Theodolite Traversing

Unit-V
 Syllabus
Theodolite Surveying:
• Objective, various parts of transit theodolite, technical
terms, temporary and permanent adjustments of a
transit, measuring horizontal and vertical angles,
methods of repetition and reiteration, computation of
latitude and departure, balancing of traverse by Bow-
Ditch‟s transit rule, third rule and modified transit
rules, missing data problems, Precautions in using
theodolite, errors in theodolite survey, use of latitude
and departure for area calculation, Gales traverse
table.
 Introduction
• The theodolite is an intricate instrument used
mainly for accurate measurement of horizontal
and vertical angle up to 10” or 20”, depending
upon the least count of the instrument. Because
of its various uses, the theodolite is sometimes
known as “Universal Instrument”.
Theodolite
 Introduction
• The following are the different purpose for which the
theodolite can be used:
• Measuring Horizontal Angle
• Measuring Vertical Angles
• Measuring Deflection Angles
• Measuring Magnetic Bearing
• Measuring the horizontal distance between two points
• Finding the vertical height of an object
• Finding difference of elevation between various points
• Ranging of a line.
Introduction
 Theodolite Traversing
Theodolites may be of two types
• (i) Transit Theodolite
• (ii) Non-Transit
• In the transit theodolite, the telescope, the
telescope can be revolved through a complete
revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical
plane.
• In the non transit theodolite, the telescope, cannot
be revolved through a complete revolution in the
vertical plane.
Transit Theodolite & Non-Transit
 Definitions
Centring
• The setting of a theodolite exactly over a station mark by means
of a plumb bob. Is known as centering.
Transiting
• The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in
a vertical plane through 180 0 is termed as transiting. In other
words transiting results in a change in face.
Face left
• „Face left‟ means that the vertical circle of the theodolite is on
the left of the observer at the time of taking reading.
Optical Plummet
 Definitions
Face right
This refers to the situation when the vertical circle of the
instrument is on the right of the observer when the reading is
taken

Changing face
The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of
the observer to the other is known as changing face.

Swinging the telescope

This indicates turning the telescope in a horizontal plane. It is
called „right swing‟ when the telescope is turned clockwise
and „left swing‟ when the telescope is turned anticlockwise.
The Transit Theodolite
 Definitions
Line of Collimation
• It is an imaginary line passing through optical
centre of the objective glass and its continuation.
Axis of Telescope
The axis is an imaginary line passing through the
optical centre of the object glass and the optical
centre of the eye-peace.
Axis of the Bubble Tube
• It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the bubble tube at its middle point.
Axis of Theodolite
 Difinitions
Vertical Axis
• it is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the horizontal
plane
Horizontal Axis
• It is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the vertical plane.
Temporary Adjustment
• The setting if the theodolite over a station at the time of
taking any observation is called temporary adjustment.
Permanent Adjustment
• When the desired relationship between the fundamental
lines of a theodolite is disturbed, then some procedures are
adopted to establish this relationship. This adjustment is
known as permanent adjustment.
 Difinitions
Least Count of the vernier
• This is the difference between the value of the smallest
division of the main scale and that of the smallest division of
the vernier scale. It is the smallest value that can be measured
by a theodolite.
• V= d
n
Where, v= Value of smallest division of vernier Scale
d= Value of the smallest division of main scale
n= no of small divisions on vernier scale.
Least count of theodolites are generally 20” and 15” and so on.
 Difinitions
The Diaphragm
• The diaphragm is a brass ring consisting of
cross-hairs, or one containing a glass disc with
fine lines engraved on it. It is placed in position
by turning four capstan-headed screws, and can
be moved up, down or sideways when required.
It is fixed in front of the eye-piece. The cross-
hairs may be made of fine platinum wire.
Difinitions
 The Transit Theodolite
Trivet
• It is a circular plate having a central, threaded
hole for fixing the theodolite on the tripod
stand by a wing nut. It is also called the base
plate. Three foot screws are secured to this
plate by means of a ball and socket
arrangement. And the upper threaded part
passes through the threaded hole in the tribrach
plate.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
Foot Screws
• These are meant for leveling the instrument. The lower part
of the foot screw are secured in the trivet by means of a ball
and socket arrangement and the upper threaded part passes
through the threaded hole in the tribrach plate.
Tribrach
• It is a triangular plate carrying three foot screws at its ends.
Leveling head
• the trivet, foot screws and the tribrach constituting a body
which is known as the leveling head.
Spindles
• The theodolites consists of two spindles or axes- one inner
and the other outer. The inner axis is solid and conical, and
the outer is hollow. The two spindles are coaxial.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
Lower Plate
• The lower plate is attached to the outer axis, and is also
known as the scale plate It is beveled and the scale is
graduated from 0 0 to 360 0.
Upper Plate
• The upper plate contains the vernier scale A and B. It is
attached to the inner axis. Its motion is controlled by the
upper clamp screw and the upper tangent screw. When
the clamp screw is tightened the vernier scale are fixed
with the inner axis, and for fine adjustment of the scale
the tangent screw is rotated.
Upper Plate & Lower Plate
 The Transit Theodolite
Plate Bubble
• Two plate bubbles are mounted at right angles to each other on
the upper surface of the vernier plate. One bubble is kept right
parallel to the horizontal axis of the theodolite. Sometimes one
plate bubble is provided on the vernier plate. The bubble are
meant for leveling this instrument at the time of measuring the
horizontal angle.
Standard or „A‟ Frame
• Two frames are provided on the upper plate to support the
telescope, the vertical circle and the vernier scales. These
frames are known as standard A-Frames.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
The Telescope
• The telescope is pivoted between the standard at right
angles to the horizontal axis. It can be rotated about its
horizontal axis in a vertical plane. The telescope is
provided with a focusing screw, clamping screw and
tangent screw.
Vertical Circle
• The vertical circle is rigidly fixed with the telescope and
moves with it. It is divided into four quadrants. Each
quadrant is graduated from 0 to 90 0 in opposite
directions, with the „Zero‟ mark at the end of the
horizontal diameter of the vertical circle.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
Index bar or T-frame
• The index bar is provided on the standard in
front of the vertical circle. It carries two vernier
(C and D) at the two ends of the horizontal
arm. The vertical leg of the index bar is
provided with a clip screw at the lower end by
means of which the altitude bubble can be
brought to the centre.
 The Transit Theodolite
Altitude bubble
• A long sensitive tube is provided on the top of
index bar. This bubble is brought to the centre by
the clip screw at the time of measuring. Of the
vertical angle.
Compass
• Sometimes a circular box compass is mounted on
the vernier scale between the standards. In modern
theodolites, an adjustable trough compass or
tubular compass can be fitted with a screw to the
standard.
 The Transit Theodolite
Reading of Vernier Theodolite
The least count of the vernier is to determined first.
Let it be 20”. The main division of the main scale
is of one degree. Suppose it is divided into three
parts then each part accounts for 20‟ (i.e. d= 20‟)
The vernier scale has 20 big and 60 small divisions
Least Count= d= 20 x 60= 20”
n 60
Here, Least count for one small divisions= 20”
 The Transit Theodolite
Therefore, Least count of one big division
= (20” x 3) = 60” = 1‟
After making the final adjustment for measuring the angle,
the position of the arrow of the vernier scale is noted.
Suppose the arrow crosses 10 0 and 20‟, which is the
direct reading obtained from the main scale. Suppose,
again that the first small division after 12 big division
exactly coincides with any of the main scale divisions.
Then the vernier reading 12‟ 20”
Therefore Final Angle= 10 0 20‟ + 12‟ 20”= 10 0 32‟ 20”
 The Transit Theodolite
Temporary Adjustment of Theodolite
• Setting the theodolite over the station
• The tripod stand is placed over the required
station. The theodolite is then shifted from the
box and fixed on top of the stand by means of a
wing nut or according to the fixed arrangement
provided along with the instrument.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
Approximate leveling by Tripod
• The legs of the tripod stand are placed well
apart and firmly fixed on the ground. Then,
approximately leveling is done using this stand,
To do this, two legs are kept firmly fixed on the
ground and third is moved in or out, clockwise
or anticlockwise, so that the bubble is
approximately at the centre of its run.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
Centring
• Centring is the process of setting of the
instruments exactly over a station. At the time
of approximate leveling by means of the tripod
stand, it should be ensured that the plumb bob
suspended from the book under the vertical
axis lies approximately over the station peg.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
Leveling
• Before starting the leveling operation, all the foot
screw are brought to the centre of their run. Then
the following procedure is adopted.
• (a) The plate bubble is placed parallel to any pair
of foot screws. By turning both these screws
equally inwards or outwards.
• The plate bubble is turned through 90 0 so that it is
perpendicular to the line joining the first and
second foot screws. Then by turning the third foot
screw either clockwise or anticlockwise the bubble
is brought to the centre.
The Transit Theodolite
 The Transit Theodolite
• Some instruments may have two plate bubbles perpendicular to
each other. In such a case, one bubble is kept parallel to any pair
of foot screws; the other platy bubble will automatically be
perpendicular to the position of first bubble. Here, the
instruments need not be turned. The first bubble can be brought
to the centre by turning the first and second foot screws, and the
second bubble can be brought to the centre by turning the third
foot screw.
• The process is repeated several times, so that the bubble remains
in the central position of the platy bubble, both directions
perpendicular to each other.
• The instrument is rotated through 360 0 about its vertical axis. If
the bubble still remains in the centre position, the adjustment of
the bubble is perfect and the vertical axis is truly vertical.
 The Transit Theodolite
Focusing of the Eye Piece
• The eye piece is focused so that the cross-hairs
can be seen clearly. To do this, the telescope is
directed towards the sky or a piece of white
paper is held in front of the object glass, and the
eye-piece is moved in or out by turning it in
clockwise or anticlockwise until the cross –hairs
appear distinct and sharp.
 The Transit Theodolite
Setting the Vernier
• The vernier A is set to 0 0 and vernier B is 180 0.
To do this the lower clamp is fixed. The upper
clamp is loosened and the upper plate turned until
the arrow of vernier. A approximately coincides
with zero. And the vernier B approximately
coincides with the 180 0 mark. Then the upper
clamp is tightened, and by turning the upper
tangent screw the arrows are brought to a position
of exact coincides.
The Transit Theodolite
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
• A theodolite consists of several fundamental
lines. In order the readings to be accurate,
certain desired relationship must exist between
the fundamental lines of the instrument. But
due to improper handling or excessive use, this
relationship may be disturbed and hence from
the theodolite may lead to erroneous results.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
• For rectifying a disturbed relationship, some
procedures, termed permanent adjustments are
adopted.
• The fundamental lines of a theodolite are:
• The vertical axis
• The axis of the plate level
• The line of collimation
• The horizontal axis or trunnion axis
• The bubble line of the altitude level
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
The desired relationships between the fundamental lines
are as follows:
• The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the
vertical axis
• The line of collimation should coincide with the optical
axis of the telescope and should also be perpendicular to
the vertical axis.
• The axis of telescope must be parallel to the line of
collimation.
• The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the
horizontal axis. And the vertical circle should read zero
when the line of collimation is horizontal.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
To make the axis of the plate level perpendicular to the vertical
axis, the following procedure is adopted prior to the first
adjustment.
• The theodolite is set up on firm ground with its legs well apart, and
firmly fixed on the ground.
• The plate bubble is made parallel to any pair of foot screws, and brought
to the centre of its run by turning the concerned foot screws.
• The bubble is turned through 90 0 and then brought to the centre by
turning the third foot screw.
• The process is repeated several times until the bubble is perfectly
centered in these two positions.
• The bubble is turned through 180 0 about the vertical axis.
• If the bubble still remains in the central position, the axis of the bubble is
perpendicular to the vertical axis which may be assumed to be truly
vertical.
• If the bubble does not remain in the central position the amount of
deviation is noted, say it is 2n division.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment
• Half of the total (i.e. n division) is adjusted by means
of the capstan headed nut provided below the bubble
tube.
• The Remaining half (i.e. n division is adjusted by
turning the concerned foot screws.
• The process is repeated several times until the bubble
remain in the central position for any direction of the
bubble tube.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
To make the line of collimation coincide with the optical axis of the
telescope, first the horizontal and then vertical hair are adjusted.
• Adjustment of Horizontal Hair.
• Three pegs are driven into the ground at T, A and B a known
distance apart.
• The theodolite is set up at T and after proper adjustment staff are
taken on A and B. Suppose the readings are Aa and Bb1
• By transisting the theodolite the staff reading are taken on A and B
• If the readings of the second observation tallies with those of the first
horizontal hair is in adjustment.
• If the second observation gives a new reading, say Bb2, then the
horizontal hair requires adjustment.
Adjustment of Horizontal Hair.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment of Vertical Hair
• The theodolite is set up at T. After proper leveling, a
ranging rod is fixed at A by looking through the
telescope keeping the upper and lower clamps fixed.
• By transisting the telescope a ranging rod is fixed at B
• The upper clamp is loosened and by turning the vernier
plate the ranging rod at A is again bisected.
• If the ranging rod at b is seen bisected after transisting
the telescope, the vertical hair is perfect.
• If not, the amount of error is noted, let BB1 be the total
error.
Adjustment of Vertical Hair
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment
• A position is marked by a ranging rod at B‟, where
B1B‟ is one fourth of the total error.
• The vertical hair is shifted by turning the horizontal
diaphragm screws, to bisect the ranging rod at B‟
• During adjustment, one-fourth of the total error is
taken into consideration because the actual error is
magnified four times as the telescope was turned
twice in the vertical plane.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Third Adjustment
• To make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis, the
following procedure is adopted before making the necessary
adjustment.
• The theodolite is set up at T some distance away from a pole P.
• The plate bubble is perfectly leveled. Looking through the telescope,
a well defined point A is marked on the pole. The upper and lower
clamp screws are kept fixed.
• The telescope is lowered and another point B is marked near the
base of the pole in the same line of sight.
• The upper clamp is loosened and telescope is turned through 180 0.
by transisting it, the mark A is bisected. The telescope is then
lowered. If the line of sight bisect the mark B, then the adjustment is
perfect.
• If not, another point B‟ is marked on a ranging rod R at the same
level as B
Adjustment of Vertical Hair
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Adjustment
• A point C is marked (in a suitable way) mid-way between
B and B‟
• The point C is bisected by the telescope and the upper
clamp is tightened.
• The telescope is now raised. This time the line of sight
will not bisect A.
• The adjustment end of the horizontal axis is raised or
lowered until the line of sight bisects the mark A.
• The procedure is repeated several times until the
correction is perfect.
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Fourth Adjustment
• To make the axis of the telescope level (altitude
bubble) parallel to the line of collimation, the
procedure of adjustment is exactly similar to
“Two-Peg Method”
 Permanent Adjustment of Theodolite
Fifth Adjustment
• This adjustment is made in order to ensure that the vertical
circle read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.
• This adjustment is not required for transit theodolite. This is
because in such a theodolite the vernier is adjustable and
clamped at zero when the altitude bubble is centered.
• In theodolite provided with non-adjustable verniers, the
reading of the vernier may not be zero with the altitude
bubble is centered. In such a case, the amount of angular
error, known as “ index error” is noted. The sign of the index
error should be taken into account. Necessary correction has
to be applied to the observed vertical angle according to the
sign of index error.
 Some Modern Theodolites
• Geodetic and astronomical surveys require a high degree of
precision. In order to meet this needs, high –precession
theodolites are manufactured now a days. The characteristics
of modern theodolites are as follows:
• They are more compact and light
• The graduations are made on a glass circle and are finer.
• Improved micrometer using which the observer can take
readings accurately to one second, are provided along with
them.
• The instrument is made water proof and dust proof
• It is electrically illuminated to facilitate work at night or in a
tunnel.
• Adjustments for the micrometre are not necessary
• Magnification is higher.
 Some Modern Theodolites
Watt Micro-Optic Theodolite
• There are three models of this type. The first and
the third model are capable of reading up to 5”,
and the second can read up to 1”. The horizontal
and vertical circles of this theodolites are made up
of glass. Micrometers for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles are provided. The other accessories
are the same as in the transit theodolite. But the
arrangement are very compact, and well protected
from atmospheric action.
Watt Micro-Optic Theodolite
 Some Modern Theodolites
Wild T-2 Theodolite
• The horizontal and vertical circles of this
instrument are made of glass. The diameter of the
horizontal circle is 90 mm and that of the vertical
circle 70 mm. The circles are electrically
illuminated through an adjustable mirror.
• The instrument is automatically centered by its
own weight. The readings are taken through a
micrometre by the coincidence system
Wild T-2 Theodolite
 Some Modern Theodolites
Wild T-3 Precession Theodolite
• The horizontal and vertical circles are made of
glass and finally graduated. The minimum reading
of the horizontal circle is 4‟ and that of vertical
circle is 8‟. The angle is measured b means of an
optical micrometer which is accurate up to 0.2”.
The vertical axis consists of an axis bush and ball
bearings.
• The instrument is automatically centered by its
own weight. It consists of one set of clamp and
tangent screws for the motion of the vertical axis.
Wild T-3 Precession Theodolite
 Some Modern Theodolites
Wild T-4 Universal Theodolite
• This instrument is widely used in the
determination of geographical positions , and for
taking astronomical observations with the utmost
precision. It consist of a horizontal circle of dia 250
mm and are graduated to a minimum reading of
2‟. With the optical micrometre, one can take
reading as low as 0.1”. The vertical and horizontal
circles of two diametrically opposite readings
automatically which gives the arithmetic mean of
two diametrically opposite readings automatically.
Wild T-4 Universal Theodolite
 Some Modern Theodolites
The Tailstock Theodolite
• The horizontal and vertical circles are made of
graduated that a reading as low as 1” can be
taken, an one of 0.25” can be estimated. A
single optical micrometer is provided for both
the scales both circles are illuminated by a
single mirror is provided with scale plummet
for centering over the station
The Tailstock Theodolite
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Instrument Errors
Non-adjustment of plate bubble
• The axis of the plate bubble may not be
perpendicular to vertical axis. So. When the plate
level are centered, the vertical axis may not be truly
vertical. In such a case, the horizontal circle would
be inclined and the angle will be measured in an
inclined plane. This would cause an error in angle
measured.
• This error may be eliminated by leveling the
instrument with reference to the altitude bubble.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Line of collimation not being perpendicular to
horizontal axis
• In this case, a cone is formed when the
telescope is revolved in the vertical plane, and
this causes an error in the observation.
• This error is eliminated by reading the angle
from both the faces (left and right) and take the
average of the reading.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to
vertical axis
• If the horizontal axis is not perpendicular to the
vertical axis, there is an angular error. This is
eliminated by reading the angle from both the
faces.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Line of collimation not being parallel to axis of
telescope.
• If the line of collimation is not parallel to the
axis of telescope, there is an error in the
observed vertical angle. This error is eliminated
by taking reading from both faces.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Eccentricity of Inner and Outer axes
• This condition causes an error in vernier
readings. This error is eliminated by taking
reading from both the vernier and considering
the average readings.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Graduation not being Uniform
• The error due to this condition is eliminated by
measuring the angles several times on different
parts of the circle.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Vernier being Eccentric
• The zeros of the vernier should be
diametrically opposite to each other. When
vernier A is set at 0 0, Vernier B should be at
180 0, But in some cases, this condition may
not exist.
• This error is eliminated by reading both
verniers and taking the average.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Personal Error
• The centering may not be done perfectly, due to
carelessness. The leveling may not be done carefully
according to usual procedure. If the clamp screws are
not properly fixed, the instrument may slip. The proper
tangent screw may not be operated The focusing in
order to avoid parallax may not be perfectly done.
• The object of ranging rod may not be bisected accurately
The vernier may not be set in proper place.
• Error would also result if the verniers are not read
because of oversight.
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
Natural Errors
• High temperature causes error due to irregular
refraction.
• High wind causes vibration in the instrument,
and this may lead to wrong readings on the
verniers.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Suppose an angle AOB is to be measured. The
following procedure is adopted:
• The instrument is set up over O. It is centered and
leveled perfectly according to the procedure described
for temporary adjustment. Suppose the instrument was
initially in the face left position.
• The lower clamp is fixed. The upper clamp is loosened
and by turning the telescope clockwise vernier A is set to
0 0 and vernier B to approximately 180 0. The upper
clamp is then tightened. Now by turning the upper
tangent screw, vernier A and B are set to exactly 0 0 and
180 0 by looking through magnifying glass.
Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• The upper clamp is tight fixed. The lower one is
loosened and the telescope is directed to the left hand
object A. The ranging rod at A is bisected approximately
by proper focusing the telescope and eliminating
parallax. The lower clamp is tightened, and by turning
the lower tangent screw the ranging tod at A is accurately
bisected.
• The lower clamp is kept fixed. The upper clamp is
loosened and the telescope is turned clockwise to
approximately bisect the ranging rod at B by proper
focusing the telescope. The upper clamp is tightened,
and the ranging rod at B bisected accurately by turning
the upper plate screw.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• The reading on vernier A and B are noted. Vernier A gives
the angle directly. But in the case of vernier B, the angle is
obtained by subtracting the initial reading from final reading.
• The face of the instrument is changed and the previous
procedure is followed. The reading of the verniers are noted
in the table.
• The mean of the observations (i.e. Face left and face right) is
the actual angle AOB. The two observations are taken to
eliminate any possible errors due to imperfect adjustment of
the instrument.
• The two methods of measuring horizontal angle are those of
repetition and reiteration.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
Repetition Method
• In this method, the angle is added a number of
times. The total is divided by the number of
reading to get the angle. The angle should be
measured clockwise in the face left and face
right positions, with three repetition at each
face. The final reading of the first observation
will be the initial reading of the second
observation, and so on.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Suppose the angle AOB is to be measured by the repetition
process. The theodolite is set up at O. The instrument is
centered and leveled properly. Vernier A is set to 0 0 and
vernier B to 180 0.
• The upper clamp is fixed, and the lower one is loosened. By
turning the telescope, the ranging rod at A is perfectly bisected
with the help of the lower clamp screw and the lower tangent
screw. Here the initial reading of vernier A is 0 0.
• The upper clamp is loosened and the telescope is turned
clockwise to perfectly bisect the ranging rod at B. The upper
clamp is clamped. Suppose the reading on vernier A is 30 0.
• The lower clamp is loosened and the telescope turned
anticlockwise to exactly bisect the ranging rod at A. Here, the
initial reading is 30 0 for the second observation.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• The lower clamp is tightened. The upper one is loosened and
telescope is turned clockwise to exactly bisect the ranging rod at B.
The reading on vernier A is 60 0.
• The initial reading for the third observation is set to 60 0. angle AOB
is again measured. Let the final reading on the vernier A is 90 0.
Which is the accumulated angle.
• Angle AOB= Accumulated Angle
No of Reading
= 90 0 = 30 0
3
• The face of the instrument is changed and the previous procedure is
followed.
• The mean of the two observation gives the actual angle AOB
Repetition Method
Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
Reiteration Method
• This method is suitable when several angles are
measured from a single station. In this method all
the angle are measured successively and finally the
horizon is closed (i.e. angle between the last and
first station is measured) So, the final reading of
the leading vernier is equally distributed among all
the observed angles. If it is large, the readings
should be cancelled and new sets taken.
• Suppose it is required to measure AOB and
BOC from O. The procedure is as follows.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
First Set
• The theodolite is perfectly centered over O and leveled
properly in the usual manner. Suppose, the observation
is taken in the face left position and the telescope is
turned clockwise (right Swing)
• Vernier A is set to 0 0 (i.e. 360 0) and vernier B to 180 0.
• The upper clamp is fixed and the lower one is loosened.
The ranging rod at A is perfectly bisected. Now, the
lower clamp is tightened.
• The upper clamp is loosened, and the ranging rod or
object at B is bisected properly by turning the telescope
clockwise. The readings on both the verniers are taken
AOB is noted.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Similarly, the object C is bisected properly, and the
reading on the verniers are noted BOC is
recorded.
• Now the horizon is closed, the last angle COA is
measured. The position of the leading vernier is
noted. The leading vernier should show the initial
reading on which it was set. If it does not, the
amount of discrepancy is noted. If it is small, the
error is distributed among the angle. If the
discrepancy large, the observation should be taken
again.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
Second Set
• The face of the instrument is changed. Again the
vernier are set at their initial positions. This time the
angles are measured anticlockwise (left Swing)
• The upper clamp is fixed, and the lower one loosened.
Then the object A is perfectly bisected.
• The lower clamp is tightened. The telescope is turned
anticlockwise, and the object C bisected by loosening
the upper clamp Screw. The reading on both the
vernier are taken COA is noted.
 Direct Method of Measuring
Horizontal Angle
• Then the objected B is bisected by turning the
telescope anticlockwise, and the readings on the
vernier are taken BOC is recorded.
• Finally, the horizon is closed i.e. the object A is
bisected. Here, the leading vernier A should show
a reading 0 0. The last angle AOB is noted.
• The mean angle of the two sets give the actual
value of the angle. If some error is found after
arithmetic check, it should be equally distributed
among the angles.
Reiteration Method
 Reiteration Method

Horizon Closed

B
O

C
 Measuring Vertical Angle
• The vertical angle is the one between the horizontal line (i.e.
line of collimation) and the inclined line of sight. When it is
above the horizontal line, it is known as the angle of elevation.
When this angle is below the horizontal line, it is called the
angle of depression.
• Consider Suppose the angle of elevation AOC and that of
depression BOC are to be measured. The following
procedure is adopted.
• The theodolite is set up at 0. It is centered and leveled
properly. The zeros of the vernier (generally C and D) are set 0
0 0 0 mark of the vertical circle (which is fixed to the telescope)

the telescope is then clamped.

 Measuring Vertical Angle
• The plate bubble is brought to the centre with the help
of foot screw. Then the altitude is brought to the
centre by means of a clip screw. At this position the
line of collimation is exactly horizontal.
• To measure the angle of elevation, the telescope is
raised slowly to bisect the point A accurately. The
readings on both the verniers are noted, and the angle
of elevation is recorded.
 Measuring Vertical Angle
• The face of the instrument is changed and the
point A is again bisected. The reading on the
vernier are noted. The mean of the angle of the
observed is assumed to be correct angle of
elevation.
• To measure the angle of depression, the telescope
is lowered slowly and observations (face left and
face right)( The mean angle of the observation is
taken to be correct angle of depression.
Measuring Vertical Angle

A
C
O
B

Oi
 Computation of Latitude and Departure

• The theodolite is not plotted according to interior

angles or bearings. It is plotted by computing the
latitude and departure of the point and then
finding the independent coordinates of the point.
• The latitude of a line is the distance measured
parallel to the North-South line and the departure
of a line measured parallel to the East-West line.
• The latitude and departure of lines are also
expressed in the following ways
 Computation of Latitude and
Departure
• Northing= Latitude towards north= + L
• Southing= Latitude towards South= -L
• Easting= Departure towards East= + D
• Westing= Departure towards West= -D
• Conversion of WCB to RB
WCB RB Quadrant
0 to 90 0 RB=WCB NE
90 0 and 180 0 RB= 180 – WCB SE
180 0 and 270 0 RB= WCB- 180 0 SW
270 0 and 360 0 RB= 360 0 – WCB NW
 Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Line Length (L) Reduced Latitude Departure
Bearing (Ө) (LCOS Ө) (L Sin Ө)
AB L NӨE + L cos Ө + L sin Ө
BC L SӨE -L cos Ө + Lsin Ө
CD L SӨW -L cos Ө -L sin Ө
DA L NӨW + Lcos Ө -L sin Ө

N
B

Ө Latitude= (L Cos Ө)

W E
A
Departure= (L Sin Ө)

S
 Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Line Length Reduced Consecutive Coordinates
Bearing
(L) (Ө) Northing Southing Easting Westing
(+) (-) (+) (-)
AB L NӨE L cosӨ L sin Ө
BC L SӨE Lcos Ө Lsin Ө
CD L SӨW Lcos Ө Lsin Ө
DA L NӨW L cosӨ Lsin Ө

Check for Closed Traverse

Sum of Northing= Sum of Southing
Sum of Easting= Sum of Westing
 Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Consecutive Coordinates
• The latitude and departure of a point calculated
with reference to the preceding point for what are
called consecutive coordinates.
Independent Coordinates
• The coordinates of any point with respect to a
common origin are said to be the independent
coordinates of that point. The origin may be a
station of the survey or a point entirely outside the
traverse.
 Computation of Latitude and
Departure
Balancing of Traverse
• In Case of Closed Traverse, the algebraic sum of latitude
must be equal to zero and that of departure must also be
equal to zero in the ideal condition. In other words, the sum
of the northing must equal that of the southing, and the sum
of the easting must be the same as that of the westing.
• But in actual practice, some closing error is always found to
exist while computing the latitude and departure of the
traverse station.
• The total errors in latitude and departure are determined.
These errors are then distributed among the traverse stations
proportionately, according to the following rule.
 Bowditch‟s Rule
• By this rule, the total error (in latitude or departure) is
distributed in proportion to the length of the traverse
legs. This is the most common method of traverse
adjustment.
(a) Correction to latitude of any side
• = Length of that Side x Total Error in latitude
Perimeter of Traverse
(b) Correction to departure of any side
• Length of that Side x Total Error in departure
Perimeter of Traverse
 Transit Rule
(a) Correction to latitude of any Side
Latitude of that Side x Total Error in Latitude
Arithmetical Sum of all latitude
(b) Correction to departure of any Side
Departure of that Side x Total Error in departure
Arithmetical Sum of all Departure
 Third Rule
(a) Correction to Northing of any Side
Northing of that Side x ½ total error in latitude
Sum of Northing
(b) Correction to Southing of any Side
Southing of that side x ½ total error in latitude
Sum of Southing
(c) Correction to Easting of any Side
Easting of that Side x ½ total error in departure
Sum of Easting
(d) Correction to Westing of any Side
= Westing of that Side x ½ total error in departure
Sum of Westing
If the error is positive, correction will be negative, and vice versa.
 References

• “Surveying and Leveling” Vol- I

Kanetkar and Kulkarni (2011)
• “Surveying and Leveling”
N.N.Basak
Thanks !