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CHAPTER - 11
Steam Engines and Condenser
1. Introduction:
The steam engine utilizes steam as the working medium to convert heat energy into
mechanical energy. The energy contained in steam can be transformed into mechanical
energy either in rotary type of machines or in reciprocating types. The term steam engine
is generally applied to reciprocating types
Steam engines are one of the two basic types of heat engines, namely, (i) External
Combustion engine and (ii) Internal Combustion engine. Since Heat in Steam Engines is
added externally to form the working fluid, steam, they fall in the category of External
Combustion type.
The Steam Engines of old class were earlier used as stationary prime movers and in
locomotives and ships but now a days they are being replaced by Steam Turbines, Diesel
Engines and Gas Turbines.
2. Steam Engine Plant:
A steam engine plant mainly consists of three units namely, (i) the Boiler, (ii) the Steam
Engine and (iii) the Condenser. The steam from the boiler is admitted into a steam chest
from where it enters the engine cylinder through a valve driven by an eccentric on the
engine crankshaft. After expansion in the engine cylinder and doing work on the piston,
the steam is exhausted into a condenser where it is condensed and returned as feed water
to the boiler, thus the heat cycle is completed. Most of the steam engines are double
acting, i.e. steam is admitted in turn to each side of the piston and two working strokes
are produced during each revolution of the crankshaft.
2.1 Classification of Steam Engines:
Steam Engines may be classified in following manners:
1) By position of the axis of the cylinder:
• Vertical,
• Horizontal or
• Inclined.
2) According to the action of steam upon the piston:
• Single-acting or
• Double acting
3) By number of cylinder used in which steam expands:
• Single expansion (expansion in one cylinder) or
• Multiple expansion (expansion in more than one cylinder)
4) By method of removal of exhaust steam:
• Condensing or
• Non-condensing
5) By magnitude of rotate speed:
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• Low Speed,
• Medium Speed or
• High speed engines.
6) By type of valve used:
• D-Slide valve,
• Corliss valve or
• Drop valve
7) By use or field of application:
• Stationary Steam Engine,
• Portable - Locomotive, Marine Steam Engine etc.

2.2 Steam Engine Parts:

The parts of steam engine may be broadly divided into two groups:
1. Stationary parts such as Engine Base or Bed Plate, Engine Frame, Cylinder, Steam
Chest, Stuffing Box, Cross Head Guides and Main Bearings and
2. Moving parts such as Piston & Piston Rod, Cross Head, Connecting Rod,
Crankshaft, Flywheel, Slide Valve & Valve Rod, Eccentric & Eccentric Rod and
Governor are moving parts. Each of these parts has distinct functions.
2.3 Steam Engine Terms:
The following terms should be properly understood to help solving the examples of steam
engines.
1. The cylinder bore is the inside diameter of the cylinder or the liner.
2. The end of cylinder, which is far from crank, is known as ‘Head End’ or ‘Front
End’ - in case of Horizontal Engines, ‘Top End’ - in case of Vertical Engines and the
end of cylinder, which is near to crank is known a ‘Crank End’ and/or ‘Back End’
in case of Horizontal Engines and ‘Bottom End’ - in case of Vertical Engines.
3. The piston stroke is the distance traveled through by the piston from one end of
Cylinder to the other end, while the crank is making half a revolution.
The forward stroke or out stroke is made by the piston while it moves from the
head end to the crank end.
The returns stroke or in stroke are made while the piston travels from the crank
end to the head end.
4. The crank throw or crank radius is the distance between the center of the crankshaft
and the center of the crank pin. (This distance is equal to half the travel of the Piston)
5. The piston displacement or swept volume is the volume swept by the piston while
moving from one end of cylinder to the other end, while the crank makes half revolution.
6. The average linear piston speed is the rate of motion of piston expressed in meters per
minute (m/min). It is equivalent to the product of the piston stroke (l) in metres and the
number of revolutions of the engine per minute (N), i.e., Piston Speed = 2 × l × n metres
per minute.
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7. The dead centers are the positions of the piston at the ends of the stroke when the
center lines of the piston rod the connecting rod & the crank are in the same straight
line. There are two such dead centers, one for each end of the piston stroke. For
Horizontal Engines the two Dead Centres are known as Inner Dear Centre and Outer
Dead Center. For Vertical Engines, the two Dead Centres are known as Top Dear
Centre and Bottom Dear Centre.
8. The linear piston clearance is the short distance between the piston & cylinder cover
when the crank is on the dead centers.
9. Clearance volume is the volume of the space between the piston and the cylinder
cover, when the piston is at the end of the stroke, plus the volume of the steam port
leading to this space. It is expressed in m 3 or cm3 but normally in % of the volume
swept by the piston.
Clearance volume is provided:
(i) To remove the danger of piston striking the cylinder head,
(ii) To allow small quantity of water to be collected in the space without excessive
rise of pressure,
(iii) The steam in the clearance volume provides soft cushion for bringing the fast
moving piston to rest at the end of stroke, thus cushioning is possible due to steam
in the clearance space.
10. The back pressure is the pressure of exhaust steam on the piston, which is being
removed from the cylinder through the exhaust port. The back pressure resists
the motion of piston which results in the reduction of net work done on the piston
during stroke. (The exhaust steam may be either exhausted to atmosphere or in the
condenser).

2.4 Slide Valve Terms:

The following three terms are applicable in case of Slide Valves:
a) The eccentric throw or eccentricity of the eccentric is the distance from center of
the eccentric to the center of the crank shaft on which it is mounted.
b) The valve travel is the total distance that the valve travels in one direction that is
without changing its direction of motion. (The valve travel will be equal to twice the
throw of eccentric).
c) Lap, Lead & angle of advance:
Please refer Fig.no.1& 2
Now, the Angle of Advance is the angle ‘α’ by which the Eccentric Centre is in advance
of the crank.

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Fig 1

fig 2
Assuming the valve to have simple harmonic motion,
Sin α= (S + t)/r ----------------------------------(1)
and Maximum Port Opening to Steam = r-s--------(2)
where, s = Steam Lap or Outside Lap
t = Lead and
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r = throw of the eccentric sheave.

3. Expansive Working of Steam:

If the steam is supplied throughout the whole length of the piston stroke, the pressure of
the steam on the piston remains constant and consequently the work done per stroke,
represented by area ABCE is the highest for a given size of a cylinder. (as shown fig 3)
But this method is very costly as quantity or weight of steam supplied is increased. In
turn, efficiency can be increased by supplying high pressure steam only during a part
of piston stroke and then this steam is to be allowed to expand during the remaining
stroke. For example if steam supply is cut off at half the stroke, the work done is
equivalent to area ABCDF, which is relatively only slightly smaller compared to
reduction in the steam required. Thus, it is economical to make use of the expansive
working of steam. Thus, engines using expansive working of steam develop greater
power per unit mass of steam; consequently their efficiency is also higher.

Fig 3

3.1 Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram:

An indicator diagram is plot of steam pressure in the cylinder on the basis of steam
volume during the cycle of operations. It is constructed considering the law,
PV=constant.
The diagram, which is shown in FIG-4, is known as theoretical or hypothetical
Indicator diagram because of following certain assumptions:
1) The opening & closing of parts is sudden,
2) There is no pressure drop due to condensation,
3) There is no pressure drop due to wire-drawing, which is due to restricted port or
valve opening,
4) There is no compression to create the cushioning effect on the piston at the end of the
Stroke,
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5) The steam is admitted at boiler pressure and is exhausted at atmospheric or
condenser pressure,
6) The expansion of steam is hyperbolic following the law, PV = Constant and
7) The clearance volume is neglected.

Fig-4

In Fig-4 Steam is admitted at a point which is called Point of Admission. Steam is

supplied at constant pressure ‘p’ up to point ‘b’, which is the Point of Cut-off. Steam then
expands in the cylinder with reduction in pressure upto point ‘c’ (here, PV=constant). At
point ‘c’, release of steam takes place upto point‘d’, and pressure falls almost
instantaneously to exhaust pressure or back pressure Pb Exhaust takes place at this
pressure.
As per thermodynamic laws, expansion of an ideal diagram is adiabatic, but such a
condition never truly occurs in practice, as some of the steam condenses before cut-off
takes place and steam is always more or less wet at the beginning of expansion, unless
the steam is highly superheated at admission. Condensation also proceeds during part
of the expansion and then a certain amount of re-evaporation occurs towards the end of
expansion. Due to all these, expansion curve will not be exactly similar to an adiabatic
curve but very close to PV = Constant.
3.2 Theoretical (Hypothetical) Mean Effective Pressure.
In the diagrams below, pressure & volume are plotted in kg/cm2 & m3, therefore area of
P-V diagram represents work done in kg-m.
To find out mean effective pressure, we have to consider two cases, as follows:

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Fig 5.

1) Considering hypothetical indicator diagram without clearance and compression (fig.5).

In that case:
Work done per cycle
= area of the hypothetical indicator diagram
= area a-b-c-d-e
=area a-b-g-o plus area b-c-f-g minus area d-e-o-f
=p1v1 + p1v1 loge(v2/v1) – pbv2
=p1v1 [1+ loge(v2/v1)] – pbv2 / v2
Hypothetical m.e.p
= Area of hypothetical indicator diagram/ length of the base of the hypothetical
indicator diagram.
= [work done per cycle / volume swept]
=p1v1 [{1+ loge(v2/v1)} – pbv2] / v2
= p1 (v1/v2) [1+ loge(v2/v1)] – pb
v2/v1 = r (expansion ratio)
Hypothetical m.e.p. = P1/r {1+loger)}-pb kg/cm2
Here, p1= Admission pressure in kg/cm2ab
pb= Back pressure in kg/cm2 ab
v1= Volume of steam in the cylinder at cut off &
v2= Swept volume i.e. volume of steam at the end of expansion.
Also, v1/v2=1/r = cut off ratio.

2) The hypothetical indicator diagram considering clearance & compression (FIG-6).

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Fig 6
The compression starts at ‘e’ and finishes at ‘f’ which is also the Point of Admission.
The admission is continued up to ‘b’. The expansion curve is represented by ‘bc’; ‘c’
is the Point of Release and ‘de’ is exhaust line. The compression curve is represented
by ‘ef’. The expansion and compression curves are assumed to be hyperbolic.
Net work done per cycle
= area a-b-c-d-e-f
=area a-b-s-r plus area b-c-w-s minus area e-d-w-t minus area f-e-t-r

= p1* kv + p1(kv+cv ) + loge[(v+cv)/(kv+cv)] – pb (v–xv)

– pb (xv+cv ) loge[xv +cv / cv]
Thus, hypothetical m.e.p.
= work done per cycle / swept volume
= v [ p1 { k + (k + c) loge( (1+c)/k+c))} – pb {(1- x)(x+c)loge(x+c / c)}] / v
since k = 1/r

Hypothetical m.e.p. = p1 l/r + (l/r + c) loge (l+c)/(l/r +c) - pb ---- (4)

where, p1, pb, r as in equation/formulae (3)

and c = fractional ratio of clearance volume to swept volume
Here, compression effect is neglected) & if the effect of clearance volume is also
neglected i.e. c=on we will get Hypothetical e.p. = p1/r {1+log e r} -pb which is same
as equation (3)

3.3 Point of Cut-off:

It is the point at which the supply of steam to the cylinder is closed. Cut-off Ratio is
expressed as the ratio of the volume of steam in the cylinder when the piston is at the
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point of cut-off & the volume of steam in the cylinder when the piston is at the end of the
stroke. If the clearance is not considered, while taking the volume of steam at the point of
cut-off & at the end of the stroke, the cut-off is known as ‘Apparent Cut-off
∴ Apparent Cut-off Ratio = kv/v = k =1 ---- (5)
and if the clearance is taken into account , this ratio is known as Real Cut-off.
∴ Real cut-off ratio =kv+cv/v+cv =k+c/1+c --- (6)
3.4 Ratio of Expansion:
It is the ratio of the volume of steam at the end of the stroke and the volume of steam at
the point of cut-off.
It is the reciprocal of the cut-off ratio.
Also, if clearance volume is not considered, it is called apparent ratio of expansion
∴Apparent Expansion Ratio =v/kv=1/K= r ---- (7)
and if clearance volume is considered, it is called as real ratio of expansion
∴ Real Expansion Ratio = v+cv/kv+cv = l+c/k+c ---- (8)
3.5 Cylinder Condensation:
If saturated steam is brought in contact with a surface colder than the temperature of the
steam, condensation of steam begins immediately, and steam gives up part of its latent
heat and becomes water. As exhaust steam from cylinder is comparatively cool and
having low pressure, it also cools the cylinder walls.
These cooled walls also condense the fresh hot steam. This is called the Process of
Cylinder Condensation, due to which, a thin film of water is formed on the walls of the
cylinder. The heat received by the cylinder walls from the fresh hot steam will be given
back to the deposited film of water during the time the steam expands and consequently
fall in temperature after the cut-off takes place. The condensation thus takes place
generally only during the early part of the admission stroke, re-evaporation occurs partly
towards the end of the expansion stroke and partly during exhaust stroke.

3.5.1 Methods of Reducing Condensation:

The following methods are adopted to reduce the amount of steam condensation in the
cylinder.
(1) Obtaining the steam from the boiler in superheated state and logging the steam pipe
from boiler to engine by non-conducting material such as asbestos.
(2) `Jacketing’ the cylinder with hot steam from the boiler.
(3) Compounding the cylinder and thereby reducing the range of variation of
temperature in each cylinder.

3.5.2 Actual Indicator Diagram:

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Fig.7
Here, we can see that the area of the actual indicator diagram is lesser than the area of the
hypothetical indicator diagram. The ratio between the areas of these diagrams is known as
the Diagram Factor. Thus,
∴ Diagram factor, f = Area of actual indicator diagram
Area of hypothetical indicator diagram
= Mean height of actual indicator diagram
Mean height of hypothetical indicator diagram
= m.e.p. from actual indicator diagram ------------------ (9)
m.e.p. from hypothetical indicator diagram
3.6 Power of a Steam Engine:
Power is the rate of doing work and the unit of power is the "Horse-power" which is
equivalent to 4500 kg-m of work done in one minute or 75 kg-m of work done in one
second. Or In S I units [44145 N-M/minute OR 1 H.P.=[735.75 N-M /SEC
For any kind of moving machine, there are three types of
1) Indicated horsepower (IHP)
2) Brake horsepower (BHP)
3) Friction horse-power (FHP)

3.6.1 Indicated Horse-Power (IHP):

The power developed in the cylinder of any engine is commonly known as indicated
horsepower (i.e. it is the rate of doing work on the moving piston in the cylinder)
pm = actual m.e.p. of steam in kg/cm2 (mks) or N/m2 (SI)
a = area of the piston in cm2 or m2(SI)
l = length of piston stroke in meter & (MKS&SI)
N = number of revolutions made by the engine per minute or rps (SI)

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∴The driving force on the piston during a stroke
= pm x a kg.& work done per stroke
= pm x a x l kg-m
Since, two working strokes are obtained in one revolution in a double-acting steam
engine,
The work-done on the piston per minute
= pm x a x l x 2 x N = 2 x pm x a x l x N kg-m.
( 1Joule = 1 N-M )
∴ I.H.P = 2 x pm x a x l x N ----------(10)
4500
and I.H.P. = 2 x pm x a x l x N watts (in SI units)
If the area of the piston-rod is considered, the effective area of the piston on the
crack end is π/4 x (a2-d2) cm2 or m2 where, d = dia. of the piston and d1 = dia. of the
piston -rod
∴I.H.P. = {pm1 x π/4 x d2 + pm2 x π/4 (d2-d12)} l x N --------(10b)
4500
3.6.2 Brake Horsepower (B.H.P.)

Fig 8
The actual power available from the engine for doing useful work is termed as the
brake horse power or shaft horse -power, The BHP of an engine can be determined by a
brake of some kind applied to the brake pulley of the engine. The arrangements for the
determination of BHP of the engine are known as dynamometers.
Dynamometer are broadly divided in to two classes
1) Absorption dynamometers
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2) Transmission dynamometers
In Absorption dynamometers, the power available from the engine is observed in the
form of friction at the brakes. In transmission dynamometer, the power available
from the engine is not wasted in friction but it transmits the power & measures it at the
same time.
In case of Absorption brake dynamometers, they may be either
- Rope brake dynamometers
- Prony brake dynamometers
If it is Rope brake dynamometer.
Then, frictional torque = the resisting force x arm
= (W-S) X R Kg-M
Where, R = (D+d ) & D= dia. of the brake wheel
2 d= dia of the brake rope
W & S as shown in figure.
If N = number of revolutions made by the engine per minute, then the number of
radians per minute = 2 π N
The work absorbed (done) per minute = (W-S) x R x 2 π N

BHP = (W-S)R X 2 π N OR TORQUE X 2 π N

4500 4500 -----------------(11a)
Now if it is prony brake dynamometer,
F = frictional resistance at circumference of the wheel
W = net load on the wheel in kg
r = radius of the wheel in metre
R = Length of the brake arm in metre which is the distance between the center of the
wheel of the point of application of the load W.
N =number of revolutions of engine shaft per minute.
Frictional torque = F x r kg -m
Work done per minute = F x R x 2 π N kg-m
Using principle of moments, F x r = W x R
Work done per minute = W R x 2 x N kg-m
B.H.P. = WR x2 π N OR TORQUE X 2xN
4500 4500 -----------(11b)

and in S I Units,
B.H.P. = (W-S) x R x 2πN Watts ( 1 NM/SEC =1 Watt) OR
B.H.P. = TORQUE x 2πN Watts
Where, W-S = net load on the brake wheel in Newton
R = effective radius of the wheel in metre
N = no. revolution of engine crankshaft per second (i.e. r.p.s.)
2πN = number of radian per second.

3.6.3Friction Horse-Power (F.H.P.):

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A portion of the power developed in the engine cylinder is absorbed in overcoming the
friction of the moving parts of the engine itself. The remainder is available for doing the
required work. The power absorbed in overcoming the frictional resistance of the
moving parts of the engine is termed as Frictional horse-power (F.H.P.) & it can be given
as
F.H.P. = I.H.P. - B.H.P.------------> (12)
3.7 Efficiency of Steam Engines:
For any type of steam engine, there are mainly three types of efficiencies
(1) Mechanical efficiency
(2) Thermal efficiency
(3) Overall efficiency

3.7.1 Mechanical Efficiency: (ηM)

This efficiency takes into account the energy loss due to the friction of the moving parts
of the engine. So, Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power output of the
engine, as measured by the brake, to the power developed by the steam in the engine
cylinder, as obtained from the indicator diagram.
It is the ratio of the B.H.P. to I.H.P.
∴ ηm = B.H.P. = I.H.P.-F.H.P. ----------------(13)
I.H.P. I.H.P.
The ηm of high-speed steam engines at full load is generally @ 80 to 90 % & with
forced lubrication, it may be still higher.
3.7.2 Thermal Efficiency:
The thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the heat converted into useful work to the
heat supplied. The useful work obtained may be worked out either from I.H.P. or B.H.P.
If the heat equivalent of I.H.P. developed by the engine is considered as the output. the
efficiency is called as Indicated Thermal Efficiency.
i.e.
Indicated thermal efficiency ηI = Heat equivalent of IHP per min.
Heat supplied in steam per min.
or ηi = IHP x 4500 ----------(14a)
J x Ws (H1-h2)

Where, Ws= Steam consumption in kg per minute

H1= Enthalpy of 1 kg of steam supplied
h2= Enthalpy of 1 kg of water of exhaust steam
J= Mechanical equivalent of heat.
If the output is taken as the heat equivalent of BHP, the efficiency is called Brake
Thermal Efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency ηb= Heat equivalent of BHP per min.

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Heat supplied in steam per min.
ηb = BHP x 4500 ---------(15a)
J x Ws (H1-h2)
In SI Units
ηi = Heat equivalent of indicated power in kJ/sec
Heat supplied in steam in kJ/sec
= Indicated power in kW ----------------------------(14b)
Ws (H1-h2)
and
ηb= Heat equivalent of brake power in kJ/sec
Heat supplied in steam in kJ/sec
= Brake power in kW ----------------------------(15b)
Ws (H1-h2)
In both cases,
Ws= Steam consumption in kg/sec
H1= enthalpy of 1 kg of steam supplied in kJ/kg and
h2= enthalpy of 1 kg of water of exhaust steam in kJ/kg
Mechanical efficiency may also be given as:
ηm = Brake thermal efficiency = (ηi / ηb) --------------------(16)
Indicated thermal efficiency
3.7.3 Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a steam engine plant is defined as the ratio of the power
output of the engine as measured by the brake, to the heat energy supplied by the fuel.
∴Overall efficiency to steam engine Plant =Heat equivalent of BHP per min
Heat supplied by fuel per min
ηo =BHP x 4500 ------(17a) (In MKS)
J x wf x C.V.
Where, wf = weight of fuel supplied/burnt to the boiler per minute.
C.V. = calorific value of fuel used in the boiler (kcal/kg)
J = mechanical equivalent of heat
and
ηo= Brake power in kW --------(17b)
wf x C V.

4. Condensers:
The Work done in any heat engine is directly proportional to the temp. range of the
working fluid in the engine, OR For greater amount of expansion of working fluid,
greater will be the work done. In case of steam engines, the lower limit of expansion
(or exhaust) may be decreased below the atmospheric pressure. This is done by

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exhausting the steam into a closed vessel called condenser. In condenser exhaust
steam is condensed & vacuum is maintained in it.
Steam condenser is an appliance in which the steam exhausted from a steam engine
is condensed.
Condenser is installed such that the exhaust steam from a Steam Engine is delivered into
it. In the condenser, the heat is removed from the exhausted steam in form of latent heat
by means of cooling water which absorbs this latent heat. The exhaust steam after losing
its latent heat changes its state into water, which is termed as Condensate, and this
process is called as condensation.
In effect a Condenser is a heat exchanger wherein the exhaust steam of a Steam Engine is
condensed either in direct or indirect contact with cooling water through a heat transfer
medium separating them.
Condenser in power plant:
When the steam has completed its work in the turbine and before it can be returned to the
boiler, it is necessary to change it back into water. This is the duty the condenser must
perform as efficiently as possible and, for this reason, it is the largest and most important
of the heat exchangers in a power station. The heat in the exhaust steam, which can no
longer be converted into mechanical energy, must be transferred from the steam to the
cooling water.
4.1 Functions of a Condenser:
By designing the turbine to exhaust into a condenser which maintains a pressure lower
than atmospheric there are three important advantages to be gained.
1) Saving in steam :
There is a big reduction in the amount of steam required to generate each unit of
electricity by using a condenser. In a turbine without a condenser the lowest pressure to
which the steam can be expanded is that of the atmosphere. It can be said that in this case
the back pressure against which the steam is exhausted is atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the pressure which would support a column of
mercury approximately 760 mm high.
If the last stages of the turbine were under vacuum, and the back pressure reduced by a
condenser to 68 mbar, then the steam would be able to continue its expansion down to 68
mbar. During this expansion each pound of steam is capable of doing a great deal more
work. For example, in a 62 bar turbine with a back pressure 51mbar, the steam does
nearly 30% of its work as it expands below atmospheric pressure. Thus the use of a
condenser brings considerable saving.

2) Conservation of pure feed water :

Very large quantities of steam pass though a turbine, for example, a 660 MW machine on
full load uses some 532 kg/sec. It would, of course, be not only very wasteful but almost
impracticable to allow this vast amount of steam to be exhausted to atmosphere. By using
a condenser the exhaust steam is converted back to hot water which is removed from the

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condenser for continuous use in the power station heat cycle. This water is known as
condensate. It being free from impurities and non-condensable gases, does not produce
corrosive action and also it being hot (@ 40-50 C), saves a considerable amount of fuel.
Thus the overall efficiency of the plant is increased.

3) Deaeration of make-up water:

Due to leakage, blowing down, steam sootblowing, etc., some of the feed water in the
boiler/turbine system is lost, and must be made-up.
Make-up water is usually supplied from Reserve Feed Water (RFW) tanks, where the air
in contact with the water surface introduces oxygen into the RFW. Dissolved oxygen in
feed water must be kept to the lowest practicable minimum, since oxygen causes
corrosion of tubes and turbine internals.
The most convenient method of removing oxygen form the make-up water is to admit
this water to the condenser, where due to the very low pressure and corresponding low
boiling point, the water flashes off to steam, and dissolved oxygen separates off to be
removed with other air and gases by the air-ejectors.

4.2 Elements of a condensing plant:

The auxiliaries, which are essentially required for the proper functioning of a condensing
plant, are known as elements of a condensing plant. Figure below shows Condensing
plant lay-out.
The main elements of a condenser are:
1) A Condenser where steam is condensed,
2) A Hotwell in which the condensate is collected.
3) A Pump for circulating Cooling Water,
4) A supply of Circulating Cooling Water,
5) An air pump (or ejector) to remove air and non-condensing gases from the condenser,
6) A Condensate Pump (extraction pump) to remove Condensate from the condenser and
7) A Feed Pump for supplying feed water from Deaerator to the boiler.

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Fig 9. Elements of a condensing plant

4.3 Classification of Condensers

The Jet condensers are classified as:
1). Parallel flow condensers
2). Contra-flow condensers
3). Barometric condensers (High level jet condensers)
4). Ejector condensers
The surface condensers are classified as;
1). Down flow surface condensers
2). Central flow surface condensers
3). Inverted type surface condensers
4). Regenerative surface condensers
5). Evaporative condensers
4.4 Jet condenser :
It is a direct contact heat exchanger in which steam to be condensed comes into direct
contact with the cooling water (cold condensate) which is usually introduced in the form
of a spray from a jet (fig.10). Upon contact with cooling water, the steam gives its
enthalpy and gets cooled and ultimately settles as condensate.

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Fig . 10
4.4.1 Parallel flow jet condenser:
There are two types :
1). Low level parallel flow jet condenser
2). High level parallel flow jet condenser (Barometric condenser).
1). Low level parallel flow jet condenser
Exhaust steam is introduced from the top of the condenser while cold condensate is
sprayed upon it through multiple jets. As steam comes in contact with cold condensate
particles, it s enthalpy drops and it settles at the bottom as condensate. Vacuum is
maintained in the condenser with the aid of a dry air pump which also extracts air present
in the condenser. The condensate collected at the bottom is cooled in the condensate
cooler by cooling water and is partly recycled and partly sent as boiler feedwater.

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Fig.11 Low level parallel flow jet condenser

2). High level parallel flow jet condenser (Barometric condenser).

The condenser is mounted on a long pipe (at least 10.34 m) called a barometric leg which
acts identical to a barometer.
Now if water is used in the barometer then the barometric weight would be 10.34 m. If
some vacuum exists in the condenser, the height of water column (h) will be less than
10.34 m. Now it is possible , by using this condenser leg, to drain away the condensate
from the condenser.
This vacuum is maintained by constant high level discharge from the atmospheric tan
through the atmospheric leg that dips deeply into water in the atmospheric tank.

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Fig. 12
High level parallel flow jet condenser (Barometric condenser).

4.4.2 Contra-flow jet condenser:

Two types :
1) Low level contra-flow jet condenser
2) High level contra-flow jet condenser

1) Low level contra-flow jet condenser

Exhaust steam enters the condenser near the bottom and moves up through a pipe P. As it
goes up, it comes in direct contact with cold condensate distributed into the condenser
through perforated trays T1,T2 and T3 (fig 13).
Vacuum is maintained through an air suction pump. Condensate collected at the bottom is
partly sent as BFW and the rest is recycled via the condensate cooler

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Fig 13
.
The efficiency of low-level contra-flow jet condenser is more because the hottest steam
comes in contact with the hottest water. So as steam goes more and more up, it comes
into contact with more and more colder condensate and that enhances the steam
condensation.
2) High level contra-flow jet condenser
The condenser is placed 10.34 m above the hot-well. The condenser is operated at a
pressure somewhat les than atmospheric pressure such that the water level in the tail pipe
remains always below 10.34 m. And therefore, any steam condensing to the condensate is
spontaneously drained off. (fig 14)

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Fig 14.
4.4.3 Ejector condenser:

Fig .15

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It is a kind of jet condenser in which mixing of cooling water and steam takes place in a
series of combining cones and the kinetic energy of the steam is expended to drain of the
condensate and cooling water from the condenser (fig 15)

4.5 Surface condensers

It is also known as Non-mixing type of condenser as in this type of condenser the
exhaust steam and the cooling water do not come in direct contact with each other.
Surface condenser is a shell & tubes type of heat exchanger where normally c.w. is on the
tube side & exhaust steam is on the shell side. It is generally used where large quantity of
inferior quality water is available & condensate formed from exhaust steam is to be
recalculated to be used in boiler. This results in considerable saving in make-up water
to boiler.
If we think thermodynamically, in surface condenser, the latent heat of exhaust steam
is being removed there by converting it into hot condensate.
The surface condenser requires three (or two) pumps -- one for circulating c.w. one for
extracting the condenser & the third one is for removing air from condenser. In case of
third pump, we can use steam ejector.
The surface condensers may be classified according to
(a) No. of water posses : single or multipass
(b) Direction of condensate flow and tube and tube arrangement down flow, central flow.
In all surface condensers the c.w. is passed through the tubes & steam surrounds the
tube. the volume occupied by these tubes in the condenser shell is hardly 10% of the
total shell volume due to very large volume of exhaust steam. A good surface
condenser should have a low-pressure drop, maximum effective surface arrangement
and should be economical in first cost.
In modern condensers, a steam bypass line is provided along the side of the shell to
pass steam to the hotwell for reheating the condensate, This also helps for deaeration of
condensate before use in boiler.
The rise in temp. of the c.w. passing through the condenser is maximum 10 degree C
therefore, quantity of water & surface are condenser causing the heat flow required are
large for calculation purpose, we can write.
Heat given away by steam = Heat gain by c.w.

Following are the types of surface condensers:

4.5.1 Down flow type :
Exhaust steam is admitted to the top of the condenser which is tube-and-shell type
crossflow heat exchanger. Cooling water flows through the tubes and extracts heat from
the steam which is on the shell-side. After having condensed on the surface of the water
tubes, steam is converted into condensate which is discharged from the condenser bottom.
(fig 16)

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Fig. 16

4.5.2 Central flow type surface condenser :

Fig. 17
It is also a shell-and-tube type crossflow heat exchanger, at the centre of which is located
the suction of an air extraction pump so that the entire steam moves radially inward and
comes in better contact with the outer surface of the best of tubes through which the
cooling water flows. The steam condensate is extracted from the bottom by the
condensate-extraction pump.(fig.17)
4.5.3 Inverted type surface condenser:
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Steam is admitted at the bottom and flows upward in cross-flow with the cooling water
flowing in the tubes. The air extraction pump draws its suction from the top of the
condenser, maintaining a steady upward current of steam which after having been
condensed on the outer surface of the water tubes is removed by the condensate
extraction pump.
4.5.4 Evaporative condenser:

Fig 18
Exhaust steam is condensed inside the finned tubes as cooling water rains down from the
to through the nozzles. Apart of the cooling water in contact with the tube surface
evaporates by drawing enthalpy from the steam which upon losing its latent heat
condenses and discharges out as condensate.(fig 18)
4.6 Comparison between Jet and Surface Condensers:
The comparison is as under:
S. Jet Condenser Surface Condenser
No.
1. Exhaust steam and C.W. are in direct Exhaust steam and C.W. are not directly in
contact with each other contact with each other.
2. The condensate may not be used as The condensate is generally used as feed
feed water. water.
3. Vacuum seldom exceeds 65 cm Hg Very high vacuum can be created, so higher
plant efficiency.
4. Lesser quantity of C.W. is required Sufficient quantity of C.W. is required.

5. It is simple and less costly It is costly as compared to Jet condenser.

6. The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is high.

4.7 Condenser Efficiency

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The condenser efficiency may be defined as the ratio of temperature rise of cooling
water to the difference between the temperature corresponding to vacuum and the inlet
temperature of the cooling water.
i.e. ηc = Temperature rise of cooling water ( ∆Tc.w)
Temperature corresponding to vacuum-Inlet temp.of c.w.
OR
ηc = Temperature rise of cooling water ( ∆Tc.w)
Sat. Temp. corresponding to abs. pressure - Inlet temp of c.w.
4.8 Weight of cooling water required:
For condensation of steam in condenser, weight of C.W. required may be found out as
follows:
Let, W = Wt. of c.w. required per kg of steam
ti = Inlet temp. of c.w.
to =Outlet temp of c.w.
H =Total heat (enthalpy) of 1 kg of entering steam
h = Sensible heat of water at pr. of entering steam.
x = dryness fraction of entering steam.
L= latent heat of entering steam.
h1= total heat (enthalpy) of condensate.
H = h + xL
Heat lost by 1 kg of steam= H-h1 kcal-->(a) &
Heat gained by c.w. = W (to-ti) kcal---> (b)
Comparing (a) & (b)
W (to-ti) = H-h1
W = H-h1 ---------(19)
(to-ti)
4.9 Sources of air in condensers and effects of such air leakage.
The different sources of air in condenser are:
1). The dissolved air in the water, which is supplied to the boiler. This air is taken along
with the exhaust steam to the condenser.
2). Due to the high vacuum inside the condenser, the air may leak into the condenser
through various joints etc.
3). The air enters into the jet condenser, along with the mixing injected water. The
presence of air in the condenser produces the following effects on condenser & its
performance.

Following are the effects of such leakage of air in condenser:

1). Air leakage reduces the vacuum in the condenser.
2). Larger the air leakage, greater will be the capacity of the vacuum pump required o
exact it, hence more power wastage.
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3). Presence of air in condenser increases the corrosive action of Oxygen in Boiler.
4). Leakage of air reduces the rate of transmission because of its poor conductivity.
4.10 Desirable features of good condensing plant:
The desirable features of a good condenser are:
1). Minimum quantity of circulating cooling water.
2). Minimum cooling surface area per kW capacity.
3). Minimum auxiliary power.
4). Minimum steam condensed per M2 of surface area
As the cooling water temp. entering the condenser increases vacuum decreases.
The following figure shows this:

Fig 19.
4.11 Dalton's law of Partial Pressure and its application to Condensers:
Dalton's law of partial pressure states that "the total pressure exerted by a mixture of
gases or a mixture of gas and vapour is equal to the sum of individual partial
pressure of the constituents of the mixture”. Partial Pressure of each constituent of the
mixture is the pressure of the constituent gas if this individual mass of the constituent gas
alone occupies total volume occupied by mixture having the same temp of mixture".
The total pressure in the condenser is the sum of the partial pressures of steam and
air.
According to Dalton's low of partial pressure:
Pt = Ps + Pa ------------>(20)
V = Volume of condenser shell
T = Actual total pressure in the condenser
Pc = Actual total pressure in the condenser
Ps = Partial pressure of steam in condenser
Pa = Partial pressure of air in condenser
m = Total mass of mixture (air steam) in the condenser shell.
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ms = Mass of steam in condenser shell
ma = Mass of air in condenser shell
vs = Specific volume of saturated water vapour at temp.T & pressure ps
va = Specific volume of air at temp. T & pressure pa
V = msvs = mava
∴ ma / ms = vs / va ------------ (21)
3
The mass of air per m of the condenser shell
= ma/ V = 1/ va
and the Mass of Water Vapour per m3 of the condenser shell
= Ms/V = 1/ vs
The total mass of mixture in the condenser shell,
m = ma + ms = ma ( 1 + ms/ma)

m = ma ( 1+ va/vs) ---------------
or (22)
m = ms ( 1+ vs/va) ---------------

4.12 Apparatuses used to remove air from Condensers to create good

vacuum:
Air pumps and Steam Ejectors are used to emit air from condenser. Air pumps employed
to eject air out of condensers work on the principle of vacuum pumps. An air ejector is
simple device which occupies less space compared to a Vacuum Pump. Steam is used in
ejectors which expands in nozzles and as the mixture of steam and air rushes, kinetic
energy of the mixture is converted into pressure energy and steam and air are
compressed and discharged in boiler feed tanks where steam of the mixture is condensed.

4.13 Cooling Towers and their purpose in association with Condenser:

Cooling towers are provided in large industrial units, specially in power stations to
cool hot water after it is circulated through condenser and other heat exchangers in the
plant to be used again after it has been cooled.
A cooling tower may consists of either concrete or wooden structures so arranged that
the hot cooling water from the top of the tower is allowed to trickle down over cooling
tower fill material, thus exposing large surface to atmosphere cooling. Cooling towers
may be designed either for natural draught or mechanical draught.

EXAMPLES

Q-1. Describe the principle of Steam Engines?

Ans. In a steam engine, steam is admitted into the cylinder via valves which cut out can
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regulate the quantity of steam at each end of the cylinder. The steam entering the
cylinder acts on the piston and due to expansion properties of stream, the piston move to
and fro in straight lines in the cylinder. The energy of steam delivered to the
piston is transmitted through the piston rod, crosshead, connecting rod, crank pin,
crank & crankshaft to the fly wheel into circular motion. The motion & power is
carried from the rim of the flywheel to the line shaft by means of ropes or belts to drive .
Thus the function of steam engine is to convert heat energy of steam into mechanical
energy of motion. A governor fitted on the engine regulates steam as per load on the
engine.
There are various types of steam engines like...
• Simple (single) cylinder OR compound (more than one) cylinders)
• Horizontal or vertical
• Condensing or non-condensing

Q-2. What is meant by expansion of steam? How expansion property of steam is utilized in
steam engines?
Ans. Expansion of steam means there will be increase in its volume with corresponding
decrease in pressure. Steam is admitted in the engine cylinder for a certain distance. the
piston travels & then steam is cut out by valve mechanism and the remaining stroke
of the piston is completed by the expansive force of steam which reduces pressure.
This is more economical than admitting steam throughout the length of the stroke.

Q-3 . Give the reason for difference between the actual and hypothetical indicator diagram of
steam engine?
Ans. The difference between two diagrams is on account of certain practical factors given
below, which were not considered in arriving at the hypothetical indicator diagram:
- The big drop in the steam pressure between boiler and the engine cylinder is
due to condensation caused by loss of heat in steam pipes, friction losses in the
steam supply pipe and admission valve and to wire-drawing in the valves. This
pressure difference will tend to increase toward the point of cut-off due to
increasing velocity of the piston and consequent increased demand for steam and
due to condensation of steam in the cylinder.
- The opening and closing of the ports is a gradual process as the valve moves
over it. The pressure changes at the opening and closing of ports are not as sudden
as shown on the hypothetical diagram, and there is rounding –off of the actual
diagram at the beginning of admission, cut-off and release.
- The actual expansion curve is not a true hyperbola owing to the varying
intercharge of heat through the cylinder walls. At the commencement of the
expansion, the steam in the cylinder is hotter than the cylinder wall; this causes
condensation of steam and the volume of steam consequently decreases. Near the
end of the expansion stroke, owing to the low pressure of steam, the steam is
colder than the cylinder walls; this cause heat to flow from the cylinder walls to
the steam which tends to re-dry the steam.

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- The release (opening of exhaust port) occurs before the end of the expansion
stroke, and the time factor in the opening of the exhaust port will cause the
rounding-off the toe of the actual diagram.
- Exhaust pressure in the cylinder will not be quite so low as the condenser
pressure because the size of the exhaust port o=is limited and therefore, the
exhaust from the port is not quick.
- There is rounding –off of the heel of the actual diagram due to closing of the
exhaust port before the end of the stroke. This results in compression of the steam
in the cylinder, which serves as a soft cushion for bringing the piston to rest at the
end of the stroke. Admission occurs just before the end of the compression stroke.

Q-4. What are the causes of high steam consumption in a condensing type steam engine?
Ans. High steam consumption may be due to high radiation of heat from steam pipe lines
and engine cylinder initial condensation of steam incorrect setting of admission and
exhaust valves, steam leakages & poor vacuum.

Q-5. What is a non-condensing steam engine?

Ans. A non-condensing steam engine is one in which steam after doing work in the
cylinder of a reciprocating steam engine is used for process heating other than power
& the steam pressure will be higher than atmospheric pressure in such engines
which are also called back pressure engines .

Q-6. Differentiate between the following: Steam turbine & steam engine.
(2.9.1997)
Ans. The main difference between steam turbine & steam engine is, turbine is rotating
equipment while most of the steam engines are of reciprocating type.
• In engine, wet steam may also be used while in steam turbine, steam should be in
superheated condition
• Power output or steam to power ratio is comparatively very high in steam turbine as
losses (e.g frictional, velocity etc) are very less. So, plant efficiency is much higher.
• Being very high quality of materials to be used for construction of various parts of
steam turbine, it is very much costly compared to steam turbine.
• Great quantity of power generation can be achieved by very large are steam turbine
which is not the case with engines.
• Maintenance problems are more in steam engine than turbine due to its reciprocating
motion.
• Steam engines are of old class of machines which are now not in used widely.

Q-7. What is called vacuum in condenser?

Ans. The difference between the atmospheric pressure & the absolute pressure in a condenser
is known as Vacuum in the condenser. It is expressed in MMWC or MM Hg.

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Q. 8 A single cylinder, double acting steam engine of 20 cm diameter and 30 cm stroke is
supplied with steam at 8.5 kg/cm2 & exhaust at 0.15 kg/cm2. Cut-off takes place at 1/3 rd
stroke & engine runs at 2 revolutions per second using a diagram factor of 0.7, estimate
the actual mean effective pressure & the indicated power of the engine.
(7.8.1989)
Solution : Here, d = 20 cm = 0.2 m rps=2 ∴rpm =120
l= 30 cm = 0.3 mtr diagram factor =o.7
p1 = 8.5 kg/cm2 = 9.5 kg
pb = 0.15 kg/cm2
= 1.15 kg/cm2 ab
r = exp.ratio = 1 = 1
cut-off 1/3
∴ r=3

As we know,
The theoretical or hypothetical m.e.p

= p1/r { 1 + loge (r) } -Pb kg/cm2

= 8.5 { 1 + loge (3) } -0.13 kg/cm2
3
=5.796 kg/cm2
Now actual m.e.p = dia factor (f) x Theoretical m.e.p.
= 0.7 x 5.796
= 4.057 kg/cm2 ------(ans)
Now indicator power of the engine,
I.H.P. = 2 Pm a l N
4500
= 2 x 4.057 x II/4 (20)2 x 0.3 x 120
4500
= 20.39 ----------(ans)

Q. 9 Find the thermal efficiency of the following two engines working under the following
conditions
Engine - 1 Engine - II
Initial Pressure 11 ata 11 ata
quality of steam Dry & saturated 100 c superheat
back pressure 0.35 ata 0.5 ata
steam consumption
per IHP/hour 6.5 kg 5.8 kg
Assume specific heat of superheated steam = 0.5
(13.2.1991)
Solution : For Engine - I

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From steam tables, at 11 ata, & steam is dry & saturated..
Hs = 663.9 kcal/kg
& at 0.35 ata, h = 72 kcal/kg, L = 55615 kcal/kg
Here, steam consumption per IHP/hour = 6.5 kg
WS = 6.5 kg/hr
= 0.108 kg/min
H1 = 663.9 kcal / kg (from steam tables)
at 11 ata, dry & sat steam
& h2 = enthalpy of 1 kg of water of exhaust steam
= 72 kcal/kg
Indicated thermal efficiency for Engine - I
Heat equivalent of IHP per minute

η1 = Heat equivalent of IHP per minute

Heat supplied in steam per minute
=IHP x 4500___
J x Ws x (H1-h2)
=1x4500_____________
423 x 0.108 x (663.9 - 72)
η1 = 16.49 % ------------- (ans)

Similarly,
For Engine - II
AT 11 ata with 100'c superheat, enthalpy of 1 kg of steam
Hsup = Hs + kp x T
= 663.9 + 0.5 x 100
= 713.9 kcal/kg
& h = 80,8 kcal/kg
& Ws = 5.8=0.0967 kg/min
60
Indicated thermal efficiency for engine - II

η2= IHP x 4500____

J x Ws x (H1-h2)

= 1 x 4500________________
427 x 0.097 x (713.9 - 80.8)
= 17.21 % ---------(ans)

Q . 10 Find the diameter & stroke of a single cylinder double acting steam engine
developing 80 B.H.P at 120 rpm with a mechanical efficiency of 80%. The supply
pressure of the steam is 8 kgf/cm2ab & the backpressure is 1.2 kg/cm2 ab. cutoff takes
place at 40 percent of the stroke & clearance is 10% of the stroke volume. Assuming a
dia. factor 0.7 & the stroke is 1.5 times the dia. of the cylinder.
(16.8.1994)

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Solution : As we know,
Mechanical efficiency of steam engine
ηm= BHP
IHP
IHP = 80= 100
0.8
Now, Hypothetical m.e.p.= p1{ 1/r + (1/r + c)loge (1+c) } -pb
(1/r+c)
here, C = clearance volume = 10 = 0.1 ( considering stroke volume as 100)
stroke volume 100

Expansion ratio r = 1 _______ = 1__ ( cut off takes place at 40% of the stroke )
cut off ratio 1/4
=4
p1 = 8 kg/cm2ab, pb = 1.2 kg/cm2ab
Hypothetical m.e.p. =8[ 1/5+(1/5+0.1)loge ( 1+0.1) ] -1.2
(1/5+0.1)
= 3.518 kg/cm2ab
& Actual m.e.p. pm= dia factor (f) x Theoretical m.e.p.
= 0.7 x 3.518
= 2.4626 kg/cm2ab
Now, let d = dia of the cylinder in centimetre
& l= stroke of the piston = 1.5 d/100 mtrs.
Now, I.H.P. = 2 x pm x a x l x N
4500
100 = 2 x 2.4626 x π/4 d2 x 1.5d/100 x 120
4500
100 = 0.001547 d3 ∴ d3 = 64628.82
Diameter of cylinder d = 40.13 cm & stroke l= 1.5 x d = 1.5 x 40.13=60.20 cm...(ans)

Q. 11 Steam at 15 kg/cm2ab & day is supplied to two locomotive double acting steam
engines. The driving wheels are a in diameter. The stroke of the engine if 60 cm. The
tractive effort at 40 kmph is 4 tons. The cutoff is at 50 % of the stroke at the given
speed of the locomotive. assuming mech. off of 80% & diagram factor of 0.65, exhaust
pr. is 1.2 kg/cm2ab, calculate the cylinder diameter.

(Feb 1995)
2
Solution : Here, p1 = 15 kg/cm ab
pb = 1.2 kg/cm2ab
f = 0.6
cut off is at 50% of the stroke
Expansion ratio r = 1/1/2 = 2
ηm = 80% = 0.8
l = 60 cm = 0.6 mtr
The tractive effort is 4 tons at 40 kmph. & driving wheels diameter = 2 mtr
Theoretical mean effective pressure = p1 /r{1+ loger}-pb
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= 15/2 { 1+loge2}-1.2
= 7.5 { 1+0.6931}-1.2
= 11.5 kg/cmab

Actual m.e.p. = dia. factor x theoretical m.e.p.

= 0.65 x 11..5 = 7.48 kg/cmab
Here, mech eff ηm = 80%
Then tractive effort T will be given by
T = Nm cx aPm x L/D1 x D2
Where, D ( to be find out) = Diameter of the cylinder
D1= Dia. of driving wheel in mtr
pm = 7.48 kg/cm2ab
T = 4 tons = 4000 kg.
4000 = 0.8 x 7.48 x 0.6/2 x D2
Diameter of the cylinder D = 47.20 cm ........(ans)

Q. 12 The dia of the cylinder of a simple double acting steam engine is 80 cm, the stroke
is 3.8 cms. The steam is admitted to the cylinder at a pt. of 5.967 kg/cm2g & cut-off
when the piston has advanced 9 cm from the dead center position. Assume a diagram
factor of 0.7 & the exhaust presence of 1.1. kg/cm2. Engine is running at 150 rpm.
Neglect clearance & calculate the IHP of the engine.
(5-8-1996)
Solution : Here, P1 = 5.967 kg/cm2g = 5.967 + 1.013
= 7 kg/cm2ab
pb = 1.1 kg/cm2
N = 150 rpm
d = 30 cm, l= 38 cm = 0.38 mtr, f = 0.7
cut-off takes place when the piston advances 9.cm.
∴ cut-off = 9/38 - 0.2368

∴Expansion ratio = 1/ cut-off ratio = 1/ 0.2368

∴ r = 4.22
As we know,
Hypothetical m.e.p. = P1/r {1+loger ]-pb
= 7/4.22 {1+loge4.22}-1.1
= 2.947 kg/cm2ab
Actual m.e.p.= 0.7x2.947
= 2.0629 kg/cm2 ab
Now, IHP = 2 x pm x l x a x N
4500
= 2 x 2.0629 x 0.38 x π/4 (30)2 x 150
4500
IHP = 36.94......(ans)

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Q.14 Air entering a steam condenser with steam is estimated 6 kg/hr. The temperature at inlet
to section is 30 degree C and at the outlet 260C. The vacuum in the shell is essentially
constant throughout & is 721 mm of Hg. while barometer reads 758 mm of Hg.
Calculate,
(1) The volume of air entering the cooling section /hr
(2) The mass of moisture contained in the air and
(3) The mass of steam condensed/hr in the calling scheme
(1-9-1997)
Solution : Given,
Mass of air entering in a steam condenser=6 kg/hr.
=6/60 =1/10 kg/min.
0
Temp. at inlet of air cooler section=30 C
Temp. at outlet of air cooler section =260C
Vacuum in the condenser=721 mm of Hg.
Atmospheric pressure=758 mm of Hg.

At 300C
Partial pressure of vapour=0.045 kg/cm2ab

Total absolute pressure in condenser = 758 - 721 = 37 mm Hg

Total pressure in condenser = 37 x 1.0332

760
= 0.0503 kg/cm2 ab
∴Partial pressure of air=0.0503-0.045=0.0053 kg/cm2 ab
Now, using the relation paVa=maRT

∴Va = maRT = 1/10 x 29.27x303 = 1.6733 m3/minute

pa 0.0053 x 104
=1.6733 x 60 =100.398 m3/hour.
Again using the relation we can get mass of vapour associated with air
PvVv = mvRT
mv = RT = 29.27 x 303_______
PvVv 0.045 x 104 x 1.6733
Now at 260 C , partial pressure of vapour =0.035 kg/cm2 ab.
∴ Partial pressure of air=0.0503-0.035=0.0153 kg/cm2 ab.
Specific volume of vapour=40.23 m3/hour. (From steam table)

Volume of air per minute= mRT = 1/10 x29.27x299 = 5.72 m3/minute

pa 0.0153 x 104
∴Volume of vapour is also 5.72 m3/minute
∴ Mass of vapour=5.72/40.23=.142 kg.
∴ Mass of steam condensed in the air cooler per minute=11.77820-0.142
= 11.636 kg/minute.

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Q.15 In a twin cylinder locomotive, the steam at pr. of 15 bar absolute enters a
cylinder of 30 cm diameter for 1/2 of the length of the stroke, which is 40 cm. If the
piston speed is 150 mtrs/min, find out the indicated horse power developed by
engine assuming to be double acting. The back pressure is 1.2 bar absolute and the
diagram factor is 0.8.Find also the speed of engine.
(2.8.1999)
Solution : Here, p1 = 15 bar ab
pb = 1.2 bar ab
r = ratio of expansion = 1 =1 = 2
cut off ratio 1/2
Piston speed = 2 l N m/mim = 150 ∴ N = 150 = 150
2x2 2x0.4
pm =Theoretical means effective pressure = 3.125 m/sec.
f = diagram factor =0.8 also d = 30 cm, l= 40 cm
As we know,
pm = p1/r { 1+loger} -pb
= 15/2 { 1+loge2} -1.2
= 11.5 bar
Actual m.e.p. = dia.factor x theoretical pm
= 0.8 x 11.5 = 9.2 bar
Area = π/4 d2 =π/4 (30)2 = 706 cm2
= 0.07 06 m2
Indicated horse power
IHP = 2 pm L A N for double acting steam engine
60
Substituting values.

∴IHP = 9.2 x 10 x 150 x 0.0706

60
= 162380 watts => 162.38 kw
∴Power developed by engine is 2 x162.3.8 k w as the engine is twin cylinder
∴Power of the locomotive = 2 x 162.38=kw.....(ans)
& speed of engine = 150 = 187 r.p.m ......(ans)
2 x 0.4

Q.16 Dry saturated steam is supplied to a single cylinder double acting steam engine at a
pressure of 900 KN/m2 and is exhausted at 140 KN/m2. cut-off takes place at 40% of
the stroke. Find the necessary cylinder bore and piston stroke length. If the engine is to
develop 22.5 kw. Assume a diagram factor of 0.8, stroke/bore ratio of 1.25:1, speed of
engine 240 rpm & hyperbolic expansion.
If the actual steam consumption is 1.8 times the indicated or theoretical
quantity, calculate the probable steam consumption and indicated thermal efficiency.
(7.2.2000)
Solution : Here, p1 = 900 KN/m2 = 9 bar, single cylinder double acting
pb = 140 KN/m2 = 1.4 bar, speed /bore =1.25/1
cut –off at 40% of stroke, expansion hyperbolic

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Inside dia. Of the cylinder--(?), Probable steam consumption(?)
Length of piston --(?) Indicated thermal efficiency(?)
Power developed, p= 22.5 kw
Diagram factor, f =0.8
Actual steam consumption 1.8 times indicated or theoretical
Theoretical m.e.p.= pm =p1/r(1+loger)-pb
r=ratio of expansion= 1/0.4=2.5 (as cut off takes place at 40% of the stroke)
∴pm=900/2.5(1+loge2.5)-140
=549.868 KN/m2

Diagram factor = Actual indicated power__

Theoretical indicate power

0.8 =22.5_________________
Theoretical indicate power
∴ Theoretical indicated power=22.5/0.8=28.125 kW
But theoretical indicated power= 2pmLAN
28.125=2x549.868x103x π/4d2L4 (as 240 rpm=4revoltion per second)
2
d L=28.125x4______
2x549.868x103x4
=0.0000255 --(1)
But l/d=1.25/1
∴L=1.25d -(2) putting this value in eq. (1) we get
d2x1.25d=0.0000255
∴1.25d3 =0.0000255
∴d3=0.0000255/1.25
__________
d= √ 0.0000204 ,
3
Now putting the value of d in the eq. (2), we get
__________
∴L =1.25 3√ 0.0000204
Steam consumption:
Volume of steam admitted per cycle=π/4d2L x 1/r m3.
At p1 pressure i.e. at 900 KN/m3
Specific volume of dry saturated steam=m3/kg
∴Mass of steam admitted per cycle=π/4d2L x 1/rx1/V kg.
∴Mass of steam admitted per minute=π/4d2L x 1/rx1/V x N kg./minute
For double acting steam engine steam consumption=2π/4d2L x 1/rx1/V x N
kg./minute
W=actual steam consumption =1.8 theoretical steam consumption
Indicated thermal efficiency=indicated power. = 28.125 x 60 x 60 joules/hr
Heat input wxE
Where w=Actual mass of steam supplied per hour.
E=H1-h joules.
H1=Total heat of steam at the engine stop valve.
h=Sensible heat of feed water corresponding to the back pressure.

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Q.17 AT a maximum power, a six cylinder engine running at 2800 rpm
consumed 55 kg of air per hour measured at NTP. The dimensions of the engine are 11
cm bore & 12.2 cm stroke. Calculate the volumetric efficiency based on NTP. Assume
that the engine works on four stroke cycle principle. (7.8.2000)

Solution : (This example is pertaining to Internal Combination engines which is not in the
syllabus).
Let V be the volume of air, measured at NTP taken in the engine cylinder per hour.
By applying the gas equation, we get,
pV = mRT
∴1.033 x 10 x V = 655 x 287 x 273
V = 509 m3
Swept volume = π/4 x d2 x L x no.of cycles per hour
= π/4 x ( 11/100)2 x 12.2/100 x 2800/2 x 60 x 6
= 588 M3
Actual volume of air taken in
Volumetric efficiency = Actual volume of air taken in the engine cylinder per hour
swept volume
= 509/588= 0.865 i.e.
= 86.5%.......(ans)

Examples for practice

Q-1. Describe/Define: Indicated thermal efficiency of steam engine (8.8.1989,6.8.96)

Q-2. Write short note on Surface condenser

(3.8.1999)

Q-3. Write short-note with sketch on Types of condensers & their purposes. Why condensers
are used for operating steam engines and steam turbines? Explain with neat sketch a
surface condenser.
(11.10.1995)

Q-4. A simple double acting steam engine having cylinder of 270 mm dia. and 330 mm stroke
is supplied steam at 900 Kpa. The engine speed is 3.67 revolutions per second and the
mean effective pressure is 328 Kpa. The net load on prony brake is 981 newton and the

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length of the brake arm is 1.6 mtrs. Calculate the indicated power, brake power and
power lost in friction.
(10.10.1995)
Q-5. Describe diagram factor of steam engine
(8.2.2000)
Q-6. What is evaporative condenser? Explain with sketches giving full details what are merits
and demerits of this condensers. Where the use of these condensers is preferred?
(6.8.1996)
Q-7. A surface condenser deals with 2100 kgs steam and the air leakage amounts to 0.8 kg/hr.
The temp. of the air pump suction is 350C & the vacuum is 580 mm of Hg when
barometer reads 760 m of Hg. Determine the capacity of the wet are pump which has a
volumetric efficiency of 75%.
(7.2.2000)
Q-8. The dia. of the cylinder of a simple double acting steam engine is 30 cm. The stroke is
40 cm. The steam is admitted to the cylinder at a pressure of 7 kg/cm2 ab & is cut-off
when the piston has advanced 8 cm from the dead center position. Assuming the
diagram factor of 0.7, calculate IHP of the engine running at 150 rpm. Assume
backpressure 1.1 kg/cm2 ab. Neglect clearance.
(23-3-1992)

ASSESSMENT SHEET

Q-1. Write the correct answer against the statement.

(1) The function of a flywheel is to
(a) Facilitate start of machine
(b) Smooth out power impulses
(c) Act as pulley for belt drive
(d) to store energy for periods of failure of main supply
(e) None of the above (7.8.2000 & 9.8.1988 & 2.9.1997)

(2) In steam engines, cylinder condensation is caused by

(a) alternate heating & cooling of steam between the cylinder admission & exhaust
(b) radiation lasses to atmosphere.
(c) steam not being superheated
(e) none of the above ( Aug 9, 1988& 2.9.1997)

(3) In the simple reciprocating steam engine, the admission & exhaust ports are
(a) on the same side of cylinder
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(b) on the same plane of the cylinder
(c) on opposite sides of cylinder
(d) Located at 90 c on the two sides of the cylinder
(e) none of the above ( Aug 9, 1998& 2.9.1997)

Q-2. State whether true or false:

1) Steam turbine is a heat engine used for conversion of the kinetic energy of steam into
mechanical energy
(15-06-1998)
2) The function of flywheel is to keep the speed constant when load changes.
(2.8.1999)
3) The function of the governor in engine is to regulate the speed of engine during load
changes.

(4) The primary object of condenser in steam power plant is to reduce the exhaust pressure
of the prime moves.
(7.2.2000)
5) The value of diagram factor of efficiency engine is greater than unity.
(7.8.2000)

Q-4. Define the following terms.

c) Mechanical and thermal efficiency of steam engine
d) Diagram factor of steam engine
(8.2.2000)

Q-5. Differentiate between Stem turbine and steam engine

(2.9.1997)

Q-6.Why condensers are used for operating steam engines and steam turbines?
(11.10.95)

Q-7. Air entering a steam condenser with steam is estimated 6 kg/hr. The temperature at inlet to
air cooler section is 30°C and at the outlet 26°C. The vacuum in the shell is essentially constant
throughout and is 721 mm of Hg while Barometer reads 758 mm of Hg. Calculate 1) The volume
of air entering the cooling section/hr 2) The mass of moisture contained in the air and 3) The
mass of steam condensed/hr in the cooling section.
(1.9.1997)

Q-8. A steam locomotive has two cylinder engine of 40 cm diameter by 60 cm stroke. The
steam is supplied at pressure of 15 ata unto 50% of the stroke. The exhaust pressure is
1.8 ata calculate the tractive effort at the driving wheel where diameter is 2.0 mtrs. Assume the
diagram factor to be 0.8. If the speed of locomotive is 50 km/hr, calculate the horsepower
developed.
(15.6.1998)

Q-9. A simple double acting steam engine having cylinder of 270 mm dia & 330 mm stroke is
supplied steam at 900 kpa. The engine speed is 3.69 revolutions per second & mean effective
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pressure is 328 kpa. The net load on prony brake is 981 Newton & the length of the brake arm is
1.6 mtrs. Calculate the indicated power brake power & power lost in friction.
(10.10.1995)

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