Chapter 7

Intersection Design
7-1
Briefly describe the different principles involved in the design of at-grade
intersections.

The fundamental objective in the design of at-grade intersections is to

minimize the severity of potential conflicts both among different streams of traffic
and between pedestrians and turning vehicles while facilitating smooth traffic
flow. The design should therefore incorporate the operating characteristics of
both the vehicles and pedestrians using the intersection. The design of an at-grade
intersection involves the design of the alignment (horizontal and vertical) of the
intersecting roadways, the design of a suitable channeling system, the
determination of the minimum required widths of turning roadways when traffic
is expected to make turns at speeds higher than 15 mi/h, and the assurance that
sight distances are adequate for the type of control at the intersection.

7-2
Describe the different types of at-grade intersections. Also give an example of an
appropriate location for the use of each type.

The basic types of at-grade intersections are T (three-leg) intersections,

four-leg intersections, multi-leg intersections consisting of 5 or more approaches,
and traffic circles. A simple T intersection is suitable for intersections of minor
roads. Four-leg intersections are used mainly at locations where minor or local
roads crossed, although it can be used where a minor road crosses a major
highway. Multi-leg intersections should be avoided whenever possible. When a
multi-leg intersection exists, one leg should be realigned, if possible, into a T
intersection with the minor road, at a distance far enough away from the 4-leg
intersection to allow for independent operation of the intersections. Traffic circles
force traffic to use the intersection in a circular pattern, thereby transforming
crossing conflicts into merging and diverging conflicts. The neighborhood traffic
circle is placed for traffic calming purposes on local streets in residential areas to
reduce travel speeds and cut-through traffic.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-3
Describe the different types of traffic circles indicating under what conditions you
will recommend the use of each.

According to a Federal Highway Administration report, traffic circles can

be grouped into three categories: rotaries, neighborhood traffic circles, and
roundabouts. A rotary could be where maintaining high speed is important and a
large amount of right-of-way is available to accommodate the large radius
required for a rotary. A neighborhood traffic circle may be suitable at the
intersection of local streets in a low-speed situation where there is interest in
traffic calming measures; typically stop control or no control is used on the
approaches. A roundabout may be suitable for situations intermediate to the two
described above.

7-4
What are the key defining characteristics of roundabouts that distinguish them
from other traffic circles?

Roundabouts, as opposed to other types of traffic circles, have yield

control is used on the approaches, and the roundabout design speed typically does
not exceed 30 miles per hour. Conflicting traffic movements are separated by
pavement markings or channelizing islands such that vehicles are given detailed
guidance as to proper place within the roundabout. Parking is prohibited within
the roundabout to maximize capacity.

7-5
What are the main functions of channelization at an at-grade intersection?

Channelization is intended to separate conflicting traffic movements into

defined paths to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians. This can accomplish many things, including:
• Direct the paths of vehicles so that not more than two paths cross at any
one point
• Control the merging, diverging, or crossing angle of vehicles
• Decrease vehicle wander and the area of conflict among vehicles by
reducing the amount of paved area
• Provide a clear indication of the proper path for different movements
• Give priority to the predominant movements
• Provide pedestrian refuge
• Provide separate storage lanes for turning vehicles, thereby creating space
away from the path of through vehicles for turning vehicles to wait

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

• Provide space for traffic control devices so that they can be readily seen
• Control prohibited turns
• Separate different traffic movements at signalized intersections with
multiple-phase signals
• Restrict the speeds of vehicles

7-6
Discuss the fundamental general principles that should be used in designing a
channelized at-grade intersection.

There are several fundamental principles considered in channelized

intersection design. Regarding guidance to the motorist, motorists should not be
required to make more than one decision at a time. Merging and weaving areas
should be as long as possible, but other areas of conflict between vehicles should
be reduced to a minimum. Crossing traffic streams that do not weave or merge
should intersect at 90°, although a range of 60-120° is acceptable; adequate sight
distance is provided regardless of angle. Sharp reverse curves and turning paths
greater than 90° should be avoided. Separate space should be provided for
turning vehicles so that they do not interfere with the movement of through
vehicles. Prohibited turning movements should be blocked with channelized
islands wherever possible. Finally, the location of essential traffic control devices
should be considered in the design process.

7-7
Describe the different types of islands used in channelizing at-grade intersections
indicating the principal function of each type.

Traffic islands can be divided into three categories: channelizing,

divisional, and refuge. Channelizing islands control and direct traffic in merging
and diverging situations to guide motorists into the correct lanes for their
movements at the intersection. Divisional islands to divide traffic inoppposing
directions at intersections to provide clear and separate paths for each direction of
traffic. Refuge islands provide a stopping place out of the path of motorists for
pedestrians crossing wide intersections.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-8
Figure 7.25a illustrates a three-leg intersection of State Route 150 and State Route
30. Both roads carry relatively low traffic with most of the traffic oriented along
State Route 150. The layout of the intersection, coupled with the high-speed traffic
on State Route 150, have made this intersection a hazardous location. Drivers on
State Route 30 tend to violate the stop sign at the intersection because of the mild
turn onto westbound State Route 150, and they also experience difficulty in seeing
the high-speed vehicles approaching from the left on State Route 150. Design a new
layout for the intersection to eliminate these difficulties for the volumes shown in
Figure 7.25b. Design vehicle is a passenger car.

The intersection shown in the figure is a T-intersection with the two

roadways intersecting at an angle less than 90 degrees. This creates a condition
where the right turning vehicles from the minor road (SR 30) tend to violate the
stop sign because the intersection configuration causes that movement to resemble
a through movement. The intersection should be realigned so that the minor road
(SR 30) intersects SR 150 at a right angle. This will cause the minor road right-
turning vehicles to make a much more defined turn, forcing them to slow down
and stop. The realignment will clearly indicate that SR 30 is the minor road, and
by creating a perpendicular intersection, drivers turning either way from the minor
road will have improved sight lines along the major road. The following figures
show the existing intersection and proposed realignment, respectively.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-9
Figure 7.26a shows the staggered unsignalized intersection of Patton Avenue and
Goree Street. The distance between the T intersections is about 160 ft. The general
layout and striping of the lanes at this intersection result in confusion to drivers and
create multiple conflicts. Design an improved layout for the intersection for the
traffic volumes shown in Figure 7.26b. Design vehicle is a passenger car.

The staggered intersection of Patton Avenue and Goree Street will tend to
cause confusion among drivers who expect to find cross streets intersecting
perpendicularly, without the stagger as shown. The east leg of Patton Avenue
should be realigned to produce a 4-leg intersection. Doing so should reduce the
number of turning accidents, which appear to be the most common type of
accident at this location. The high number of rear end accidents should also be
reduced since motorist confusion will be reduced.

7-10
A ramp from an expressway with a design speed of 35 mi/hr connects with a local
road, forming a T intersection. An additional lane is provided on the local road to
allow vehicles from the ramp to turn right onto the local road without stopping. The
turning roadway has stabilized shoulders on both sides and will provide for a one-
lane, one-way operation with no provision for passing a stalled vehicle. Determine
the width of the turning roadway if the design vehicle is a single-unit truck. Use 0.08
for superelevation.

The first step is to determine the minimum radius of curvature for the ramp, using
Equation 3.34:

R = u2 / 15(e + fs)
R = (35)2/15(0.08+0.18)
R = 314.10 ft

From Table 7.5, determine appropriate pavement width, W, knowing that:

Operational requirements: Case I
Traffic conditions: Type B
Edge of pavement treatment: Stabilized shoulder

Using the table, interpolating for R = 314 ft, W = 15 ft

Therefore, the width of the turning roadway should be 15 ft.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-11
Determine the required width of the turning roadway in Problem 7-10 for a two-
lane operation with barrier curbs on both sides.
The first step is to determine the minimum radius of curvature for the ramp, using
Equation 3.34:

R = u2 / 15(e + fs)
R = (35)/15(0.08+0.18)
R = 314.10 ft

From Table 7.5, determine appropriate pavement width, W, knowing that:

Operational requirements: Case III
Traffic conditions: Type B
Edge of pavement treatment: Barrier curb on both sides

Using the table, interpolating for R = 314 ft, W = 28 ft: for the edge of pavement
treatment specified, add 2 ft.

Therefore, the width of the turning roadway should be 30 ft.

7-12
Repeat Problem 7-10 for a one-lane, one-way operation with provision for passing a
stalled vehicle.

The first step is to determine the minimum radius of curvature for the ramp, using
Equation 3.34:

R = u2 / 15(e + fs)
R = (35)/15(0.08+0.18)
R = 314.10 ft

From Table 7.5, determine appropriate pavement width, W, knowing that:

Operational requirements: Case II
Traffic conditions: Type B
Edge of pavement treatment: Stabilized shoulder

Using the table, interpolating for R = 314 ft, W = 20 ft

Therefore, the width of the turning roadway should be 20 ft

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-13
A four-leg intersection with no traffic control is formed by two 2-lane roads with the
speed limits on the minor and major roads being 25 and 35 mi/hr,
respectively. If the roads cross at 90° and a building is to be located at a
distance of 45 ft from the centerline of the nearest lane on the minor road,
determine the minimum distance at which the building should be located
from the centerline of the outside lane of the major road so that adequate
sight distances are provided.

To ensure sufficient sight distances for each intersection approach, a line

of sight must be provided that allows for sufficient time for a driver to perceive
and react to a vehicle on the crossing approach. The required distance (offset of
building from roadway) can be found using Table 7.7 and Equation 7.4.

db a
=
d a ( d a − b)

Given:
b = 45 ft

From Table 7.7:

da = 165 ft (major approach)
db = 115 ft (minor approach)

115 / 165 = a / (165 – 45)

a = 84 ft
The distance between the centerline of the outside lane on the major road
and the building should be 84 ft.

7-14
What are the main deficiencies of multi-leg intersections? Using a suitable diagram
show how you will correct for these deficiencies.

The main deficiencies of multi-leg intersections are associated with sight

distance and clear assignment of right-of-way. Intersections with more than four
approaches can be corrected by relocating one or more legs to intersect with
another approach away from the main intersection.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-15
A two-lane minor road intersects a two-lane major road at 90° forming a four-leg
intersection with traffic on the minor road controlled by a yield sign. A
building is located 125 ft from the centerline of the outside lane of the
major road and 35 ft from the centerline of the nearest lane of the minor
road. Determine the maximum speed that can be allowed on the minor
road if the speed limit on the major road is 45 mi/hr.

Given:
a = 125 ft
b = 35 ft

Table 7.9 discusses the different cases when different speed limits are applied on
the minor road.

When v min or = 15 mph, d b = 75 ft < a = 125 ft. Hence, there is no restriction on

the speed limit on the major road.

When v min or = 20 mph, d b = 100 ft < a = 125 ft. Hence, there is no restriction on
the speed limit on the major road.

When v min or = 25 mph, d b = 130 ft > a = 125 ft, and t g = 6.5 sec. From Equation
7.7, the sight distance along the major road should be
d a = 1.47v major t g = 1.47 × 45 × 6.5 = 430 ft

At site, the maximum sight distance along the major road can be computed using
Equation 7.4 :
d a ,mzx b
=
db (d b − a)
da, max = (130)(35)/(130-125) = 910 ft > da = 430 ft.
Hence, there is still allowance for increasing speed limit on the minor road.

When v min or = 30 mph, d b = 160 ft > a = 125 ft, and t g = 6.5 sec. From Eq. 7.7,
the sight distance along the major road should be
d a = 1.47v major t g = 1.47 × 45 × 6.5 = 430 ft
At the site, the maximum sight distance along the major road can be computed
using Equation 7.4 :
d a ,mzx b
=
db (d b − a )
da, max = (160)(35)/(160-125) = 160 ft < da = 430 ft.

Hence, the maximum speed that can be allowed on the minor road is 25 mph.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-16
If the speed limit were 40 mi/hr on the major road, and 20 mi/hr on the minor road
in Problem 7-15, determine the minimum distance that the building can be
located from the centerline of the outside lane of the major street.

Given:
b = 35 ft

In Table 7.9 and Table 7.10, the suggested length of leg on the minor road
is d b = 100 ft, and that on the major road is d a = 385 ft, when the speed limits are
40 mph on the major and 20 mph on the minor.

The minimum distance of the building from the centerline of the outside
lane of the major street along the major road can be computed using Eq. 7.4 :
db a
=
d a ( d a − b)
a = 100*(385 – 35)/385 = 91 ft

The distance from the building to the major road should be at least 91 ft.

7-17
A developer has requested permission to build a large retail store at a location
adjacent to the intersection of an undivided four-lane major road and a
two-lane minor road. Traffic on the minor road is controlled by a stop sign.
The speed limits are 35 and 50 mi/hr on the minor and major roads,
respectively. The building is to be located at a distance of 65 ft from the
near lane of one of the approaches of the minor road. Determine where the
building should be located relative to the centerline of the outside lane of
the major road in order to provide adequate sight distance for a driver on
the minor road to turn right onto the major road after stopping at the stop
line. Design vehicle is a single-unit truck. Lanes on the major road are 12 ft
wide.

Use Equation 7.5:

dISD = 1.47vmajortg
From Table 7.8, tg = (9.5 – 1.0) = 8.5 sec for a single-unit truck. No adjustment
can be made for grade on the minor road since that information is not provided.
For an undivided four-lane road, add 0.7 seconds, such that tg = 9.2 sec
dISD = 1.47vmajortg = (1.47)(50)(9.2) = 676 ft.
For practical purposes, this may be rounded to 676 ft.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-18
Repeat Problem 7-17 for an intersection of a divided four-lane major road and a
two-lane minor road, if the median width on the major road is 8 ft and the
approach grade on the minor road is 4%.

Use Equation 7.5:

dISD = 1.47vmajortg
From Table 7.8, tg = (9.5-1.0) = 8.5 sec for a single-unit truck. An
adjustment of 0.2 seconds can be made for the 4% grade on the minor road. For a
divided four-lane road, add (0.7)(1.5) = 1.05 seconds, such that tg = 8.5 + 0.2 +
1.05 = 9.75 sec
dISD = 1.47vmajortg = (1.47)(50)(9.75) = 717 ft.
For practical purposes, this may be rounded to 720 ft.

7-19
A minor road intersects a four-lane divided highway at 90° forming a T intersection.
The median width on the major road is 8 ft. The speed limits on the major and
minor roads are 55 and 35 mi/hr, respectively. Determine the minimum sight
distance required for a single unit truck on the minor road to depart from a stopped
position and turn left onto the major road.
Use Equation 7.5:
dISD = 1.47vmajortg
From Table 7.8, tg = 9.5 sec for a single-unit truck. No adjustment can be made
for grade on the minor road since that information is not provided. For a divided
four-lane road, add (0.7)(1.5) = 1.05 seconds, such that tg = 10.55 sec
dISD = 1.47vmajortg = (1.47)(55)(10.55) = 852.97 ft.
For practical purposes, this may be rounded to 860 ft.

7-20
What additional consideration should be given to the sight distances computed in
Problems 7-17 and 7-19 for the design vehicle crossing the intersection?

Minimum requirements determined for right and left turns as presented for Cases
B1 and B2 will usually satisfy the requirement for the crossing maneuver.
AASHTO, however, recommends that the available sight distance for crossing be
checked when the following conditions exist:
• when only crossing maneuver is allowed at the intersection;
• when the crossing maneuver will involve an equivalent width of more than
six lanes, or
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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

• where the vehicle mix of the crossing traffic includes a substantial number
of heavy vehicles and the existence of steep grades that may slow down these
heavy vehicles while their back portion is still in the intersection.

7-21
For the information given in Problem 7-19, determine the sight distance required by
the minor-road vehicle to safely complete a right turn onto the major road.

Use Equation 7.5

dISD = 1.47vmajortg
From Table 7.8, tg = (9.5 – 1.0) = 8.5 sec for a single-unit truck. No adjustment
can be made for grade on the minor road since that information is not provided.
For a divided four-lane road, add (0.7)(1.5) = 1.05 seconds, such that tg = 9.55 sec
dISD = 1.47vmajortg = (1.47)(55)(9.55) = 772 ft.
For practical purposes, this may be rounded to 780 ft.

7-22
Repeat Problem 7-19 for an oblique intersection with an acute angle of 35°.

The acute angle will increase the distance traveled by a vehicle making a left turn.
The original distance W1 = 12*2 + 8 = 32 ft, and the distance actually traveled is

W1 32
W2 = = = 55.8 = 56 ft
Sinθ Sin(35 o )

Hence the extra distance traveled is D = 56 – 32 = 24 ft, which is equivalent to

two lanes.
The adjustment in tg for the extra distance is 0.7*2 = 1.4 sec, such that tg = 10.55
+ 1.4 = 11.95 sec.
dISD = 1.47vmajortg = (1.47)(55)(11.95) = 966 ft.
For practical purposes, this may be rounded to 970 ft.

7-23
Briefly discuss what factors are considered in the design of an at-grade railway
crossing in addition to those for an at-grade crossing formed by two highways.

As with intersections of roadways, general design principles include the

crossing occurring at a right angle if possible and far enough from intersections
and entrances so that turning maneuvers at these locations do not affect operations

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

at the highway-rail grade crossing. Additional design criteria for the highway-rail
grade crossing include the surface of the crossing roadway at the same level as the
top of the tracks for a distance of 2 ft from the outside of the rails. Also, at a point
on the roadway 30 ft from the nearest track, the elevation of the road should not
be higher or lower than 0.25 ft than the elevation of the tracks unless this cannot
be achieved because of the superelevation of the track.

7-24
A two-lane road crosses an at-grade railroad track at 90°. If the design speed of the
two-lane road is 45 mi/hr and the velocity of the train when crossing the
highway is 80 mi/hr, determine the sight distance leg along the railroad
tracks to permit a vehicle traveling at the design speed to safely cross the
tracks when a train is observed at a distance equal to the sight distance leg.

Use Equation 7.9 to calculate the required sight distance leg along the railroad
tracks.

2
v v
d T = T (1.47v v t + v + 2 D + L + W )
vV a
30
g

dT = 80 / 45 [1.47(45)(2.5) + ((45)2 / (30)(0.35)) + 2(15) + 65 + 5]

dT = 814.63 ft

Therefore, the sight distance leg to be provided along the railroad tracks is 815 ft.

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 Chapter 7: Intersection Design

7-25
A stop sign controls all vehicles on the highway at a railroad crossing. Determine the
minimum distance a building should be placed from the centerline of the tracks to
allow a stopped vehicle to safely clear the intersection. Assume that the building is
located 40 ft from the centerline of the near lane. The velocity of trains approaching
the crossing is 85 mi/hr.

First, use Equation 7.10 to calculate the required sight distance leg along the
railroad tracks.

vg 1
d T = 1.47vT [ + (L + 2D + W − d a ) + J]
a1 vg

dT = 1.47(85) [ 8.8/1.47 + (65 + 2(15) + 5 - 26.3) 1/8.8 + 2]

dT = 2,044 ft

Equation 7.4 can then be used to solve for the distance between the building and
the centerline of the railroad tracks.

db a
=
d a ( d a − b)

where b = 40 ft, da = 2044 ft, and db is assumed to be 15 ft.

a = (2044-40)(15)/2044
a = 14.7 ft

The building should be located at least 14.7 ft from the railroad tracks.

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