CHAPTER-I

Interference and Diffraction of light

You may use the following values of physical constants wherever necessary:

c = 3 × 10 8 m/s

h = 6.63 × 10 –34 Js

e = 1.6 × 10 –19 C

0 = 4 × 10 –7 T mA–1

8.854 × 10 –12 C2N–1m–2

1
= 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2
4𝜋𝜀0

me = 9.1 × 10 –31 kg

Mass of Neutrons = 1.675 × 10 –27 kg

Mass of proton = 1.673 × 10 –27 kg

Avogadro's number = 6.023 × 10 23 per gram mole

Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 –23 JK–1

Basics of Interference of light:

Interference: When two coherent light waves are superimposed, in the region of superposition the intensity of
light gets modified. This modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called
interference. At some points the intensity is maximum (points of constructive interference) and at some points it
is minimum or almost zero (points of destructive interference).
Production of Coherent Sources:
A stable interference pattern is formed if the two interfering light beams are coherent. Usually such coherent
sources are produced by a single source. The methods by which we produce two coherent sources from a single
source are:
Division of Wave front
In this method the incident wave front is divided into two separate wave front which when further moves are
superimposed and produce an interference pattern. For example: Young’s experiment, Fresnel’s bi-prism, etc.

Division of Amplitude
In this method the intensity (amplitude) of the wave is divided by the phenomenon of partial reflection and
partial refraction. For example: Newton’s Ring, Michelson’s interferometer etc.
Condition for Constructive and Destructive Interference (Superposition Principle):

Consider that S1 and S2 are two coherent sources. If a1 and a2 are the amplitude of wave from S1 and
S2 respectively. δ is the phase difference between the two waves in reaching point P on the screen.

The displacement of the two waves can be given as

.........................(1)

.......... .(2)

According to the theory of superposition, the resultant displacement

Or

Say ..................(3)
and ................................(4)

Substituting these values

Squaring and adding eq 2.3 and 2.4, the resultant amplitude at P, will be

...................(5)

Therefore the intensity at point P (I = R2)

..................(6)

Condition for Constructive Interference (Maxima)

Intensity at P will be maximum if

i.e.

or Path Difference ........................(7)

Condition for Destructive Interference (Minima)

Intensity at P will be minimum if

i.e.

or Path difference

..............................(8)

Interference in Parallel Film (Reflected Rays):

Consider a thin film of uniform thickness‘t’ and refractive index bounded between air. Let us consider
monochromatic ray AB is made incident on the film, at B part of ray is reflected (R1) and a part is refracted
along BC.At C The beam BC again suffer partial reflection and partial refraction, the reflected beam CD moves
again suffer partial reflection and partial refraction at D. The refracted beam R2 moves in air. These two
reflected rays R1 and R2 interfere to produce interference pattern.
The optical path difference between the two reflected rays

In ΔBDN, sin i = BN / BD and BC = CD as ΔBMC ≡ ΔMCD, therefore

In ΔBMC, cos r = t /BC, therefore

In ΔBMC, tan r = BM / t , therefore

According to Snell’s law

..........................(1)

Correction on account of phase change at reflection: when a beam is reflected from a denser medium (ray R1 at
B), a path change of /2 occur for the ray.

Therefore the true path difference is ..........(2)

Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe)

Maxima occur when path difference

 ...............(3)

Condition for Minima (Dark Fringe)

Minima occur when path difference

.....................(4)

Interference in Parallel Film (Transmitted Rays):

The optical path difference between transmitted rays T1 and T2 will be

This path difference is calculated in the same way as above to get

....................(5)

Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe)

Maxima occur when path difference,

......................(6)

Condition for Minima (Dark Fringe)

Minima occur when path difference,

...........(7)

Interference in Wedge Shaped Film (Reflected Rays):

The wedge shaped film has a thin film of varying thickness, having thickness zero at one end and increases at the other.
The angle of wedge is .

The optical path difference between the two reflected rays R1 and R2 will be

From the geometry

As in ΔBMD;

And in ΔBND

According Snell’s Law,

OR

Thus

As in ΔNDL
Correction on account of phase change at reflection: when a beam is reflected from a denser medium (ray R1 at B), a path
change of /2 occur for the ray.
Therefore the true path difference is

Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe)

Maxima occur when path difference,

Condition for Minima (Dark Fringe)

Minima occur when path difference

Newton’s Ring

NEWTON'S RINGS are the circular interference pattern first discovered by Newton.

Formation of fringes:

When a plano-convex lens with large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate such that its curved surface faces
the glass plate, a wedge air film (of gradually increasing thickness) is formed between the lens and the glass plate. The
thickness of the air film is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases away from the point of contact.
If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens from a source 'S', then two reflected rays R1 (reflected from
upper surface of the film) and R2 (reflected from lower surface of the air film) interfere to produce circular interference
pattern. This interference pattern has concentric alternate bright and dark rings around the point of contact.

Theory of Fringes:

The effective path difference between the two reflected rays R1 and R2 for a wedge shaped film from equation 2.18

If the light is incident normally on the lens, r = 0 and near to point of contact is small; therefore near point of contact,

Therefore ……………..(1)

At point of contact t = 0 therefore the effective path difference ∆ = λ/2 which is odd multiple of λ/2 Therefore the Central
fringe is dark.

Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe): The effective path difference ; substituting this in equation (1)

………………………………..(2)

Condition for Minima (Dark Fringe): The effective path difference ; substituting this in equation
(1)

………………………………………….(3)
From eq (2) and (3) it is clear that for particular dark or bright fringe t should be constant.

Every fringe is the locus of points having equal thickness. Hence the fringes are circular in shape.

Diameter of Newton’s Rings:

To calculate the diameter of fringes, assume a plano-convex lens is placed on a plane glass plate as shown in figure say R
be the radius of curvature of lens. In ΔO’ML

As t << R; neglecting t2 (small value)

………………….(4)

Diameter of Dark Rings

Substitute t from eq. 4 to eq. 3

As Dn = 2r n
 …….(5)

The medium enclosed between the lens and glass plate is if air therefore, = 1. The diameter of nth order dark fringe will
be

….(6)

; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4….

The diameter of dark ring is proportional to square root of natural numbers

Diameter of Bright Rings:

Substitute t from eq. 4 to eq. 2

As Dn = 2rn

....(7)

The medium enclosed between the lens and glass plate is if air therefore,µ = 1. The diameter of nth order bright fringe
will be

….(8)

; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4….

The diameter of bright ring is proportional to square root of odd natural numbers

Spacing between Fringes

The Newton’s rings are not equally spaced because the diameter of ring does not increase in the same proportion as the
order of ring and rings get closer and closer as ‘n’ increases.

For example the diameter of dark ring is given by

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4….
From above, we conclude that the fringe width reduces with increase in ‘n’.

Newton’s Ring with White Light

If the monochromatic source is replaced by the white light few colored rings are seen around dark center later illumination
is seen in the field of view.

Applications of Newton’s Ring

A. Determination of Wavelength of Light
In order to determine the wavelength of monochromatic source an experimental arrangement is set up as shown
in figure.

The monochromatic light is made incident on the plano-convex lens and the reflected light is viewed in travelling
microscope. Microscope is adjusted till the circular rings came in focus. Now the microscope crosswire is focused
on the central dark spot and is moved slowly at one side, say right side. As the cross – wire moves in the field of
view, dark rings are counted. The movement is stopped when it reaches at the 22nd dark ring. The cross wire is
moved in opposite side and stopped at 20th dark ring such that the vertical cross-wire is made tangential to the
ring. Thus starting from 20th the microscope position is noted down for 18th, 16th, 14th, …..6th ring. The
microscope is quickly moved to the left side of the ring pattern and the positions of microscope is again noted
down for 6th, 8th, 10th,……..20th ring. The diameter of the nth order ring is calculated by subtracting the left
and right side position of the microscope. As we know that the square of diameter of nth dark ring is

Therefore the square of diameter of (n+p)th ring is

Subtracting both the above equation

....(1)

Therefore

.............................(2)

B. Determination of Refractive Index of liquid:

In order to determine the refractive index of liquid the Newton’s ring experiment is first performed for the air medium and
the difference in the square of the diameter of (n+p)th and nth dark ring is found as discussed above.

….(1)

After this few drops of liquid of refractive index is placed on the glass plate. The plano-convex lens is then placed on
the glass plate, as a result a film of liquid is formed between the lens and the plate.

The difference in the square of the diameter of (n+p)th and nth dark ring is again calculated in the same manner for the
liquid medium.

….(2)

Dividing equation 2.29 by 2.30, we get

….(3)

Michelson’s Interferometer:
Principle: The Michelson’s interferometer works on the principle of division of amplitude. According to this
principle, the incident beam of light falls on a beam splitter which reflects roughly half of the intensity of the
wave in one direction and transmits the other half of the intensity of the wave in another direction. These two
light beams, after traversing different optical path, are brought together to superimpose in a common region where
interference occurs and fringes are formed.

Construction:

The interferometer consists of two plane mirrors m1 and m2 highly silvered on their front surfaces to avoid
multiple internal reflections and two plane parallel glass plates P1 and P2, having same material and same
thickness. Both the plates have been mounted vertically and exactly parallel to each other on a frame and are
inclined at 450 to the interferometer arm. Plate P1 has been coated with silver such that it acts as a 50/50 beam
splitter, which reflects half of the light towards mirror M1 and transmits half of the light towards mirror M2. While
plate P2 is called compensating plate.

Mirror M1 is movable mirror and a micrometer screw is attached to it. Mirror M1 is the fixed mirror.

Working:

Light from a monochromatic source S is made nearly parallel by a collimated lens L and then it is allowed to fall
on a beam splitter plate P1 which divides the incoming light in to two parts of equal intensities by partially
reflection at its rear side. The reflected beam moves towards mirror M1 and the transmitted beam moves towards
mirror M2.
These two beams travel along two mutually perpendicular paths and are reflected back by their respective mirrors
M1 and M2 to get interfere to each other at point O and produce interference fringes, which can be seen by
telescope.

Action of compensating plate P2:

The reflected beam moving towards mirror M1 crosses the beam splitter plate P1 twice before interfering while
transmitted beam does not pass even once in the absence of plate P2 that lies totally in air. Hence due to this an
extra path 2(µ-1) t (air) is introduced in the reflected beam. This path difference is compensated by using a
compensating plate P2 in the path of the transmitted beam.

Formation of Fringes:

A virtual image of mirror M2 is formed as M2’ by the plate P1. In this way the path OM1 and OM2 can be imagined
to be on the same side. A thin film is formed in between mirror M1 and the virtual image M2’. Interference fringes
are imagined to be formed by thin air film. The interference fringes may be therefore of different shapes like
straight line, circular, parabolic and hyperbolic, depending upon the optical path difference and the angle between
M1 and M2’.

Types of fringes:
There are two types of fringes form in Michelson’s interferometer:

(1) Circular Fringes

(2) Localized Fringes
(1) Circular fringes:

When mirrors M1 and M2 are exactly perpendicular to each other and distance of M1 and M2 is same from
beam splitter plate P1. Then the mirror M1 and the virtual mirror M2’ must be exactly parallel and an imaginary
air film of equal thickness is formed between them.
 Here the source S1 and S2 are the virtual image of source due to M1 and M2. If d is the thickness of air film,
the separation between S1 and S2 will be 2d.

If the light coming from two vertical sources make an angle r with the normal.

The path difference between from S1 and S2

∆= 2𝑑 cos 𝑟 … … … … … . . (𝑖)

Since one of the ray is reflecting from denser medium mirror M1, a path change of λ/2 occurs in it

Hence the effective path difference

𝜆
∆= 2𝑑 cos 𝑟 + … … … … … … … … … (2)
2

Condition for Maxima: If this path difference is equal to an integral No. of wave length, the condition for
constructive interference is satisfied.

𝜆
2𝑑 cos 𝑟 + = 𝑛𝜆
2

𝜆
2𝑑 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2

Condition for Minima:

𝜆 𝜆
2𝑑 cos 𝑟 + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2

2𝑑 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆

Centre of circular Fringes:

In case, if mirror M1 coincide with the virtual mirorM’2 i.e d = 0 (∆=2d cos r +λ/2=λ/2), the path difference
between the interfering beams will be λ/2. Thus a minima coincidence position obtained and hence the center of
the field will be dark

If mirror M1 is moved through a distance λ/4, the path difference (∆=2x λ/4 +λ/2=λ) becomes λ and therefore a
maxima is obtained

Now again moving mirror M1 moves by λ/4 , the path difference (∆=2xλ/4+λ/2 +λ/2=3λ/2) makes to produce
minima

Further moving the mirror M1 moves by λ/4 distance, the path difference (∆=2xλ/4+λ/2 +λ/2+λ/2=2λ) and
therefore a maxima is obtained
 (2) Localized Fringes: When M1 and M2 are adjusted with certain inclination to each other, the thin
layer enclosed by M1and M′2 becomes wedge shaped and ocal fringes. The fringes pattern with the
various position of M1 and M′2 as shown in the figure below.

Radius of Circular Fringes:

The condition for maxima and minima in Michelson’s interferometer is given by

𝜆
2𝑑 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2………………………..for maxima…..(1)

2𝑑 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆……………………..………….for minima…….(2)

It is clear that on moving away from the center the value of inclination angle r increase and value of cosr
decreases and hence order of fringes also decreases.
At center 𝑟 = 0 ⟹ cos 𝑟 = 1 (max)

⟹ 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟

Thus the order of the central fringe is highest and decreases as we move away from the center

The condition for nth order dark ring at center is

2𝑑 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆

Since cos 𝑟 = 1
2𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆………………..(3)

Here n= order of central fringe. On moving m number of fringes away from the center the order of mth ring will
be (n-m) as the order of central fringe is zero

Let mth ring makes an angle rm with the axis of telescope then from equation (1)

2𝑑 cos 𝑟𝑚 = (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜆 … … … … … … … … . . (4)

On subtracting equation (3) from equation (4), we have

2𝑑(1 − cos 𝑟𝑚 ) = 𝑚𝜆

𝑚𝜆
Or cos 𝑟𝑚 = 1 − … … … … . . (5)
2𝑑

If the radius of mth ring is rm then from fig.

We have

𝑟𝑚
tan 𝑟𝑚 = …………………………….(6)
𝐷
 𝐷
cos 𝑟𝑚 = … … … … … … … . (7)
√𝑟𝑚2 + 𝐷2

Using equations (5) and (7), we get

𝐷 𝑚𝜆
= 1−
√𝑟𝑚2 + 𝐷2 2𝑑

2
𝐷
[ ] = 𝑟𝑚2 + 𝐷2
𝑚𝜆
(1 − )
2𝑑

𝑚𝜆 2
𝑟𝑚2 2
= 𝐷 {(1 − ) − 1}
2𝑑

1
𝑚𝜆 2 2
𝑟𝑚 = 𝐷 {(1 − ) − 1}
2𝑑

𝑚𝜆
𝑟𝑚 = 𝐷 √
𝑑

Above equation gives the radius of mth ring.

Application of Michelson’s interferometer:

Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light:

For determination of wavelength of light by using Michelson’s interferometer, the following procedure is used:

(1) The interferometer is adjusted so that circular fringes are visible in the field of view using
monochromatic light of wavelength λ
(2) With any ring at the center, the reading of micrometer is noted (x1)
(3) Now mirror M1 is moved with the help of micrometer screw. The fringes appear dark and bright at the
center due to change of path difference. Let x2 be the new reading of the micrometer when N fringes
move from x1

Then

𝜆
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝑁.
2

Because when mirror M1 is moved away from M2 by λ/2, then the path difference (2d for center) increases by λ.
Therefore each time M1 travels through a distance λ/2, the next fringe appears at the center. Thus
 2(𝑥1 − 𝑥1 )
𝜆=
𝑁

2Δ𝑥
𝜆=
𝑁

Determination of the difference in wavelength of D1 and D2 lines of sodium light:

OR

Determination of wavelength separation of two nearby wavelength:

Michelson’s interferometer is set for circular fringes. Let a source has two wavelength λ1 and λ2 and (λ1 > λ2).
Which are very close to each other. As the mirror M1 is moved slowly, the two pattern separate out slowly and
when the path difference is such that the dark fringe of λ1 falls on the bright fringe of λ2, the result is maximum
indistinctness. When the path difference is such that the bright fringe of λ1 falls on the bright fringe of λ2 or (the
dark fringe of λ1 falls on the dark fringe of λ2) the result is the maximum distinctness.

Let the mirror M1 is to be moved through a distance x between two successive positions of maximum distinctness.
In this position nth fringe of λ1 must coincide with (n+1)th fringe of λ2.

Hence

𝒏𝝀𝟏 (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝀𝟐
𝒙= =
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒙
⟹𝒏= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒏 + 𝟏) =
𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟐

Subtracting we get

𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒙
1= −
𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟏

𝟏 𝟏 ( 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟐 )
1 = 2𝑥 ( − ) = 𝟐𝒙 𝟏
𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟐

𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟐
𝝀𝟏 − 𝝀𝟐 =
𝟐𝒙
As λ1=λ2

Then 𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟐 = 𝝀𝟐𝒂𝒗
 𝝀𝟐𝒂𝒗
𝝀𝟏 − 𝝀𝟐 =
𝟐𝒙

Determination of refractive index or thickness of thin transparent film:

Michelson’s interferometer is set for parallel film and white light is employed. Now the thin film whose thickness
is to be determined is introduced in the one of the interfering beams. Let t is the thickness of film and refractive
index µ increases the path by 2(µ-1)t thus a shift in the fringe system occurs. Now M1is moved backward and
forward till the dark fringe coincides with cross wire. The distance x moved by mirror M 1 is measured using
micrometer screw. Hence we have

2𝑥 = 2(𝜇 − 1)𝑡 ⟹ 𝑥 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡

𝑥
𝑡=
(𝜇 − 1)

𝒙
𝝁=𝟏+
𝒕

Now white light is replaced by monochromatic light and mirror M1is travelled same x distance then N fringes
move across the field of view

Thus

𝑁𝜆
𝑥=
2

𝑁𝜆
⟹ = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
2

⟹ 𝑁𝜆 = 2(𝜇 − 1)𝑡

Determination of refractive index of liquid or gas:

An evacuated tube contained liquid or gas of length l by replacing thin transparent film of thickness of t

Then

2𝑥 = 2(𝜇 − 1)𝑙

𝑥 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑙

𝑥
𝜇 = 1+
𝑙

𝑛𝜆
𝑥= = (𝜇 − 1)𝑙
2
 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆 = 2(𝜇 − 1)𝑙 ⟹ 𝜇 = 1 +
2𝑙

Diffraction of light

Introduction to Diffraction:
When light falls on obstacles (whose size is comparable with the wavelength of light), it bends round the
corners of the obstacles and enters in the geometrical shadow. This bending of light is called diffraction.

 The amount of bending depends upon the size of the obstacle and the wavelength of wave.
 The diffraction effects are observed only when a portion of the wavefront is cut off by some obstacle.

Condition of Diffraction:
The diffraction pattern is seen if the size of the diffracting obstacle is of the same order of the wavelength of
light used. Diffraction is more pronounced if the size of obstacle is less than the wavelength of light.

Types of Diffraction:
1. Fraunhofer’s Diffraction: In this class of diffraction source and the screen are placed at infinity. In this
case the wavefront which is incident on the aperture or obstacle is plane.

2. Fresnel’s Diffraction: In this class of diffraction source and the screen are placed at finite distances from
the aperture or obstacle having sharp edges. The incident wavefront is either spherical or cylindrical.
Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer's Diffractions:
Fresnel Diffraction
1. Point source of light or an illuminated narrow slit is used as light source
2. Light incident on the aperture or obstacle is a spherical or cylindrical wave front
3. The source and screen are at finite distance from the aperture or obstacle producing diffraction
4. Lenses are not used to focus the rays

Fraunhofer diffraction
1. Extended source of light at infinite distance is used as light source
2. Light incident on the aperture or obstacle is a plane wave front
3. The source and screen are at infinite distance from the aperture or obstacle producing diffraction
4. Converging lens is used to focus the rays

Diffraction due to Single Slit:

Description: The adjacent figure represents a narrow slit AB of width ‘e’. Let a plane wavefront of
monochromatic light of wavelength ' ' is incident on the slit. Let the diffracted light be focused by means of a
convex lens on a screen. According to Huygen Fresnel, every point of the wavefront in the plane of the slit is a
source of secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets traveling normally to the slit i.e., along OPo are brought
to focus at Po by the lens. Thus Po is a bright central image. The secondary wavelets traveling at an angle ' ' are
focused at a point P1 on the screen.

The intensity at the point P1 is either minimum or maximum and depends upon the path difference between the
secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the wavefront.
Theory:
In order to find out the intensity at P1, draw a perpendicular AC on BR.
The path difference between secondary wavelets from A and B in direction θ is BC i.e. ,

So, the phase difference,

Let us consider that the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave from each
part is ‘a’.
So, the phase difference between two consecutive points

............(1)
Then the resultant amplitude R is calculated by using the method of vector addition of amplitudes
In ∆OQM

OM= OQ Sin nδ/2………….(a)

And δ In ∆OQN

ON= OQ Sin δ/2…………..(b)

From equation (a) and (b)

𝑂𝑀 sin 𝑛𝛿⁄2
=
𝑂𝑁 sin 𝛿⁄2

The resultant amplitude of n number of waves having same amplitude 'a' and having common phase difference
of '' is

...................(2)
Substituting the value of in equation (1)
𝜋
sin ( . 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 )
𝑅=𝑎 𝜆 … … … … … … . . (3)
𝜋
sin {𝑛 ( . 𝑒 sin 𝜃)}
𝜆

Substituting in equation (3)

As is small value;

(𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑎 = 𝐴)
Therefore

..............(4)
Therefore, the Intensity is given by

2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
2
𝐼=𝑅 =𝐴 … … … … … … … . (5)
𝛼2
Case (i): Principal Maximum:
Eqn (4) takes maximum value for
= 0

or
The condition

The condition means that this maximum is formed by the secondary wavelets which travel normally to
the slit along OPo and focus at Po. This maximum is known as “Principal maximum”.

Intensity of Principal maxima:

Therefore
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 2 = 𝐴2
Case (ii): Minimum Intensity positions:
Eqn (3) takes minimum values for sin = 0. The values of ' ' which satisfy are

………(6)

where
in the above eqn (6) n = 0 is not applicable because corresponds to principal maximum. Therefore, the positions
according to eqn (6) are on either side of the principal maximum.

Case (iii): Secondary maximum:

In addition to principal maximum at = 0, there are weak secondary maxima between minima positions. The
positions of these weak secondary maxima can be obtained with the rule of finding maxima and minima of a
given function in calculus. So, differentiating eqn (4) and equating to zero, we have

𝑑𝐼 𝑑 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
= (𝐴 )=0
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝛼2

𝑑𝐼 sin 𝛼 𝛼 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼

⟹ = 2𝐴2 ( )( )=0
𝑑𝛼 𝛼 𝛼2

Because correspond to minima positions

...........(7)
The values of ' ' satisfying the eqn (7) are obtained graphically by plotting the curves and
on the same graph. The points of intersection of the two curves gives the values of ' ' which satisfy eqn (7).
The points of intersections are

But , gives principal maximum, substituting the values of ' ' in eqn(5), we get
and so on.
From the above expressions, Imax, I1, I2,I3… it is evident that most of the incident light is concentrated at the
principal maximum.
Intensity distribution graph:
A graph showing the variation of intensity with ' ' is as shown in the adjacent figure

Width of Principle Maxima:

The distance between first minima on either side of the central maxima is called the width of central maxima

For first minimum

𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
𝑒
If θ is very small then
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
Therefore the angular width of central maxima is given by
2𝜆
2𝜃 =
𝑒
If the distance of first minimum from the center of the pattern is x, then
𝑥 𝜆
tan θ = sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 = =
𝑓 𝑒
𝑓𝜆
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥=
𝑒
The total width of the central maximum is given by
2𝑓𝜆
𝑊 = 2𝑥 =
𝑒
Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)
An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width and separated by equal opaque
spaces is known as Diffraction grating.
Gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent material such as glass, with a fine
diamond point. The ruled lines are opaque to light while the space between any two lines is transparent to light
and acts as a slit. This is known as plane transmission grating. When the spacing between the lines is of the
order of the wavelength of light, then an appreciable deviation of the light is produced.
Theory: A section of a plane transmission grating AB placed perpendicular to the plane of the paper is as
shown in the figure.

Let ‘e’ be the width of each slit and‘d’ the width of each opaque space. Then (e+d) is known as grating element
and XY is the screen. Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength ' ' be incident normally
on the grating. By Huygen’s principle, each of the slit sends secondary wavelets in all directions. Now, the
secondary wavelets travelling in the direction of incident light will focus at a point Po on the screen. This
point Po will be a central maximum.
Now consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle ' ' with the incident light will
reach point P1 in different phases. As a result dark and bright bands on both sides of central maximum are
obtained.

The intensity at point P1 may be considered by applying the theory of Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit. The
wavelets proceeding from all points in a slit along their direction are equivalent to a single wave of amplitude

starting from the middle point of the slit, Where

If there are N slits, then we have N diffracted waves. The path difference between two consecutive slits
is . Therefore, the phase difference

........(1)

Hence the intensity in a direction 'θ ' can be found by finding the resultant amplitude of N vibrations each of

amplitude and a phase difference of ' '

Since in the previous case

Substituting these in equation

In ∆OQM
OM= OQ Sin Nβ………….(a)

And δ In ∆OQN

ON= OQ Sin β…………..(b)

From equation (a) and (b)

sin 𝑁𝛽
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑁
sin 𝛽

OR

sin 𝑁𝛽
𝑅=𝑎
sin 𝛽

Where a= resultant amplitude due to single slit diffraction

Therefor

sin 𝛼
𝑎=𝐴
𝛼

The resultant amplitude on screen at P becomes

..........(2)

Thus Intensity at P1 will be

2
sin 𝛼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛽
𝐼 = 𝑅 = (𝐴 ) … … … … … … (3)
𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽

The factor

gives the distribution of Intensity due to a single slit while the factor

gives the distribution of intensity as a combined effect of all the slits

Intensity Distribution:

Case (i): Principal maxima: The eqn (2) will take a maximum value if
 .......(3)

n = 0 corresponds to zero order maximum. For n = 1,2,3,… we obtain first, second, third,… principal maxima
respectively. The ± sign indicates that there are two principal maxima of the same order lying on either side of
zero order maximum.

Case(ii): Minima Positions: The eqn (2) takes minimum value if but

...........(4)

Where m has all integral values except m = 0, N, 2N, …, nN, because for these values  becomes zero and
we get principal maxima. Thus, m = 1, 2, 3, …, (N-1). Hence

where

gives the minima positions which are adjacent to the principal maxima.

Case(iii): Secondary maxima: As there are (N-1) minima between two adjacent principal maxima there must
be (N-2) other maxima between two principal maxima. These are known as secondary maxima. To find their
positions

𝑑𝐼 sin 𝛼 2 sin 𝑁𝛽 𝑁 cos 𝑁𝛽 sin 𝛽 − sin 𝑁𝛽 cos 𝛽

= (𝐴 ) 2( )[ ]=0
𝑑𝛽 𝛼 sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽

only
 ............(5)

The roots of the above equation other than those for which give the positions of secondary maxima

The eqn (5) can be written as

From the triangle we have

Since intensity of principal maxima is proportional to N2,

Hence if the value of N is larger, then the secondary maxima will be weaker and becomes negligible
when N becomes infinity.
Formation of Spectra with Grating:

The principle maxima in a grating are formed in direction given by

Where

(e + d )  the grating element,

‘n’ the order of the maxima and

the wavelength of the incident light.

 For a given wavelength the angle of diffraction is different for principal maxima of different
orders.
 For white light and for a particular order n, the light of different wavelengths will be diffracted in
different directions.

The longer the wavelength, greater is the angle of diffraction. So in each order, we will get the spectra having as
many lines as the wavelength in the light source.

At centre (n = 0, zero order) gives the maxima of all wavelengths. So here different wavelengths
coincide to form the central image of the same colour as that the light source.

Similarly the principal maxima of all wavelengths corresponding to n = 1 will form the first order spectrum, the
principal maxima of all wavelengths corresponding to n = 2, will form the second order spectrum and so on.
From this we conclude that

Important characteristics of grating spectra:

1. Spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides of zero order.
2. Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp.
3. Spectral colours are in the order from Violet to Red.
4. Spectral lines are more dispersed as we go to higher orders.
5. Most of the incident intensity goes to zero order and rest is distributed among the other orders.

Maximum number of orders formed by a Grating:

The principal maxima in a grating satisfy the condition

Or

The maximum angle of diffraction is 90o, hence the maximum possible order is given by

Ex: Consider a grating having grating element which is less than twice the wavelength of the incident light,
then

i.e., only the first order is possible.

Absent spectrum with a diffraction grating:

Sometimes it happens that the first order spectrum is clearly visible, second order is not visible and third order is
again visible, i.e., the second order is absent, and so on. This happens when for a given angle of diffraction θ , the
path difference between the diffracted rays from the two extreme ends of one slit is equal to an integral multiple
of λ. Suppose the path difference is λ , then each slit can be considered to be made up of two halves, the path
difference between the secondary waves from the corresponding points in the two halves will be l / 2 . Now they
will cancel one another resulting zero intensity.

We know that, in case of a grating the principal maxima are obtained in the directions given by

Also, in case of a single slit, the minima are obtained in the directions given by

If both the conditions are satisfied simultaneously, a particular maximum of order n will be missing in the
grating spectrum. Dividing above equations we have

which is the condition of absent spectra.

If the width of the ruling is equal to the width of the slit,

the second order spectrum will be missed.

Determination of Wavelength Using Grating

In laboratory, the grating spectrum can be obtained by using a spectrometer.

Adjustments: Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made.

(1) The spectrometer is adjusted for parallel rays by Schuster’s method.

(2) The grating is adjusted for normal incidence.

Measurement of : When a white light is incident on the grating normally, the beam gets dispersed and in
each order of the spectrum we can observe constituent wavelengths ( i.e., VIBGYOR)

1. The telescope is now turned to get the first order spectrum in the field of view on left.
2. The cross-wire is adjusted on the line whose wavelength is to be determined (say on RED line)
3. Now, the readings of the two verniers are noted.
4. The telescope is then turned to the right side to receive the first order spectrum and repeat steps (2) &
(3).
5. The difference between readings of the same vernier gives twice the angle of diffraction q for that line in
first order.
6. By substituting the values of , (e + d ) and n in we can determine the
wavelength of light.

The same procedure from step (1) through (6) is repeated for second order and even in higher orders.
Width of the principal Maxima

Resolving Power:
Rayleigh Criterion of Resolution:

Statement: Two sources are resolvable by an optical instrument when the central maximum of one diffraction
pattern falls over the first minimum of the other diffraction pattern and vice versa.
For example:
Let us consider the resolution of two wavelengths and by a grating. When the difference in wavelengths is smaller
and such that the central maximum of the wavelength coincides with the first minimum of the other as shown in
figure, then the resultant intensity curve is as shown by the thick curve. The curve shows a distinct dip in the
middle of two central maxima. Thus the two wavelengths can be distinguished from one another and according
to Rayleigh they are said to be “Just Resolved”.
If the difference in wavelengths is such that their principal maxima are separately visible, then there is a distinct
point of zero intensity in between the two wavelengths. Hence according to Rayleigh they are said to
be “Resolved”.

When the difference in wavelengths is so small that the central maxima corresponding to two wavelengths come
still closer as shown in figure, then the resultant intensity curve is quite smooth without any dip. This curve is as
if there is only one wavelength somewhat bigger and stronger.

Hence according to Rayleigh the two wavelengths are “Not Resolved”.

Thus the two spectral lines can be resolved only up to a certain limit expressed by Rayleigh Criterion.

Resolving Power of Grating:

It is defined as the capacity of a grating to form separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which are very
close to each other

It is measured by where is the smallest difference in two wavelengths which are just resolvable by grating
and  is the wavelength of either of them or mean wavelength.

Let AB represent the surface of a plane transmission grating having grating element (e+d) and N total number of
slits. Let a beam of light having two wavelengths and is normally incident on the grating.
Let P1 is nth primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength at an angle of diffraction and P2 is
the nth primary maximum of wavelength at diffracting angle
According to Rayleigh criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the principal
maximum of nth order in a direction falls over the first minimum of nth order in the same
direction . Let us consider the first minimum of λ of nth order in the direction as below.

The principal maximum of in the direction is given by

........... (1)

The equation of minima is where m takes all integers except 0, N, 2N, …, nN, because
for these values of m, the condition for maxima is satisfied. Thus first minimum adjacent to nth principal
maximum in the direction can be obtained by substituting the value of ‘m’ as (nN+1). Therefore, the
first minimum in the direction of is given by

.. (2)

The principal maximum of in direction is given by

.......(3)

Dividing eqn(2) by eqn(3), we get

..............(4)

Thus the resolving power is directly proportional to

(i) The order of the spectrum ‘n’

(ii) The total number of lines on the grating ‘N’

Resolving Power of Telescope:

In telescopes, very close objects such as binary stars or individual stars of galaxies subtend very small angles on
the telescope. To resolve them we need very large apertures. We can use the Rayleigh’s to determine the
resolving power. The angular separation between two objects must be

𝝀
△θ = 1.22
𝒅
𝒅
Resolving power = 1/△θ =
𝟏.𝟐𝟐 𝝀
Thus higher the diameter d, better the resolution. The best astronomical optical telescopes have mirror
diameters as large as 10m to achieve the best resolution. Also larger wavelengths reduce the resolving power
and consequently radio and microwave telescopes need larger mirrors.
**********