for nonco-
tical operation. The system operates noncoherently, providing herent digital network coding,” in Proc. IEEE Military Commun. Conf.
(MILCOM), (San Jose, CA), Nov. 2010.
advantages over coherent operation: there are no requirements [17] J. G. Proakis and M. Salehi, Digital Communications. New York, NY:
for perfect power control, phase synchronism, or estimates of McGraw-Hill, Inc., fifth ed., 2008.
carrier-phase offset. [18] S. Cheng, M. C. Valenti, and D. Torrieri, “Robust iterative noncoherent
reception of coded FSK over block fading channels,” IEEE Trans.
A computationally simple technique for estimating fading Wireless Commun., vol. 6, pp. 3142–3147, Sept. 2007.
amplitudes at the relay is implemented. Error-rate performance [19] M. C. Valenti and S. Cheng, “Iterative demodulation and decoding of
in the noncoherent Rayleigh block-fading channel at several turbo coded M -ary noncoherent orthogonal modulation,” IEEE J. Select.
Areas Commun., vol. 23, pp. 1738–1747, Sept. 2005.
block sizes is presented. The system is simulated with and [20] J. Hamkins, “An analytic technique to separate cochannel FM signals,”
without an outer error-correcting code. The coded error-rate IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 48, pp. 543–546, April 2000.
performance of the system using estimation differs from that [21] D. Torrieri, S. Cheng, and M. C. Valenti, “Robust frequency hopping
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with ideal estimates by margins between 0.7 − 1.5 dB. vol. 56, pp. 1343–1351, Aug. 2008.
When the same-rate turbo code is used, digital network [22] European Telecommunications Standards Institute, “Universal mobile
coding has a higher throughput but lower energy-efficiency telecommunications system (UMTS): Multiplexing and channel coding
(FDD),” 3GPP TS 25.212 version 7.4.0, June 2006.
than link-layer network coding . The energy loss of DNC can
be recovered by using a lower-rate turbo code during the MAC
phase. Even when the loss of spectral efficiency due to the
lower-rate turbo code is taken into account, the DNC system
is able to achieve a higher throughput than LNC at the same Matthew C. Valenti is a Professor in Lane De-
energy-efficiency. In the particular example presented in this partment of Computer Science and Electrical Engi-
neering at West Virginia University. He holds B.S.
paper, the DNC system is capable of achieving throughputs and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from
that are 32.4% larger than that of the equivalent LNC system, Virginia Tech and a M.S. in Electrical Engineering
while operating at the same energy efficiency. from the Johns Hopkins University. From 1992 to
1995 he was an electronics engineer at the U.S.
Naval Research Laboratory. He serves as an as-
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