LECTURE SIX –

TWO DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW AND SEEPAGE

6.1. INTRODUCION
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one
direction only, nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the
flow. In such cases, the groundwater flow is generally calculated by the use
of graphs referred to as flow nets.
There were many examples of the two dimensional flow in soil
mechanics such as: -

Upstream
Downstream

Permeable
Soil

Impermeable Soil

Ex-1: Sheet Pile

U.S. D.S. U.S. D.S.

Cut-off

Permeable Permeable
Soil Soil

impermeable Soil impermeable Soil

Ex-2: Concrete Dam Ex-3: Concrete Dam with

SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

Upstream Cut-off.

U.S. D.S. U.S. D.S.

Cut-off
Permeable
Soil

Permeable
Soil

impermeable Soil impermeable Soil

Ex-4: Concrete Dam with Ex-5: Concrete Dam with Two

Downstream Cut-off. Cut-offs in Up & Down stream.

U.S.

D.S.

Ex-6: Earth Dam.

6.2. BASIC EQUATION FOR FLOW IN SOIL (CONTINUITY

EQUATION)
The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace's equation of
continuity, which governs the steady flow condition for a given point
in the soil mass.
For the soil element with dimensions of dx, dy, and dz as shown
in figure below: -
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

qy+dqy
qz

qx
qx +dqx

qz +dqz
qy

To derive the equation of the flow, assumptions limited the

derivation: -
1- For the soil: -
a. homogeneous,
b. isotropic, and
c. fully saturated.

2- for the fluid: -

a. laminar, steady, and continuous,
b. incompressible, and
c. Darcy’s Law is valid (V=ki)

h h
ix  , iy 
x y

v=k.i , q=k.i.A …Darcy’s Law

For two dimensional flow, qz=0

h
q x ,in  dydz.k x
x

h
q y ,in  dxdz.k y
y
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

The change in q (dq) based on the change in the hydraulic gradient

(di): -

h  2h
q x , out  dydz .k x  dydz .k x 2  dx
x x
 h  2 h 
 dydz .k x   2  dx 
 x x 

h  2h
q y , out  dxdz .k y  dxdz .k y 2  dy
y y
 h  2 h 
 dxdz .k y   2  dy 
 y y 

The change in q (q)

q = qout - qin

  2h 
 qx= qx, out - qx, in = dxdydz .k x  
 x 2 
 

  2h 
qy= qy, out - qy, in = dxdydz .k y  
 y 2 
 

q = qx- qy
  2h  2 h 

= dxdydz k x 2  k y 2
 x y 


S r .e
But Vw  dxdydz
1 e

Vw   S .e 
 q    r dxdydz 
t t  1  e 
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

dxdydz
  Volume of solids and it is constant
1 e
dxdydz  ( S r .e )
 q 
1 e t

 2h  2h 1  S r e 
q  k x  ky  e  Sr 
x 2 y 2 1  e  t t 

From assumptions: -
Sr = 1 and e = constant, so the right term equal to zero.

 2h  2h
kx  ky  0 … Equation of 2-D Flow (Laplace’s
2 2
x y
Equation)

6.3. FLOW NETS

Solutions to Laplace's equation for two-dimensional seepage can be
presented as flow nets. Two orthogonal sets of curves form a flow net:
- equipotentials connecting points of equal total head h
- flow lines indicating the direction of seepage down a hydraulic
gradient

If standpipe piezometers were inserted into the

ground with their tips on a single equipotential
then the water would rise to the same level in
each standpipe. (The pore pressures would be
different because of their different elevations.)

There can be no flow along an equipotential,

because there is no hydraulic gradient, so there
can be no component of flow across a flow line.
The flow lines define channels along which the volume flow rate is
constant.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

6.3.1. Potential and Stream Functions

One of the curves is flow path of a particle of water from A to B
called “Flow Line”, and the other curve is the line of constant head termed
“Equipotential Line”.

Notes:
1- along any Equipotential line, total head (H) equal to static
(elevation) head (he) plus pressure head (hp) plus velocity
head (h=V2/2g), or: -
H = he + hp + h (neglecting)
2- Both the static & pressure heads can vary with the Y-
coordinate, but the total head is constant. The total head can
be measured in the field with a peizometer.


Consider now the function (x,y) called the

potential function such that: -
 
 h
x = kx . h , x
 k x  vx
x
   k h  v
y y
y
y

The function (x,y) satisfies the Laplace’s Equation:-

 2  2
  0 … Laplace’s Equation
x 2 y 2

A second function (x,y) called flow function, such that: -

 h
 k  vy
x y
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

 h
 k  vx
y x

It can be shown that this function also satisfies the Laplace’s

equation (the total differential of the function (x,y): -

 
d  dx  dy  v y dx  v x dy
x y

if the function (x,y) is given a constant value then: -

dy vy
d=0 and  , thus the tangent at any point (c) on the curve
dx vx
represented by (x,y) = 1

the flow per unit time between two flow lines for which the values of
the flow function are , and 2 is given by: -

1 1

q   v x dy   dy   2   1
2 2  y


where: -  x  , therefore, the flow between two flow lines is the
y
difference between the stream functions.

6.4. Boundary conditions of Flow Net

A surface on which the total head is fixed (for example, from the level of a
river, reservoir) is an equipotential. A surface across which there is no
flow (for example, an impermeable soil layer or an impermeable wall) is a
flow line

- For the situation shown: with flow occurring

under a sheet pile wall, the axis of symmetry must
also be an equipotential.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

- Flow through embankments:

Seepage through an embankment dam

is an example of unconfined flow
bounded at the upper surface by a
phreatic surface which represents the
top flow line and on which the pore pressure is everywhere zero
(atmospheric).

Four possible types of boundaries of seepage zone illustrates in figure

below: -

1- lines AB and DE a
submerged permeable B
boundaries and it is U.S.
equipotential lines.
2- An imperious boundary AE, C
D.S.
flow line, and there is no flow A D
across AE E
3- A seepage surface CD, along
this surface the pore pressure is zero.
4- A free surface BC, phreatic surface, which: -
a. Pore pressure (u)= 0
b. Stream line, flow is constant, i.e. the free surface.

If we determined the phreatic surface, we can draw the flow net as

following: -

U.S.

D.S.

Total head changes and elevation changes thus

match and for equal head intervals h between
equipotentials there must be equal vertical
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

intervals between the points of intersection of equipotentials with the

phreatic surface.

6.5. APPLICATION OF THE FLOW NET

We can use the Flow-Net, the number of the head drops (Nd) and flow
channels (Nf), to estimate the followings: -
1- Pressure head (hp) from head of water (h) in upstream at different
points in the net then determining the pore water pressure (u),
where: -
u = w * hp, hp(point)=ht(point)-he(point), ht(point)=ht-No. of Drops*h

2- Quantity of seepage through the flow path,

Nf
QkH L
Nd
3- Factor of Safety (F.S.) and Exit gradient (ie), where: -

i   G 1 h h / Nd
F . S .  c , ic   s , i e  
ie  w 1 e l l

Where: l = length of last square side at exit of water

6.6. CALCULATION OF FLOW (q)

Consider an element from a flow channel of length (l) between
equipotentials which indicate a fall in total head h and between flow lines
(b) apart. For unit width of flow net the volume flow rate is: -

q=k.i.a (Where q = rate of flow per unit length normal to paper

3
(m /sec/m))
a = b.1 H

H
h Nd
i 
L l

H
q  k Nd  b  1  k H  b
l Nd l
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

There is an advantage in displaying or sketching flow nets in the form

of curvilinear 'squares' so that a circle can be inscribed within each four-
sided figure bounded by two equipotentials and two flow lines. Then (b =
L) and (q = k.h), so the flow rate through the flow channel is the
permeability multiplied by the uniform interval h between equipotentials.

H
qk … For one channel of flow
Nd

Nf
Q  kH … for all channels
Nd

For a complete problem, then the total flow rate is: -

Nf
QkH L
Nd

It is usually convenient in sketching flow nets to make Nd an integer.

The number of flow channels Nf will then generally not be an integer.

6.7. FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST QUICK CONDITION

AND PIPING
If the flow is upward then the water pressure tends to lift the soil
element. If the upward water pressure is high enough the effective stresses
in the soil disappear, no frictional strength can be mobilized and the soil
behaves as a fluid. This is the quick or quicksand condition (boiling) and
is associated with piping instabilities around excavations and with
liquefaction events in or following earthquakes.

The quick condition occurs at a critical upward hydraulic gradient ic,

when the seepage force just balances the buoyant weight of an element of
soil. (Shear stresses on the sides of the element are neglected.)
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

  Gs  1
ic  
 w 1 e

The critical hydraulic gradient is typically around 1.0 for many soils.
Fluidized beds in chemical engineering systems rely on deliberate
generation of quick conditions to ensure that the chemical process can
occur most efficiently.

The factor of safety against quick condition (boiling) is equal to: -

i
F .S .  c
ie

EXAMPLES:
One Dimensional Flow - Net
For the soil sample shown in the figure, where the flow is from top to
bottom (downward), h= 4.8 m, the cross sectional area of the sample is (1.2
x 1.2) m. 4.8
We will divide the soil sample by lines to 3.6
equally squares with side of (0.3)m to idealize the
flow lines and equipotential lines where: - Soil
Sample
No. of head drops (Nd) = 10
No. of flow channels (Nf) = 4 0.6
0.0
Determine: - a) the head pressure (hp) at points 1, 2,
and 3
b) Seepage quantity.
0.3

Solution: - 1
H = 4.8 – 0.0 = 4.8m
h = 4.8/10 = 0.48m
2
hp = ht - he , ht = 4.8m (datum at elevation 0.0) Soil
3

Sample

at point 1
ht1= ht – (No. head drops at point 1)*h
ht1= 4.8 – 1*0.48 = 4.32
hp1= 4.32 – 3.3 = 1.02m
3
1.2
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

( or hp1= (9/10)*4.8 – 3.3) ... linear relationship

at point 2
hp2= (6/10)*4.8 – 2.4 = 0.48

at point 3
hp3= (0/10)*4.8 – 0.6 = -0.6

Q = k*h*(Nf/Nd) * L
= kh (4/10)* 1.2 = 0.48 kh
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

Determine The quantity of seepage under concrete dam shown below and
P.W.P. For The Points (A-H).

H=, Ht= , Nf= , Nd= ,

SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

6.8. ANISOTROPIC SOIL

For a soil with permeability kx and ky in the x and y directions
respectively, Laplace's equation for two-dimensional seepage becomes,

This can be solved by applying a scale factor to the x dimensions so that

transformed coordinates xt are used,

In the transformed coordinates the equation regains its simple form,

and flow net generation can proceed as usual. Calculations of flow are
made using an equivalent permeability,

It may be preferable in some cases to transform the y coordinates using: -

The equivalent permeability remains unchanged.

For many natural sedimentary soils seasonal variations in the

depositional regime have resulted in horizontal macroscopic permeabilities
significantly greater than vertical permeabilities. Transformation of
coordinates lends itself to analysis of seepage in such situations.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

6.9. SEEPAGE FORCE

The viscous drag of water flowing through a soil imposes a seepage
force on the soil in the direction of flow.

Consider the actual distribution of pore water pressure around an

element length L and thickness b taken from a flow net, bounded by two
equipotentials with fall in head h, and two flow lines.

These pore water pressures are partly supporting the weight wbL of
water in the element and partly providing the seepage force. It is found that
the seepage force is:

J = i w b L

equivalent to a seepage pressure (force per unit volume) in the direction of

flow

j = i w

5*62.4=312 lb/ft2 3*62.4 =187.2 lb/ft2 2*62.4=124.8

lb/ft2
(No Flow) (Water Flow)
Static Water Seepage
Pressure Pressure
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

6.10. BOUNDARY BETWEEN LAYERS (TRANSFER

CONDITION)
Flow across a boundary between two layers of
soil of different permeability produces a refraction
effect.

Consideration of continuity of flow and of

continuity of velocity normal to the interface shows
that:
q1 = q2
h
q1  k1  A   b1
L1
h
q2  k 2   b2
L2
L1 L
 tan  1 , 2  tan  2
b1 b2
k1 k2

tan  1 tan  2

It is not possible to construct a flow net with curvilinear squares on

both sides of the interface unless the head drop between equipotentials is
changed in inverse proportion to the permeability ratio.

If the ratio of permeabilities is greater than about 10, e.g. at the

boundary of a drainage layer then construction of the part of the flow net in
the more permeable soil is unlikely to be necessary.

6.11. CRITICAL CASES IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

A. Concrete dams or sheet piles: -
They are suffering from boiling or quick condition, which causes
by seepage through foundation soil of these structures. To
eliminate this condition, must using a filter or concrete layer in
the down stream of the dam.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

B. Earth dams: -
There are many critical cases relate with earth dams: -
1- stability of down
stream side: -
this is caused by U.S.
D.S.
seepage through dam
body and exit from
other side and may
causes piping in the
body leads to failure.
2- stability of upstream
side: -
in case of sudden fall U.S.
of water in upstream D.S.
will causing seepage
from dam body leads
to failure in upstream.
3- stability of
foundation: -
in case of that
permeability
coefficient k of dam U.S. Low k
D.S.
lower than in
foundation soil, so
seepage will be
through it causes
vertical piping in
upstream.

6.12. CONTROL OF SEEPAGE THROUGH DAMS

There are many methods to control the seepage and avoid the critical
cases including: -

a) We may use grouting to lower the k, but the dam rarely

being able to use excavation and soil replacement in critical
areas.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

b) The use of a core or cut-off wall with a low k is the

principal.
c) The length of flow path can be increased using a clay
blanket: -
i. Upstream cut-off walls reduce the seepage uplift
pressure.
ii. Downstream cut-off wall be more efficient in
reducing seepage.

6.13. FILTER REQUIREMENTS:

Filters or drains used to control seepage must satisfy two conflicting
requirements: -

1- The size of pores must be small enough to prevent particles being

carried in from the adjacent soil (prevent piping).

( D15 ) filter
 4  5 … To prevent piping
( D85 ) soil

2- The permeability must be high enough to allow the rapid drainage of

water entering filter.
( D15 ) filter
4  20 … To ensure that the permeability of
( D15 ) soil
filter is high enough for drainage.

Notes: -
1- The thickness of a filter can be
determined from Darcy’s law.
2- The finest layer being on the
upstream soil of the filter.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

QUESTIONS
1- A: For the flow net shown in figure below, answer the following questions:
a. calculate the uplift pore water pressure on the bottom of the dam,
b. quantity of seepage in the downstream,
c. the water head in the upstream if the factor of safety equal to 2.5,

2- For flow net illustrated for a sheet pile with the following characteristics,
Nf=4, Nd=10, water height at upstream=8m, water height at
downstream=1m, the coefficient of permeability=2*10-5 cm/sec. Answer
the following questions: (25 Marks)
A. calculate the total head at each equipotentIail line,
B. quantity of seepage in the downstream,
C. estimate the water height in upstream for decreasing 10% in h?
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE

3- find: -
a) total discharge,
b) P.W.P.. at A and B,
c) head to satisfy factor of safety
equal to 2 against boiling.

5-determine the followings: -

a) p.w.p. at the points (a-e)
4- find the differences in the pore b) quantity of seepage in cm3/min.
water pressure and effective vertical c) exit gradient, d) head difference to
stress between the points (a & h), (b ensure factor of safety equal to 2.5.`
& g), (c & f), and (d & e)

6- for the earth shown below, laboratory tests indicate that the permeability of
the 80years old levee is 0.30nm/day. What is the volume of water lost through
the levee along each kilometer in m3/day?. Determine the pore water pressures at
the bottom of the dam.
SOIL MECHANICS Lectures Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Shaker Al-Shakerchy

Lecture Six – TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW AND SEEPAGE