IV Year B.Tech.

CSE I - Semester

CS445 INTERNET OF THINGS

(ELECTIVE - IV)

Course description and objectives:

Students will be explored to the interconnection and integration of the physical

world and the cyber space. They are also able to design & develop IOT
Devices.

Course Outcomes:

1. Able to underst
understand
and the
the applicat
application
ion areas
areas of IOT
IOT

2. Abl
Ablee to rea
realiz
lizee the revoluti
revolution
on of Internet
Internet in Mobile
Mobile Devices
Devices,,
Cloud & Sensor Networks

3. Ab
Able
le to un
unde
ders
rsta
tand
nd bu
buil
ildi
ding
ng bl
bloc
ocks
ks of In
Inte
tern
rnet
et of Th
Thin
ings
gs an
and
d
characteristics.

Unit I

Introduction to Internet of Things

Definition : A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring

capabilities based on standard and inter-operable communication p rotocols
where physical and virtual "things" have identities, physical attributes, and
virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated
into the information network, often communicate data associated with users
and their environments.

Characteristics of IoT

1. Dyna
Dynami
micc and
and self
self ada
adapt
ptin
ing
g
 2. Self
Self conf
config
igur
urin
ing
g

3. Inter-
Inter-ope
operab
rable
le communic
communicati
ation
on protocol
protocolss

4. Uniq
Unique
ue iden
identi
tity
ty

5. Integrated into information network 

Physical Design of IoT

Things of IoT

A thing, in the context of the Internet of things (IoT

( IoT),
), is an entity or physical
object that has a unique identifier,
identifier, an embedded system and
system and the ability to
transfer data over a network.

IOT Protocols

1. Link la
layer

802.3 Ethernet

Ethernet, defined under IEEE 802.3, is one of today's most

widely used data communications standards, and it finds its
major use in Local Area Network (LAN) applications. With
versions including 10Base-T, 100Base-T and now Gigabit
Ethernet, it offers a wide variety of choices of speeds and
capability. Ethernet is also cheap and easy to install.
Additionally Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 offers a considerable deg ree
of flexibility in terms of the network topologies that are allowed.
Furthermore as it is in widespread use in LANs, it has been
developed into a robust system that meets the needs to wide
number of networking requirements.

802.11 WiFi
 2. Self
Self conf
config
igur
urin
ing
g

3. Inter-
Inter-ope
operab
rable
le communic
communicati
ation
on protocol
protocolss

4. Uniq
Unique
ue iden
identi
tity
ty

5. Integrated into information network 

Physical Design of IoT

Things of IoT

A thing, in the context of the Internet of things (IoT

( IoT),
), is an entity or physical
object that has a unique identifier,
identifier, an embedded system and
system and the ability to
transfer data over a network.

IOT Protocols

1. Link la
layer

802.3 Ethernet

Ethernet, defined under IEEE 802.3, is one of today's most

widely used data communications standards, and it finds its
major use in Local Area Network (LAN) applications. With
versions including 10Base-T, 100Base-T and now Gigabit
Ethernet, it offers a wide variety of choices of speeds and
capability. Ethernet is also cheap and easy to install.
Additionally Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 offers a considerable deg ree
of flexibility in terms of the network topologies that are allowed.
Furthermore as it is in widespread use in LANs, it has been
developed into a robust system that meets the needs to wide
number of networking requirements.

802.11 WiFi
 IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC)
control (MAC) and
physical layer (PHY)
layer (PHY) specifications for implementing wireless
local area network  (WLAN)
 (WLAN) computer communication in the
900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6
3.6,, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. They
are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Engineers (IEEE) LAN / MAN Standards
MAN Standards Committee
(IEEE 802).
802). The base version of the standard was released in
1997, and has had subsequent amendments. The standard and
amendments provide the basis for wireless network products
using the Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi brand.
 brand. While each amendment is officially
revoked when it is incorporated in the latest version of the
standard, the corporate world tends to market to the revisions
because they concisely denote
deno te capabilities of their products. As a
result, in the market place, each revision tends to become its own
standard.

802.16 WiMax

IEEE 802.16 is a series of wireless broadband standards

broadband standards written
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Engineers (IEEE).
The IEEE Standards Board established a working group in 1999
to develop standards for broadband for wireless metropolitan
area networks.
networks. The Workgroup is a unit of the IEEE 802 local
area network  and
 and metropolitan area network  standards
 standards
committee.

Although the 802.16 family of standards is officially called

WirelessMAN in IEEE, it has been commercialized under the
name "WiMAX
"WiMAX"" (from "Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access") by the WiMAX Forum industry alliance.
 The Forum promotes and certifies compatibility and
interoperability of products based on the IEEE 802.16 standards.

802.15.4-LR-WPAN

• IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard created and maintained by

consultants which specifies the physical layer and media access
control for low-rate wireless personal area networks  (LR-
WPANs). It is maintained by the IEEE 802.15 working group,
which has defined it in 2003. It is the basis for the ZigBee,
ISA100.11a, WirelessHART, MiWi, and Thread specifications,
each of which further extends the standard by developing the
upper layers which are not defined in IEEE 802.15.4.
Alternatively, it can be used with 6LoWPAN as Network 
Adaptation Layer and standard Internet protocols and/or IETF
RFCs defining the upper layers with proper granularity to build
a wireless embedded Internet.

2G/3G/4G – Mobile Communication

2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone

technology. Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks
were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by
Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.[1] Three primary
benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were that ph one
conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were
significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far
greater mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data
services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages. 2G
technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks to
provide the services such as text messages, picture messages and
MMS (multi media messages). All text messages sent over 2G
are digitally encrypted, allowing for the transfer of data in such a
way that only the intended receiver can receive and read it.

3G, short form of third generation, is the third generation of

mobile telecommunications technology. This is based on a set of 
standards used for mobile devices and mobile
telecommunications use services and networks that comply with
the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
specifications by the International Telecommunication Union.
3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet
access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile
TV.

3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an

information transfer rate of at least 200 kbit/s. Later 3G releases,
often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband
access of several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile modems in
laptop computers. This ensures it can be applied to wireless
voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet
access, video calls and mobile TV technologies.

4G, short for fourth generation, is the fourth generation of

mobile telecommunications technology, succeeding 3G. A 4G
system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT
Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended
mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-
definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and
cloud computing.[citation needed]

Two 4G candidate systems are commercially deployed: the

Mobile WiMAX standard (first used in South Korea in 2007),
and the first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (in
 Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden since 2009). It has
however been debated if these first-release versions should be
considered to be 4G or not, as discussed in the technical
definition section below.

2. Network/Internet Layer

IPv4

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the

Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the core protocols of
standards-based inter-networking methods in the Internet, and
was the first version deployed for production in the ARPANET
in 1983. It still routes most Internet traffic today, despite the
ongoing deployment of a successor protocol, IPv6. IPv4 is
described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981),
replacing an earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980).

IPv4 is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched

networks. It operates on a best effort delivery model, in that it
does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing
or avoidance of duplicate delivery. These aspects, including data
integrity, are addressed by an upper layer transport protocol,
such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

IPv6

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of

the Internet Protocol (IP), the communications protocol that
provides an identification and location system for computers on
networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was
developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal
with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion.
IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4.

Every device on the Internet is assigned an IP address for

identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of
the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it beca me
evident that far more addresses than the IPv4 address space has
available were necessary to connect new devices in the future.
By 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had
formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address,
theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.4×1038
addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple
ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from
use. The total number of possible IPv6 address is more than
7.9×1028 times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses
and provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two
protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the
transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms
have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and
IPv6 hosts.

6LoWPAN

6LoWPAN is an acronym of IPv6 over Low power Wireless

Personal Area Networks. 6LoWPAN is the name of a concluded
working group in the Internet area of the IETF.

The 6LoWPAN concept originated from the idea that "the

Internet Protocol could and should be applied even to the
smallest devices," and that low-power devices with limited
processing capabilities should be able to participate in the
Internet of Things.
 The 6LoWPAN group has defined encapsulation and header
compression mechanisms that allow IPv6 packets to be sent and
received over IEEE 802.15.4 based networks. IPv4 and IPv6 are
the work horses for data delivery for local-area networks,
metropolitan area networks, and wide-area networks such as the
Internet. Likewise, IEEE 802.15.4 devices provide sensing
communication-ability in the wireless domain. The inherent
natures of the two networks though, are different.

3. Transport Layer

TCP

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a core protocol of

the Internet protocol suite. It originated in the initial network
implementation in which it complemented the Internet Protocol
(IP). Therefore, the entire suite is commonly referred to as
TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked
delivery of a stream of octets between applications running on
hosts communicating over an IP network. Major Internet
applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote
administration and file transfer rely on TCP. Applications that do
not require reliable data stream service may use the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides a connectionless
datagram service that emphasizes reduced latency over
reliability.

UDP

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members

of the Internet protocol suite. The protocol was designed by
David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768.
 UDP uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a
minimum of protocol mechanism. It has no handshaking
dialogues, and thus exposes the user's program to any
unreliability of the underlying network protocol. There is no
guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection. UDP
provides checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for
addressing different functions at the source and destination of
the datagram.

With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this

case referred to as datagrams, to other hosts on an Internet
Protocol (IP) network without prior communications to set up
special transmission channels or data paths. UDP is suitable for
purposes where error checking and correction is either not
necessary or is performed in the application, avoiding the
overhead of such processing at the network interface level.
Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping
packets is preferable to waiting for delayed packets, which may
not be an option in a real-time system. If error correction
facilities are needed at the network interface level, an application
may use the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream
Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for
this purpose.

4. Application layer

HTTP

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application

protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information
systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the
World Wide Web.
Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links (hyperlinks)
between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to
exchange or transfer hypertext.

The standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide
Web Consortium (W3C), culminating in the publication of a
series of Requests for Comments (RFCs). The first definition of
HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in
RFC 2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC 2616 in
1999.

A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in

2015, then supported by major web browsers and already
supported by major web servers.

CoAP

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a software protocol

intended to be used in very simple electronics devices that
allows them to communicate interactively over the Internet. It is
particularly targeted for small low power sensors, switches,
valves and similar components that need to be controlled or
supervised remotely, through standard Internet networks. CoAP
is an application layer protocol that is intended for use in
resource-constrained internet devices, such as WSN nodes.
CoAP is designed to easily translate to HTTP for simplified
integration with the web, while also meeting specialized
requirements such as multicast support, very low overhead, and
simplicity. Multicast, low overhead, and simplicity are extremely
important for Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine-to-Machine
(M2M) devices, which tend to be deeply embedded and have
 much less memory and power supply than traditional internet
devices have. Therefore, efficiency is very important. CoAP can
run on most devices that support UDP or a UDP analogue.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Constrained

RESTful environments (CoRE) Working Group has done the
major standardization work for this protocol. In order to make
the protocol suitable to IoT and M2M applications, various new
functionalities have been added. The core of the protocol is
specified in RFC 7252, important extensions are in various
stages of the standardization process.

WebSocket

WebSocket is a protocol providing full-duplex communication

channels over a single TCP connection. The WebSocket protocol
was standardized by the IETF as RFC 6455 in 2011, and the
WebSocket API in Web IDL is being standardized by the W3C.

WebSocket is designed to be implemented in web browsers and

web servers, but it can be used by any client or server
application. The WebSocket Protocol is an independent TCP-
based protocol. Its only relationship to HTTP is that its
handshake is interpreted by HTTP servers as an Upgrade
request. The WebSocket protocol makes more interaction
between a browser and a website possible, facilitating the real-
time data transfer from and to the server. This is made possible
by providing a standardized way for the server to send content to
the browser without being solicited by the client, and allowing
for messages to be passed back and forth while keeping the
connection open. In this way a two-way (bi-directional) ongoing
conversation can take place between a browser and the server.
The communications are done over TCP port number 80, which
is of benefit for those environments which block non-web
Internet connections using a firewall. Similar two-way browser-
server communications have been achieved in non-standardized
ways using stopgap technologies such as Comet.

The WebSocket protocol is currently supported in most major

browsers including Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Firefox,
Safari and Opera. WebSocket also requires web applications on
the server to support it.

MQTT

MQTT (formerly Message Queue Telemetry Transport) is an

ISO standard (ISO/IEC PRF 20922) publish-subscribe based
"light weight" messaging protocol for use on top of the TCP/IP
protocol. It is designed for connections with remote locations
where a "small code footprint" is required or the network
bandwidth is limited. The publish-subscribe messaging pattern
requires a message broker. The broker is responsible for
distributing messages to interested clients based on the topic of a
message. Andy Stanford-Clark  and Arlen Nipper of Cirrus Link
Solutions authored the first version of the protocol in 1999.

The specification does not specify the meaning of "small code

foot print" or the meaning of "limited network bandwidth".
Thus, the protocol's availability for use depends on the context.
In 2013, IBM submitted MQTT v3.1 to the OASIS specification
body with a charter that ensured only minor changes to the
 specification could be accepted. MQTT-SN is a variation of the
main protocol aimed at embedded devices on non-TCP/IP
networks, such as ZigBee.

Historically, the 'MQ' in 'MQTT' came from IBM's MQ message

queuing product line. However, queuing per se is not required to
be supported as a standard feature in all situations.

Alternative protocols include the Advanced Message Queuing

Protocol, the IETF Constrained Application Protocol and XMPP.

XMPP

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is a

communications protocol for message-oriented middleware
based on XML (Extensible Markup Language). It enables the
near-real-time exchange of structured yet extensible data
between any two or more network entities. Originally named
Jabber, the protocol was developed by the Jabber open-source
community in 1999 for near real-time instant messaging (IM),
presence information, and contact list maintenance. Designed to
be extensible, the protocol has been used also for publish-
subscribe systems, signalling for VoIP, video, file transfer,
gaming, Internet of Things (IoT) applications such as the smart
grid, and social networking services.

Unlike most instant messaging protocols, XMPP is defined in an

open standard and uses an open systems approach of
development and application, by which anyone may implement
an XMPP service and interoperate with other organizations'
implementations. Because XMPP is an open protocol,
 implementations can be developed using any software license;
although many server, client, and library implementations are
distributed as free and open-source software, numerous freeware
and commercial software implementations also exist.

DDS

The Data Distribution Service for Real-Time Systems (DDS) is

an Object Management Group (OMG) machine-to-machine
middleware "m2m" standard that aims to enable scalable, real-
time, dependable, high-performance and interoperable data
exchanges between publishers and subscribers. DDS addresses
the needs of applications like financial trading, air-traffic
control, smart grid management, and other big data applications.
The standard is used in applications such as smartphone
operating systems, transportation systems and vehicles,
software-defined radio, and by healthcare providers. DDS may
also be used in certain implementations of the Internet of Things.

AMQP

The Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an open

standard application layer protocol for message-oriented
middleware. The defining features of AMQP are message
orientation, queuing, routing (including point-to-point and
publish-and-subscribe), reliability and security.

AMQP mandates the behavior of the messaging provider and

client to the extent that implementations from different vendors
 are interoperable, in the same way as SMTP, HTTP, FTP, etc.
have created interoperable systems. Previous standardizations of
middleware have happened at the API level (e.g. JMS) and were
focused on standardizing programmer interaction with different
middleware implementations, rather than on providing
interoperability between multiple implementations. Unlike JMS,
which defines an API and a set of behaviors that a messaging
implementation must provide, AMQP is a wire-level protocol. A
wire-level protocol is a description of the format of the da ta that
is sent across the network as a stream of octets. Consequently,
any tool that can create and interpret messages that conform to
this data format can interoperate with any other compliant tool
irrespective of implementation language.

Logical Design of IoT

IoT Functional Blocks

• Device

The things in IoT are nothing but the devices in IoT.

Services

An IoT system uses various types of IoT services such as

services for device monitoring, device control services, data
publishing services etc.

Communication

Many communication technologies are well known such as

WiFi, Bluetooth, ZigBee and 2G/3G/4G cellular, but there are
also several new emerging networking options such as Thread as
an alternative for home automation applications, and Whitespace
TV technologies being implemented in major cities for wider
 area IoT-based use cases. Depending on the application, factors
such as range, data requirements, security and power demands
and battery life will dictate the choice of one or some form of
combination of technologies. These are some of the major
communication technologies on offer to developers.

Management

Management functional block provides various functions to

govern the IoT system.

Security

Security functional block secures the IoT system and by

providing functions such as authentication, authorization,
message and content integrity, and data security.

Application

IoT application provide an interface that the users can use to

control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system.

IoT Communication Model

Request-Response

Request–response, or request–reply, is one of the basic methods

computers use to communicate with each other, in which the
first computer sends a request for some data and the second
computer responds to the request. Usually, there is a series of
such interchanges until the complete message is sent; b rowsing a
web page is an example of request–response communication.
Request–response can be seen as a telephone call, in which
someone is called and they answer the call.
Request–response is a message exchange pattern in which a
requestor sends a request message to a replier system which
receives and processes the request, ultimately returning a
message in response. This is a simple, but powerful messaging
pattern which allows two applications to have a two-way
conversation with one another over a channel. This pattern is
especially common in client–server architectures.

Publish-Subscribe

In software architecture, publish–subscribe is a messaging

pattern where senders of messages, called publishers, do not
program the messages to be sent directly to specific receivers,
called subscribers, but instead characterize published messages
into classes without knowledge of which subscribers, if any,
there may be. Similarly, subscribers express interest in one or
more classes and only receive messages that are of interest,
without knowledge of which publishers, if any, there are.

Pub/sub is a sibling of the message queue paradigm, and is

typically one part of a larger message-oriented middleware
system. Most messaging systems support both the pub/sub and
message queue models in their API, e.g. Java Message Service
(JMS).

This pattern provides greater network scalability and a more

dynamic network topology, with a resulting decreased flexibility
to modify the Publisher and its structure of the data published.

Push-Pull
 Most of the business communication tools we use today are
“push” tools, where the sender of the message decides who will
receive it. Email is the classic example of this; the sender of the
message chooses who to put on the To and Cc lines. The
recipient gets no choice about whether they receive the message
or not, and anyone who is not copied on the message doesn’t
even know of its existence. The sender is firmly in control.
Instant messaging, SMS and even phone calls are all examples
of push.

Exclusive Pair

Paired sockets are very similar to regular sockets.

• The communication is bidirectional.

• There is no specific state stored within the socket

• There can only be one connected peer.

• The server listens on a certain port & a client connects to

it.

IoT Communication APIs

• REST-based communication APIs

• REST (REpresentational State Transfer) is an architectural
style, and an approach to communications that is often used in
the development of Web services. The use of REST is often
preferred over the more heavyweight SOAP (Simple
Object Access Protocol) style because REST does not
leverage as much bandwidth, which makes it a better fit
for use over the Internet. The SOAP approach requires
writing or using a provided server program (to serve data) and
a client program (to request data).

Client-Server

The client–server model of computing is a distributed

application structure that partitions tasks or workloads between
the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service
requesters, called clients. Often clients and servers communicate
over a computer network  on separate hardware, but both client
and server may reside in the same system. A server host runs one
or more server programs which share their resources with
clients. A client does not share any of its resources, but requests
a server's content or service function. Clients therefore initiate
communication sessions with servers which await incoming
requests.
 Stateless

In computing, a stateless protocol is a communications protocol

that treats each request as an independent transaction that is
unrelated to any previous request so that the communication
consists of independent pairs of request and response. A stateless
protocol does not require the server to retain session information
or status about each communications partner for the duration of
multiple requests. In contrast, a protocol which requires keeping
of the internal state on the server is known as a stateful protocol.

Examples of stateless protocols include the Internet Protocol (IP)

which is the foundation for the Internet, and the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) which is the foundation of data
communication for the World Wide Web.

Cache-able

A cacheable communications protocol includes accommodating

the ability for client-side caching and a set of specifications for
when a response to a query can be cached. The HTTP 1.1
 protocol is such a protocol and includes an entire section on the
rules of the road for caching

Layered system

Communication programs are often layered. The reference

model for communication programs, Open System
Interconnection ( OSI ) is a layered set of protocols in which two
multilayered programs, one at either end of a communications
exchange, use an identical set of layers. In the OSI model, each
multilayer program contains seven layers, each reflecting a
different function that has to be performed in order for program-
to-program communication to take place between computers.

TCP/IP is an example of a two-layer ( TCP and IP ) set of

programs that provide transport and network address functions
for Internet communication. A set of TCP/IP and other layered
programs is sometimes referred to as a protocol stack  .

Web-Socket based communication APIs

WebSocket is a protocol providing full-duplex communication channels over a

single TCP connection. The WebSocket protocol was standardized by the IETF
as RFC 6455 in 2011, and the WebSocket API in Web IDL is being
standardized by the W3C.

WebSocket is designed to be implemented in web browsers and web servers,

but it can be used by any client or server application. The WebSocket Protocol
is an independent TCP-based protocol. Its only relationship to HTTP is that its
handshake is interpreted by HTTP servers as an Upgrade request. The
WebSocket protocol makes more interaction between a browser and a website
possible, facilitating the real-time data transfer from and to the server. This is
made possible by providing a standardized way for the server to send content to
the browser without being solicited by the client, and allowing for messages to
be passed back and forth while keeping the connection open. In this way a two-
way (bi-directional) ongoing conversation can take place between a browser
and the server. The communications are done over TCP port number 80, which
is of benefit for those environments which block non-web Internet connections
using a firewall. Similar two-way browser-server communications have been
achieved in non-standardized ways using stopgap technologies such as Comet.

IoT Enabling Technologies

Wireless-Sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSN), sometimes called wireless sensor and

actuator networks (WSAN), are spatially distributed autonomous sensors to
monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound,
pressure, etc. and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a
main location. The more modern networks are bi-directional, also enabling
control of sensor activity. The development of wireless sensor networks was
motivated by military applications such as battlefield surveillance; today such
networks are used in many industrial and consumer applications, such as
industrial process monitoring and control, machine health monitoring, and so
on.

The WSN is built of "nodes" – from a few to several hundreds or even

thousands, where each node is connected to one (or sometimes several)
sensors. Each such sensor network node has typically several parts: a radio
transceiver with an internal antenna or connection to an external antenna, a
microcontroller, an electronic circuit for interfacing with the sensors and an
energy source, usually a battery or an embedded form of energy harvesting. A
sensor node might vary in size from that of a shoebox down to the size of a
grain of dust, although functioning "motes" of genuine microscopic dimensions
have yet to be created. The cost of sensor nodes is similarly variable, ranging
from a few to hundreds of dollars, depending on the complexity of the
individual sensor nodes. Size and cost constraints on sensor nodes result in
corresponding constraints on resources such as energy, memory, computational
speed and communications bandwidth. The topology of the WSNs can vary
from a simple star network  to an advanced multi-hop wireless mesh network .
The propagation technique between the hops of the network can be routing or
flooding.

Cloud computing

Cloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based

computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and
other devices on demand. It is a model for enabling ubiquitous, on-demand
access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks,
servers, storage, applications and services), which can be rapidly provisioned
and released with minimal management effort. Cloud computing and storage
solutions provide users and enterprises with various capabilities to store and
process their data in third-party data centers.[3] It relies on sharing of resources
to achieve coherence and economy of scale, similar to a utility (like the
electricity grid) over a network.

Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)

In the most basic cloud-service model—and according to the IETF

(Internet Engineering Task Force)—providers of IaaS offer computers
—physical or (more often) virtual machines—and other resources.
IaaS refers to online services that abstract the user from the details of
infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data
partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc. A hypervisor, such as Xen,
Oracle VirtualBox, Oracle VM,KVM, VMware ESX/ESXi, or Hyper-
V runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the
cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual
machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to
customers' varying requirements. IaaS clouds often offer additional
resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block
storage, file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses,
virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.[63] IaaS-
cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large
pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide-area
connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds
(dedicated virtual private networks).

Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)

PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application

developers. The provider typically develops toolkit and standards for
development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS
models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically
including operating system, programming-language execution
environment, database, and web server. Application developers can
develop and run their software solutions on a cloud platform without
the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying
hardware and software layers. With some PaaS offers like Microsoft
Azure  and Google App Engine, the underlying computer and storage
resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the
cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. The latter has
also been proposed by an architecture aiming to facilitate real-time in
cloud environments. Even more specific application types can be
 provided via PaaS, such as media encoding as provided by services like
bitcodin.com or media.io.

Software-as-a-Service (SaaS)

In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to

application software and databases. Cloud providers manage the
infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is
sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced
on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee.]

In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application

software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud
clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and
platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install
and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which
simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from
other applications in their scalability—which can be achieved by
cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet
changing work demand. Load balancers distribute the work over the set
of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who
sees only a single access-point. To accommodate a large number of 
cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that any
machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization.

Big data Analytics

Characteristics of big data : volume, velocity, variety

Big data analytics is the process of examining large data sets

containing a variety of data types -- i.e., big data -- to uncover hidden
patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer preferences
and other useful business information. The analytical findings can lead
to more effective marketing, new revenue opportunities, better
 customer service, improved operational efficiency, competitive
advantages over rival organizations and other business benefits.

Communication Protocols

In telecommunications, a communications protocol is a system of rules that

allow two or more entities of a communications system to transmit information
via any kind of variation of a physical quantity. These are the rules or standard
that defines the syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and
possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware,
software, or a combination of both.

Communicating systems use well-defined formats (protocol) for exchanging

messages. Each message has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response
from a range of possible responses pre-determined for that particular situation.
The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be implemented.
Communications protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved. To
reach agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. A
programming language describes the same for computations, so there is a close
analogy between protocols and programming languages: protocols are to
communications as programming languages are to computations.

Embedded System

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a

larger mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing
constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including
hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in
common use today. 98 percent of all microprocessors are manufactured as
components of embedded systems.

Examples of properties of typically embedded computers when compared with

general-purpose counterparts are low power consumption, small size, rugged
operating ranges, and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited
processing resources, which make them significantly more difficult to program
and to interact with. However, by building intelligence mechanisms on top of
the hardware, taking advantage of possible existing sensors and the existence of 
a network of embedded units, one can both optimally manage available
resources at the unit and network levels as well as provide augmented
functions, well beyond those available. For example, intelligent techniques can
be designed to manage power consumption of embedded systems.

IoT Levels

IoT System comprises of the following components:

• Device

• Resource

• Controller Service

• Database

• Web Service

◦ Stateless/Stateful

◦ Unidirectional/Bi-directional

◦ Request-Response/Full Duplex

◦ TCP connection

◦ Header overhead

◦ Scalability

• Analysis component

• Application
IoT Level-1

Location technologies can be used to provide a context to an application. The

application can use the location to present the user with appropriate data and
actions that are relevant to them in that location. There are three key pieces of
the puzzle here. Firstly, who is the user? Is it an engineer, a loyal customer or
another stakeholder? Secondly, what is the context? Is it a specific location in a
building, or a specific piece of equipment or thing? Where is the data coming
from, is it open data feeds or data feeds that the company has control or access
to? Thirdly, what information is important at that time? What does the user
need and how are you going to get that data and present it to them, to help them
or help the business?

At this level, the most basic level, things are given context and the ability to
make their awareness known, connecting digital and physical things together.

IoT Level-2

At the second level, environmental awareness, driven by various different

sensors is added. Our phones already have this capability, to an extent, but at
this level, the environment is also talking to the p hone and telling it about its
status. This may also be taken to another level, where the user doesn’t need to
be physically there, but the space can still send information back to a backend
system. For example, a company is able to monitor their entire infrastructure
remotely, without employees being there. This is one of the most common
forms of Internet of Things, especially within large manufacturing, engineering
or utility firms.

This is already largely used with weather systems, to track changes in the
weather and is largely used throughout the agriculture industry.
IoT Level-3

The third level of IoT is linked with remote control of environment and things,
whether someone is in a physical space or sitting in an office 5,000 miles away.
This is being seen increasingly in the automotive and smart home industry,
where people can monitor the status of their cars or homes, turn on heating, or
control the lighting and other elements.

This is also seen in large scale modern factories and even offices that have
smart heating systems, smart printers and security systems. The third level is
also about a level of intelligence within remote systems and things; where they
can tell a user or a backend system when they are developing an issue and
when they need help. At this level, it goes beyond awareness, from
communication to insight, mixed with control.

To get started with IoT consider the levels. What level are you trying to
achieve and is it logical to work through level one to three in a linear fashion?
Or is it about experimenting and learning as you go? There is an argument for
 jumping straight in at level two and three, but this will depend on the current
infrastructure and capability.

What is interesting to note is that to get started is relatively straightforward.

There are ways and means to prove concepts, technologies and user
experiences without spending a fortune. Experimenting and aiming to prove or
disprove a case is great way to start exploring the possible.

IoT Level-4

A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. Level-4
contains local and cloud-based observer nodes which can subscribe to and
receive information collected in the cloud from IoT devices.

IoT Level-5
A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node. The
end node perform sensing and/or actuation. Coordinator node collects data
from the end nodes and sends to the cloud.

IoT Level-6

A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes that perform sensing
and/or actuation and send data to the cloud.

Questions

1. Describe an example of an IoT system in which information and

knowledge are inferred from data.

2. Why do IoT systems have to be self-adapting and self-configuring?

3. What is the role of things and Internet in IoT?

4. What is the functioon of communication functional block in an IoT

system?

5. Describe an example of IoT service that uses publish-subscribe

communication model.

6. Describe an example of IoT service that uses WebSocket-based

communication.

7. What are the architectural constraints of REST?

8. What is the role of a coordinator in wireless sensor network?

9. What is the role of controller service in an IoT system

 Unit II

Domain Specific IOTs:

Home Automation
Home automation is the use and control of home appliances remotely or
automatically. Early home automation began with labour-saving machines like
washing machines. Some home automation appliances are stand alone and do
not communicate, such as a programmable light switch, while others are part of 
the internet of things and are networked for remote control and data transfer.
Hardware devices can include sensors (like cameras and thermometers),
controllers, actuators (to do things), and communication systems. Remote
control can range from a simple remote control to a smartphone with
Bluetooth, to a computer on the other side of the world connected by internet.
Home automation systems are available which consist of a suite of products
designed to work together. These typically connected through Wi-Fi or power
line communication to a hub which is then accessed with a software
application. Popular applications include thermostats, security systems, blinds,
lighting, smoke/CO detectors, and door locks.[1] Popular suites of products
include X10, Z-Wave, and Zigbee all of which are incompatible with each
other. Home automation is the domestic application of building automation

• Smart Lighting

• Smart Appliances

• Intrusion detection

• Smoke/Gas detectors
Cities

A smart city is an urban development vision to integrate multiple information

and communication technology (ICT) solutions in a secure fashion to manage a
city’s assets – the city’s assets include, but not limited to, local departments
information systems, schools, libraries, transportation systems, hospitals, power
plants, water supply networks, waste management, law enforcement, and other
community services. The goal of building a smart city is to improve quality of
life by using technology to improve the efficiency of services and meet
residents’ needs. ICT allows city officials to interact directly with the
community and the city infrastructure and to monitor what is happening in the
city, how the city is evolving, and how to enable a better quality of life.
Through the use of sensors integrated with real-time monitoring systems, data
are collected from citizens and devices - then processed and analyzed. The
information and knowledge gathered are keys to tackling inefficiency.
ICT is used to enhance quality, performance and interactivity of urban services,
to reduce costs and resource consumption and to improve contact between
citizens and government. Smart city applications are dev eloped with the goal of 
improving the management of urban flows and allowing for real time responses
to challenges. A smart city may therefore be more prepared to respond to
challenges than one with a simple 'transactional' relationship with its citizens.
Yet, the term itself remains unclear to its specifics and therefore, open to many
interpretations and subject

• Smart parking

• Smart Lighting

• Smart roads

• Structural health monitoring

• Surveillance

• Emergency Response

Environment

The concept of smart environments evolves from the definition of ubiquitous

computing that, according to Mark Weiser, promotes the ideas of "a physical
world that is richly and invisibly interwoven with sensors, actuators, displays,
and computational elements, embedded seamlessly in the everyday objects of
our lives, and connected through a continuous network."[1]

Smart environments are envisioned as the byproduct of pervasive computing

and the availability of cheap computing power, making human interaction with
the system a pleasant experience.

Smart environments are broadly classified to have the following features

 1  Remote control of devices, like power line communication systems to
control devices.

2  Device Communication, using middleware, and Wireless

communication to form a picture of connected environments.

3  Information Acquisition/Dissemination from sensor networks

4  Enhanced Services by Intelligent Devices

5 Predictive and Decision-Making capabilities

• Weather Monitoring

• Air pollution Monitoring

• Noise pollution Monitoring

• Forest Fire detection

• River Floods Detection

Energy

Smart Grids

A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of

operational and energy measures including smart meters, smart
appliances, renewable energy resources, and energy efficiency
resources. Electronic power conditioning and control of the production
and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid.
 Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European
Technology Platform.

Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-

engineering of the electricity services industry, although typical usage
of the term is focused on the technical infrastructure.

• Renewable Energy Systems

• Prognostics

Retail

IoT has caught the imagination of technology enthusiasts and there are many
predictions of how it might revolutionize industries and practices as we know
them today. The retail industry has already undergone a wave of disruption
with the onset of e-commerce and online retail. There is every chance that IoT
heralds the next wave of disruption along the following areas in retail:
– Supply Chain Management
– Inventory & Warehouse Management
– Marketing
– In-Store Experience

• Inventory management

• Smart payments

• Smart vending machines

Logistics
 • Route Generation & Scheduling

• Fleet tracking

• Shipment Monitoring

• Remote Vehicle Diagnostics

Agriculture
Agriculture has been evolving with new technology such as the Internet of
Things (IoT). For example, greenhouses are connected to each other, and their
environments are controlled automatically and optimized for the best q uality of 
agricultural products. In addition, the advanced cattle sheds are built based on
the IoT technologies. These efforts enhance the quality and safety of
agricultural products and mitigate information asymmetry between producers
and consumers.

• Smart Irrigation

• Green House control

Industry
• Machine Diagnosis and prognosis

• Indoor air quality monitoring

Health & Life Style
 • Health & Fittness monitoring

• Wearable electronics

Questions

1. Determine
Determine the IoT-levels
IoT-levels for designin
designing
g home automati
automation
on IoT system
systemss
including smart leghting and intrusion detection.

2. Determine
Determine the IoT-lev
IoT-levels
els for designi
designing
ng structural
structural health monitor
monitoring
ing
system.

3. Determine
Determine various
various communi
communication
cation models that can
can be used
used for weather
weather
monitoring system. What is more appropriate model for this system.
Describe the pros and cons.

4. Determine
Determine the type of data generated
generated by a forest
forest fire
fire detection
detection system
system??
Describe alternative approaches for storing the data. What type of
analysis is required for forest fire detection from the data collected.
Unit III

M2M & System Management with NETCONF-YANG:

M2M
The aptly named IoT subset M2M initially represented closed, point-to-point
communication between physical-first objects. The explosion of mobile
devices and IP-based connectivity mechanisms has enabled data transmission
across a system of networks. M2M is more recently referred to technologies
that enable communication between machines without human intervention.
Examples include telemetry, traffic control, robotics, and other applications
involving device-to-device communications.
Difference between IOT and M2M
1. Communication protocols

2. Machines in M2M vs Things in IoT

3. Hardware vs Software Emphasis

4. Data Collection & Analysis

5. Applications
SDN and NFV for IOT

Software defined Networking (SDN)

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is an emerging architecture that is

dynamic, manageable, cost-effective, and adaptable, making it ideal for the
high-bandwidth, dynamic nature of today's applications. This architecture
decouples the network control and forwarding functions enabling the network
control to become directly programmable and the underlying infrastructure to
be abstracted for applications and network services. The OpenFlow® protocol
is a foundational element for building SDN solutions. The SDN architecture is:

• Directly programmable: Network control is directly programmable

because it is decoupled from forwarding functions.

• Agile: Abstracting control from forwarding lets administrators

dynamically adjust network-wide traffic flow to meet changing needs.

• Centrally managed: Network intelligence is (logically) centralized in

software-based SDN controllers that maintain a global view of the

network, which appears to applications and policy engines as a single,
logical switch.

• Programmatically configured: SDN lets network managers configure,

manage, secure, and optimize network resources very quickly via

dynamic, automated SDN programs, which they can write themselves
because the programs do not depend on proprietary software.

• Open standards-based and vendor-neutral: When implemented

through open standards, SDN simplifies network design and operation

because instructions are provided by SDN controllers instead of
multiple, vendor-specific devices and protocols.

Limitations of the conventional network architectures:

• Complex Network Devices

• management Overhead
 • Limited Scalability

Key elements of SDN

• Centralized network Controller

• Programmable Open APIs

• Standard Communication Interface (OpenFlow)

Network Function Virtualization (NFV)

Network function virtualization (NFV) is a network architecture concept that

uses the technologies of IT virtualization to virtualize entire classes of network
node functions into building blocks that may connect, or chain together, to
create communication services.

NFV relies upon, but differs from, traditional server-virtualization techniques,

such as those used in enterprise IT. A virtualized network function, or VNF,
may consist of one or more virtual machines running different software and
processes, on top of standard high-volume servers, switches and storage, or
even cloud computing infrastructure, instead of having custom hardware
appliances for each network function.

For example, a virtual session border controller could be deployed to protect a

network without the typical cost and complexity of obtaining and installing
physical units. Other examples of NFV include virtualized load balancers,
firewalls, intrusion detection devices and WAN accelerators.
Key elements of NFV architecture

• Virtualized Network Function (VNF)

• NFV Infrastructure (NFVI)

• NFV Management and Orchestration

Need for IOT Systems Management

• Automating Configuration

• Monitoring Operational & statistical data

• Improved Reliablity

• System Wide Configuration

• Multiple System Configuration

• Retrieving and reusing configuration

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet-standard
protocol for collecting and organizing information about managed devices on
IP networks and for modifying that information to change device behavior.
Devices that typically support SNMP include routers, switches, servers,
workstations, printers, modem racks and more.

SNMP is widely used in network management systems to monitor network-

attached devices for conditions that warrant administrative attention. SNMP
exposes management data in the form of variables on the managed systems,
which describe the system configuration. These variables can then be queried
(and sometimes set) by managing applications.

Limitations of SNMP

• SNMP is stateless

• SNMP is connectionless, so unreliable

• SNMP can be used only for device monitoring and status polling.

• It is difficult to differentiate between configuration and stste data in

MIBs.

• SNMP does not support easy retrieval and playback of configurations.

• SNMP latest version have security addede at the cost of increased

complexity.

Network Operator Requirements

• Ease of use

• Distinction between configuration and state data.

 • Fetch and state data seperately

• configuration of the network as a whole

• configuration transactions across devices

• configuration deltas

• Dump and restore configurations

• configuration validation

• configuration database schemas

• Comparing configurations

• Role-based access control lists

• Multiple configuration sets

• Support for both data-oriented and task-oriented access control

NETCONF

The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management

protocol developed and standardized by the IETF. It was developed in the
NETCONF working group and published in December 2006 as RFC 4741 and
later revised in June 2011 and published as RFC 6241. The NETCONF
protocol specification is an Internet Standards Track document.

NETCONF provides mechanisms to install, manipulate, and delete the

configuration of network devices. Its operations are realized on top of a simple
remote procedure call (RPC) layer. The NETCONF protocol uses an Extensible
Markup Language (XML) based data encoding for the configuration data as
well as the protocol messages. The protocol messages are ex changed on top of
a secure transport protocol.
The NETCONF protocol can be conceptually partitioned into four layers:

1. The Content layer consists of configuration data and notification data.

2. The Operations layer defines a set of base protocol operations to

retrieve and edit the configuration data.

3. The Messages layer provides a mechanism for encoding remote

procedure calls (RPCs) and notifications.

4. The Secure Transport layer provides a secure and reliable transport of

messages between a client and a server.

The NETCONF protocol has been implemented in network devices such as

routers and switches by some major equipment vendors. One particular
strength of NETCONF is its support for robust configuration change
transactions involving a number of devices.
YANG

YANG is a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration

protocol. The name is an acronym for "Yet Another Next Generation". The
YANG data modeling language was developed by the NETMOD working
group in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and was published as RFC
6020 in October 2010. The data modeling language can be used to model both
configuration data as well as state data of network elements. Furthermore,
YANG can be used to define the format of event notifications emitted by
network elements and it allows data modelers to define the signature of remote
procedure calls that can be invoked on network elements via the NETCONF
protocol.

YANG is a modular language representing data structures in an XML tree

format. The data modeling language comes with a number of builtin data types.
Additional application specific data types can be derived from the builtin data
types. More complex reusable data structures can be represented as groupings.
YANG data models can use XPATH expressions to define constraints on the
elements of a YANG data model.

IoT Systems management with NETCONF-YANG.

• Management System

• Management API

• Transaction Manager

• Rollback Manager

• Data Model Manager

• Configuration Validator

• Configuration Database

• Configuration API

• Data Provider API

NETOPEER

Netopeer server is the leading open source NETCONF reference

implementation. It has many features but sometimes it may prove to be a
challenging task to gather all pieces and get it installed successfully on your
Linux box.

The Netofeer tools include

• Netopeer-server

• Netopeer-agent

• Netopeer-cli

• Netopeer-manager

• Netopeer-configurator
Questions:

1. Which communication protocols are used for M2M local area

networks?

2. What are the differences between Machines in M2M and Things in

IoT?

3. How do data collection and analysis approaches differ in M2M and

IoT?

4. What are the differences between SDN and NFV?

5. Describe how SDN can be used for various levels of IoT?

6. What is the function of a centralized network controller in SDN?

7. Describe how NFV can be used for virtualizing IoT devices?

8. Why is network wide configuration important for IoT systems with

multiple nodes?

9. Which limitation make SNMP unsuitable for IoT systems?

10. What is the difference between configuration and state data?

11. What is the role of a NETCONF server?

12. What is the function of a data model manager?

13. Describe the roles of YANG and TransAPI modules in device

management.

Unit IV

Developing Internet of Things & Logical Design using Python:

IOT Design Methodology

 • Step 1: Purpose & Requirements Specification

• Step 2: Process specification

• Step 3: Domain Model Specification

• Step 4: Information Model Specification

• Step 5: Service Specifications

• Step 6: IoT Level Specification

• Step 7: Functional View Specification

• Step 8: Operational View Specification

• Step 9: Device and Component Integration

• Step 10: Application Development

Features of Python

Simple

Python is a simple and minimalistic language. Reading a good Python program

feels almost like reading English, although very strict English! This pseudo-
code nature of Python is one of its greatest strengths. It allows you to
concentrate on the solution to the problem rather than the language itself.

Easy to Learn

As you will see, Python is extremely easy to get started with. Python has an
extraordinarily simple syntax, as already mentioned.

Free and Open Source

Python is an example of a FLOSS (Free/Libré and Open Source Software).

In simple terms, you can freely distribute copies of this software, read it's
source code, make changes to it, use pieces of it in new free programs, and that
you know you can do these things. FLOSS is based on the concept of a
community which shares knowledge. This is one of the reasons why Python is
so good - it has been created and is constantly improved by a community who
 just want to see a better Python.

High-level Language

When you write programs in Python, you never need to bother about the low-
level details such as managing the memory used by your program, etc.

Portable

Due to its open-source nature, Python has been ported (i.e. changed to make it
work on) to many platforms. All your Python programs can work on any of
these platforms without requiring any changes at all if you are careful enough
to avoid any system-dependent features.

You can use Python on Linux, Windows, FreeBSD, Macintosh, Solaris, OS/2,
Amiga, AROS, AS/400, BeOS, OS/390, z/OS, Palm OS, QNX, VMS, Psion,
Acorn RISC OS, VxWorks, PlayStation, Sharp Zaurus, Windows CE and even
PocketPC !

Interpreted

This requires a bit of explanation.

A program written in a compiled language like C or C++ is converted from the

source language i.e. C or C++ into a language that is spoken by your computer
(binary code i.e. 0s and 1s) using a compiler with various flags and options.
When you run the program, the linker/loader software copies the program from
hard disk to memory and starts running it.
Python, on the other hand, does not need compilation to binary. You just run
the program directly from the source code. Internally, Python converts the
source code into an intermediate form called bytecodes and then translates this
into the native language of your computer and then runs it. All this, actually,
makes using Python much easier since you don't have to worry about compiling
the program, making sure that the proper libraries are linked and loaded, etc,
etc. This also makes your Python programs much more portable, since you can
 just copy your Python program onto another computer and it just works!

Object Oriented

Python supports procedure-oriented programming as well as object-oriented

programming. In procedure-oriented  languages, the program is built around
procedures or functions which are nothing but reusable pieces of programs. In
object-oriented  languages, the program is built around objects which combine

data and functionality. Python has a very powerful but simplistic way of doing
OOP, especially when compared to big languages like C++ or Java.

Extensible

If you need a critical piece of code to run very fast or want to have some piece
of algorithm not to be open, you can code that part of your program in C or C+
+ and then use them from your Python program.

Embeddable

You can embed Python within your C/C++ programs to give 'scripting'
capabilities for your program's users.

Extensive Libraries

The Python Standard Library is huge indeed. It can help you do various things
involving regular expressions, documentation generation, unit testing,
threading, databases, web browsers, CGI, ftp, email, XML, XML-RPC, HTML,
WAV files, cryptography, GUI (graphical user interfaces), Tk, and other
system-dependent stuff. Remember, all this is always available wherever
Python is installed. This is called the 'Batteries Included' philosophy of Python.

Besides, the standard library, there are various other high-quality libraries such
as wxPython, Twisted, Python Imaging Library and many more.

Python Data Types & Data Structures

Numbers

Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data
types, means that changing the value of a number data type results in a
newly allocated object.

Python supports different numerical types −

int (signed integers): They are often called just integers or ints, are
positive or negative whole numbers with no decimal point. Integers in
Python 3 are of unlimited size. Python 2 has two integer types - int and
long. There is no 'long integer' in Python 3 any more.

float (floating point real values) : Also called floats, they represent real
numbers and are written with a decimal point dividing the integer and
fractional parts. Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E or e
indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 102 = 250).

complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are
floats and J (or j) represents the square root of -1 (which is an imaginary
number). The real part of the number is a, and the imaginary part is b.
Complex numbers are not used much in Python programming.
• Strings

Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create
them simply by enclosing characters in quotes. Python treats single
quotes the same as double quotes. Creating strings is as simple as
assigning a value to a variable.

#!/usr/bin/python3

var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"

print ("var1[0]: ", var1[0])print ("var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5])

Lists

The list is a most versatile data-type available in Python which can be

written as a list of comma-separated values (items) between square
brackets. Important thing about a list is that items in a list need not be
of the same type.

Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values

between square brackets. For example −

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];

list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"]

Tuples

A tuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are

sequences, just like lists. The differences between tuples and lists are,
the tuples cannot be changed unlike lists and tuples use parentheses,
whereas lists use square brackets.

Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated

values. Optionally you can put these comma-separated values between
parentheses also. For example −

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 );

tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";

The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing −

tup1 = ();

To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a

comma, even though there is only one value −

tup1 = (50,);

Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced,
concatenated, and so on.

Dictionaries

Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are
separated by commas, and the whole thing is enclosed in curly braces.
An empty dictionary without any items is written with just two curly
braces, like this: {}.

Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The
values of a dictionary can be of any type, but the keys must be of an
immutable data type such as strings, numbers, or tuples.

To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets
 along with the key to obtain its value. Following is a simple example −

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}

print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

dict['Name']: Zara

dict['Age']: 7

Type conversion

Below is a table of the conversion functions in Python and their

examples.
 •

Function Converting what to what Example

>>> int('2014') 2014 >>>

string, floating point →

int() int(3.141592)3
integer

string, integer → floating >>> float('1.99') 1.99 >>> float(5)5.0

float()
point number

>>> str(3.141592) '3.141592' >>>

integer, float, list, tuple,
str() str([1,2,3,4])'[1, 2, 3, 4]'
dictionary → string

>>> list('Mary') # list of characters

in 'Mary' ['M', 'a', 'r', 'y'] >>>
list() string, tuple, dictionary → list list((1,2,3,4)) # (1,2,3,4) is a
tuple[1, 2, 3, 4]

>>> tuple('Mary')('M', 'a', 'r', 'y') >>>

tuple([1,2,3,4]) # [ ] for list, ( ) for
tuple() string, list → tuple
tuple(1, 2, 3, 4)

Control Flow

if statement
Python provide various tools for flow control. Some of them are if ,
if .. elif .. else, if..else,while ,for , switch, pass, range, break, else,
continue, function etc. In this article I’ll be covering only if-else and
loops.

if – if  this is the case then do this

This control statement indicate that if something happens then do this.

It’s a good way of handling some short conditions. An if block can be
followed by zero or any number of else block.

if (condition):

statements…

Note: Use of colon ( ":" ) in python is same as we use brackets in java

or C++. Python uses colon and indentation for defining the scope or
code block. So if you are getting an error like the following picture
then correct your code indentation.

if … else

It’s like if  have money then spend else wait for salary. I hope it’s clear
from the previous line what this statement means. It’s like if the
conditions of if block is evaluated to true then execute that block else
execute the else block. The else block is optional and one if can have
any number of else blocks.

Syntax:

if (condition):

statements…
else:

default statements…

if … elif … else

It’s like checking multiple conditions. Let’s Take an example if

pocketMoney greater then 90T then Okay else if pocket money is
equal to 50T and Less then 90T then its average else it’s not enough.
Basically that statement can replace switch statement. You can put any
number of elif blocks after if and else block is optional.

Syntax:

if (option1 condition):

option1 statements…

elif(option2 condition):

option2 statements…

elif(option3 condition):

option3 statements…

else:

default option statements…

for

It is used for looping over a sequence. Python doesn’t supports old for
loop or c-style for loop. In traditional style for loop we have one
variable which iterates over a sequence and we can change the value of 
 sequence and variable as well but in modern for loop we have iteration
variable that iterates over a fixed sequence. We can not change the
sequence as well as iteration variable during iteration.

Syntax:

for iterator_name in iterating_sequence:

  …statements…

while

A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly

executes a target statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax

The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is −

while expression:

  statement(s)

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value.

The loop iterates while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line
immediately following the loop.

In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character

 spaces after a programming construct are considered to be part of a
single block of code. Python uses indentation as its method of grouping
statements.

range

Sometimes it is required that we just want to iterate over number

sequence like 1,2,3,4,… To solve this purpose python provides range
function which generate the arithmetic progression with number of
terms equal to the parameter passed in it. We have 3 variations of
range() function. One take only

Syntax:

1 for iterator_name in range(10):

…statements…

2 for iterator_name in range(start,end):

…statements…

3 for iterator_name in range(start,stop,increment):

…statements…

•
 •

break/continue

Break is used for terminating the loop abnormally. i.e that even the
sequence is not completed but loop is exited.

Continue is used for continuing to next iteration of loop without doing

anything inside the loop.

Else is introduced in python and it is placed in loop without if. It will

execute only if the loop is terminated without break.

Note: there are two more else statement, one is for if  that I already
explained and other is with try. The difference between try else block
and loop else is try else block executes when no code is executed and
loop else executes when no break is executed.

pass

Pass statement is used when you don’t want to do anything but it is

required for the sake of syntactical correctness. Pass has two common
uses.

1 It is used for creating minimal classes.

2 It is used as place holder. For example consider the following

snippet

Functions

A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a

single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for your application
and a high degree of code reusing.

As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like print(),
etc. but you can also create your own functions. These functions are called
user-defined functions.

Defining a Function

You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple
rules to define a function in Python.

 Function blocks begin with the keyword def  followed by the function

name and parentheses ( ( ) ).

 Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these

parentheses. You can also define parameters inside these parentheses.

 The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the

documentation string of the function or docstring.

 The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is
indented.

 The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back

an expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the
same as return None.

Syntax

def functionname( parameters ):

  "function_docstring"

  function_suite

return [expression]
By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them
in the same order that they were defined.

Modules

A module allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related
code into a module makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a
Python object with arbitrarily named attributes that you can bind and reference.

Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define

functions, classes and variables. A module can also include runnable code.

Example

The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file named
aname.py. Here's an example of a simple module, support.py

def print_func( par ):

print "Hello : ", par

  return

The import  Statement

You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import
statement in some other Python source file. The import  has the following
syntax:

import module1[, module2[,... moduleN]

When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if

the module is present in the search path. A search path is a list of directories
that the interpreter searches before importing a module.
Packages

Packages are namespaces which contain multiple packages and modules

themselves. They are simply directories, but with a twist.

Each package in Python is a directory which MUST contain a special file

called __init__.py. This file can be empty, and it indicates that the directory it
contains is a Python package, so it can be imported the same way a module can
be imported.

If we create a directory called foo, which marks the package name, we can then
create a module inside that package called bar. We also must not forget to add
the __init__.py file inside the foo directory.

To use the module bar, we can import it in two ways:

import foo.bar

File Handling

Opening and Closing Files

Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and output.
Now, we will see how to use actual data files.

Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files by

default. You can do most of the file manipulation using a file  object.

The open Function

Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-in
open() function. This function creates a file  object, which would be utilized to

call other support methods associated with it.

Syntax

file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering])

Here are parameter details:

file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the

name of the file that you want to access.

access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file

has to be opened, i.e., read, write, append, etc. A complete list of

possible values is given below in the table. This is optional parameter
and the default file access mode is read (r).

buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering takes place. If

the buffering value is 1, line buffering is performed while a ccessing a

file. If you specify the buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then
buffering action is performed with the indicated buffer size. If nega tive,
the buffer size is the system default(default behavior).

Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file −

Modes Description

Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning
r
of the file. This is the default mode.

Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed
rb
at the beginning of the file. This is the default mode.

Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer placed at the
r+
beginning of the file.

rb+ Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file
 pointer placed at the beginning of the file.

Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the
w
file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the
wb
file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if 
w+ the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading
and writing.

Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites
wb+ the existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new
file for reading and writing.

Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if
a the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not
exist, it creates a new file for writing.

Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the
ab end of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If 
the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing.

Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the
a+ end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If
the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.

Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file
pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the
ab+
append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading
and writing.

Date/ Time Operations

Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds. Particular

instants in time are expressed in seconds since 12:00am, January 1,
1970(epoch).

There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions

for working with times, and for converting between representations. The
function time.time() returns the current system time in ticks since 12:00am,
January 1, 1970(epoch).

Example

#!/usr/bin/pythonimport time; # This is required to include time module.

ticks = time.time()

print "Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:", ticks

Classes

Class : A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of

attributes that characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data
members (class variables and instance variables) and methods, accessed
via dot notation.

Instance/Object : An individual object of a certain class. An object obj

that belongs to a class Circle, for example, is an instance of the class
Circle.

Inheritance : The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes

that are derived from it.

Function Overloading : The assignment of more than one behavior to a

particular function. The operation performed varies by the types of
objects or arguments involved.

Operator Overloading : The assignment of more than one function to a

particular operator.
 Python Packages of Interest for IoT

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)

JSON or JavaScript Object Notation is a lightweight text-based open

standard designed for human-readable data interchange. The JSON
format was originally specified by Douglas Crockford, and is described
in RFC 4627. The official Internet media type for JSON is
application/json. The JSON filename extension is .json. This tutorial
will help you understand JSON and its use within various
programming languages such as PHP, PERL, Python, Ruby, Java, etc.

Before you start with encoding and decoding JSON using Python, you
need to install any of the JSON modules available. For this tutorial we
have downloaded and installed Demjson as follows −

$tar xvfz demjson-1.6.tar.gz

$cd demjson-1.6

$python setup.py install

JSON Functions

Encoding JSON in Python (encode)

Function Libraries
Python
Encodes the Python object into a JSON string
encode encode()
representation.
function
Decodes a JSON-endoded string into a Python encodes
decode
object. the Python
object into a JSON string representation.

Syntax

demjson.encode(self, obj, nest_level=0)

Example

The following example shows arrays under JSON with Python.

#!/usr/bin/pythonimport demjson

data = [ { 'a' : 1, 'b' : 2, 'c' : 3, 'd' : 4, 'e' : 5 } ]

 json = demjson.encode(data)

print json

While executing, this will produce the following result −

[{"a":1,"b":2,"c":3,"d":4,"e":5}]

Decoding JSON in Python (decode)

Python can use demjson.decode() function for decoding JSON. This

function returns the value decoded from json to an appropriate Python
type.

Syntax

demjson.decode(self, txt)

Example

The following example shows how Python can be used to decode

JSON objects.

#!/usr/bin/pythonimport demjson

 json = '{"a":1,"b":2,"c":3,"d":4,"e":5}';

text = demjson.decode(json)

print text
On executing, it will produce the following result −

{u'a': 1, u'c': 3, u'b': 2, u'e': 5, u'd': 4}

XML

XML is a portable, open source language that allows programmers to

develop applications that can be read by other applications, regardless
of operating system and/or developmental language.

What is XML?

The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language much

like HTML or SGML. This is recommended by the World Wide Web
Consortium and available as an open standard.

XML is extremely useful for keeping track of small to medium

amounts of data without requiring a SQL-based backbone.

XML Parser Architectures and APIs

The Python standard library provides a minimal but useful set of

interfaces to work with XML.

The two most basic and broadly used APIs to XML data are the SAX
and DOM interfaces.

Simple API for XML (SAX) : Here, you register callbacks for events

of interest and then let the parser proceed through the document. This
is useful when your documents are large or you have memory
limitations, it parses the file as it reads it from disk and the entire file is
never stored in memory.

Document Object Model (DOM) API : This is a World Wide Web

Consortium recommendation wherein the entire file is read into

memory and stored in a hierarchical (tree-based) form to represent all
the features of an XML document.

SAX obviously cannot process information as fast as DOM can when

working with large files. On the other hand, using DOM exclusively
can really kill your resources, especially if used o n a lot of small files.

SAX is read-only, while DOM allows changes to the XML file. Since
these two different APIs literally complement each other, there is no
reason why you cannot use them both for large projects.

HTTPLib & URLLib

The httplib module has been renamed to http.client in Python 3. The

2to3 tool will automatically adapt imports when converting your
sources to Python 3.

This module defines classes which implement the client side of the
HTTP and HTTPS protocols. It is normally not used directly — the
module urllib uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and HTTPS.

Here is an example session that uses the "GET" method:

>>> import httplib

>>> conn = httplib.HTTPConnection("www.python.org")

>>> conn.request("GET", "/index.html")

>>> r1 = conn.getresponse()

>>> print r1.status, r1.reason

200 OK

>>> data1 = r1.read()

>>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")

>>> r2 = conn.getresponse()

>>> print r2.status, r2.reason

404 Not Found

>>> data2 = r2.read()

>>> conn.close()

Here is an example session that shows how to "POST" requests:

>>> import httplib, urllib

>>> params = urllib.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})

>>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-

urlencoded",

... "Accept": "text/plain"}

>>> conn = httplib.HTTPConnection("musi-cal.mojam.com:80")

>>> conn.request("POST", "/cgi-bin/query", params, headers)

>>> response = conn.getresponse()

>>> print response.status, response.reason

200 OK

>>> data = response.read()

>>> conn.close()

The urllib module in Python 3 allows you access websites via your
program. This opens up as many doors for your programs as the
internet opens up for you. urllib in Python 3 is slightly different than
urllib2 in Python 2, but they are mostly the same. Through urllib, you
can access websites, download data, parse data, modify your headers,
and do any GET and POST requests you might need to do.

Some websites do not appreciate programs accessing their data and

placing weight on their servers. When they find out that a program is
visiting them, they may sometimes choose to block you out, or serve
you different data that a regular user might see. This can be annoying
at first, but can be overcome with some simple code. To do this, you
 just need to modify the user-agent, which is a variable within your
header that you send in. Headers are bits of data that you share with
servers to let them know a bit about you. This is where Python, by
default, tells the website that you are visiting with Python's u rllib and
your Python version. We can, however, modify this, and act as if we
are a lowly Internet Explorer user, a Chrome user, or anything else
really!

I would not recommend just blindly doing this, however, if a website is

blocking you out. Websites will also employ other tactics as well, but
usually they are doing it because they also offer an API that is
specifically made more programs to access. Programs are usually just
interested in the data, and do not need to be served fancy HTML or
CSS data, nor data for advertisements, etc.

SMTPLib

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol, which handles

sending e-mail and routing e-mail between mail servers.

Python provides smtplib module, which defines an SMTP client

session object that can be used to send mail to any Internet machine
with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon.
 Here is a simple syntax to create one SMTP object, which can later be
used to send an e-mail −

import smtplib

smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP( [host [, port [, local_hostname]]] )

Here is the detail of the parameters:

host: This is the host running your SMTP server. You can specifiy IP

address of the host or a domain name like tutorialspoint.com. This is

optional argument.

port: If you are providing host  argument, then you need to specify a

port, where SMTP server is listening. Usually this port would be 25.

local_hostname: If your SMTP server is running on your local

machine, then you can specify just localhost  as of this option.

An SMTP object has an instance method called sendmail, which is

typically used to do the work of mailing a message. It takes three
parameters −

The sender  - A string with the address of the sender.

The receivers - A list of strings, one for each recipient.

The message - A message as a string formatted as specified in the

various RFCs.

Questions:

1. What is the difference between a physical and virtual entity?

2. What is an IoT device?

 3. What is the purpose of information model?

4. What are the various service types?

5. What is the need for a controller service?

6. What is the difference between procedure-oriented programming and

object-oriented programming?

7. What is an interpreted language?

8. Describe a use case of Python dictionary.

9. What is the keyword argument in Python?

10. What are variable length arguments?

11. What is the difference between a Python module and a package?

12. How is function overriding implemented in Python?

Unit V

IoT Physical Devices & Endpoints:

What is an IoT Device

The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects—devices,

vehicles, buildings and other items—embedded with electronics, software,
sensors, and network connectivity that enables these objec ts to collect and
exchange data.
Sensing

IoT devices and systems include sensors that track and measure
activity in the world. One example is Smartthings' open-and-close
sensors that detect whether or not a drawer, window, or door in your
home is open or closed.

Actuation

Actuation is nothing but responding back to the environment based on

the processing of collected data at a sensor device

Communication

Once the embedded sensors have gathered data, they are tasked with
transmitting this data to an identified destination. This transference can
utilize different connectivity methodologies, depending on the
requirements of the corresponding device, but will most often use
 wired/wireless or PAN/BAN/LAN communication links. Regardless of 
the method used, the links will generally only need to transmit small
kilobytes of data, unless higher bandwidths are required.

Analysis & Processing

The reliance on communication to create cohesion between the

physical and the technological realms places importance on the
microprocessors that enable this connection to occur. Whether these
microprocessors allow objects to sense their surroundings, exchange
data with other components, or interact with the cloud, their
incorporation into the overall schema of the IoT is integral to the
engagement of the varied systems that must cooperate with one
another. Given the changing nature of the landscape, microprocessors
that are low power, cost-effective and leave a smaller imprint will be
those that are favored within the IoT.

Exemplary Device: Raspberry Pi

The Raspberry Pi is a low cost, credit-card sized computer that plugs into a

computer monitor or TV, and uses a standard keyboard and mouse. It is a
capable little device that enables people of all ages to explore computing, and
to learn how to program in languages like Scratch and Python. It’s capable of
doing everything you’d expect a desktop computer to do, from browsing the
internet and playing high-definition video, to making spreadsheets, word-
processing, and playing games.
About the Board

Processor and RAM

The system on a chip (SoC) used in the first generation Raspberry Pi is

somewhat equivalent to the chip used in older smartphones (such as iPhone,
3G, 3GS). The Raspberry Pi is based on the Broadcom BCM2835 SoC, which
includes an 700 MHz ARM1176JZF-S processor, VideoCore IV graphics
processing unit (GPU), and RAM. It has a Level 1 cache of 16 KB and a Level
2 cache of 128 KB. The Level 2 cache is used primarily by the GPU. The SoC
is stacked underneath the RAM chip, so only its edge is visible.

On the older beta model B boards, 128 MB was allocated by default to the
GPU, leaving 128 MB for the CPU.[25] On the first 256 MB release model B
(and model A), three different splits were possible. The default split was
192 MB (RAM for CPU), which should be sufficient for standalone 1080p
video decoding, or for simple 3D, but probably not for both together. 224 MB
was for Linux only, with only a 1080p framebuffer, and was likely to fail for
any video or 3D. 128 MB was for heavy 3D, possibly also with video decoding
(e.g. XBMC).
USB Ports

The Raspberry Pi 3 shares the same SMSC LAN9514 chip as its predecessor,
the Raspberry Pi 2, adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB
channels to the board.

As before, the SMSC chip connects to the SoC via a single USB channel,
acting as a USB-to-Ethernet adaptor and USB hub.

Though the model A and A+ and Zero do not have an 8P8C ("RJ45") Ethernet
port, they can be connected to a network using an external user-supplied USB
Ethernet or Wi-Fi adapter.

On the model B and B+ the Ethernet port is provided by a built-in USB

Ethernet adapter.

The Raspberry Pi 3 is equipped with 2.4 GHz WiFi 802.11n and Bluetooth 4.1
in addition to the 10/100 Ethernet port.

Ethernet Ports

 Though the model A and A+ and Zero do not have an 8P8C ("RJ45")

Ethernet port, they can be connected to a network using an external user-
supplied USB Ethernet or Wi-Fi adapter.

 On the model B and B+ the Ethernet port is provided by a built-in USB

Ethernet adapter.

 The Raspberry Pi 3 is equipped with 2.4 GHz WiFi 802.11n and Bluetooth
4.1 in addition to the 10/100 Ethernet port.

HMDI Output and Composite Video Output

 The video controller is capable of standard modern TV resolutions, such as
HD and Full HD, and higher or lower monitor resolutions and older
standard CRT TV resolutions.

As shipped (i.e. without custom overclocking) it is capable of the

following: 640×350 EGA; 640×480 VGA; 800×600 SVGA; 1024×768
XGA; 1280×720 720p HDTV; 1280×768 WXGA variant; 1280×800
WXGA variant; 1280×1024 SXGA; 1366×768 WXGA variant;
1400×1050 SXGA+; 1600×1200 UXGA; 1680×1050 WXGA+;
1920×1080 1080p HDTV; 1920×1200 WUXGA.

GPIO Pins

 The Raspberry Pi 3 features the same 40-pin general-purpose input-output

(GPIO) header as all the Pis going back to the Model B+ and Model A+.

 Any existing GPIO hardware will work without modification; the only
change is a switch to which UART is exposed on the GPIO’s pins, but
that’s handled internally by the operating system.
Linux on Raspberry Pi

Raspberry Pi supports various flavors of Linux including

• Raspbian

• Arch

• Pidora

• RaspBMC

• OpenELEC

• RISC OS
Raspberry Pi Interfaces

• Serial

• SPI : There are 5 pins on Raspberry Pi for SPI interface

◦ MISO (Master In Slave Out)

◦ MOSI (Master Out Slave In)

◦ SCK (Serial Clock)

 ◦ CE0 (Chip Enable 0)

◦ CE0 (Chip Enable 1)

• I2C

Programming Raspberry Pi with Python

 Controlling LED with Raspberry Pi

 Interfacing an LED and switch with Raspberry Pi

 Interfacing an Light Sensor (LDR) with Raspberry Pi

Other IOT Devices

pcDuino

The beauty of the pcDuino lies in its extraordinarily well exposed hardware
peripherals. However, using these peripherals is more complex than u sing them
on, say, an Arduino-compatible board.

This tutorial will help you sort out the various peripherals, what they can do,
and how to use them.

Before we get started, there are a few things you should be certain you’re
familiar with, to get the most out of this tutorial:

 pcDuino - some familiarity with the basics of the pcDuino is needed before
you jump into this. Please review our Getting Started with pcDuino tutorial
before going any further.

 Linux - the biggest thing you should be familiar with it the Linux OS.
Remember, pcDuino is not an Arduino–it is a modern microcomputer
running a fully-functional, if compact, operating system.
 SPI - a synchronous (clocked) serial peripheral interface used for
communications between chips at a board level. Requires a minimum of
four wires (clock, master-out-slave-in data, master-in-slave-out data, and
slave chip select), and each additional chip added to the bus requires one
extra chip select line.

 I2C - also known as IIC (inter-integrated circuit), SMBus, or TWI (two-

wire interface), I2C uses only two wires (bidirectional data and clock lines)
to communicate with multiple devices.

 Serial Communication - an asynchronous (no transmitted clock) data

interface with at least two wires (data transmit and data receive;
sometimes, additional signals are added to indicate when a device is ready
to send or receive).

 Pulse Width Modulation - a digital-to-analog conversion technique using a

fixed frequency square wave of varying duty cycle, which can be easily
converted to an analog signal between 0V and the full amplitude of the
digital IC driving the signal.

 Analog-to-Digital Conversion - measurement of an analog voltage and

conversion of that voltage into a digital value.

All of the code in this tutorial can be found online, in our pcDuino Github
repository. It’s not a bad idea to check there for any updates to the code since
this tutorial was written.
BeagleBone Black
The BeagleBoard is a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer
produced by Texas Instruments in
Instruments in association with Digi-Key
Digi-Key and
 and Newark
element14.. The BeagleBoard was also designed with open source software
element14
development in mind, and as a way of demonstrating the Texas Instrument's
OMAP3530 system-on-a-chip
system-on-a-chip..[8]
[8] The
 The board was developed by a small team of
engineers as an educational board that could be used in colleges around the
world to teach open source hardware
ha rdware and software capabilities. It is also sold to
the public under the Creative Commons share-alike
share-alike license.
 license. The board was
designed using Cadence OrCAD
OrCAD for
 for schematics and Cadence Allegro for PCB
manufacturing; no simulation software was used.

Cubieboard
Cubieboard is a single-board computer,
computer, made in Zhuhai, Guangdong, China.
The first short run of prototype boards were sold internationally in September
2012, and the production version started to be sold in October 2012. It can run
Android 4 ICS,
ICS, Ubuntu 12.04 desktop, Fedora
Fedora 19
 19 ARM Remix desktop, Arch
Linux ARM,
ARM, a Debian-based Cubian distribution, or OpenBSD
OpenBSD..

It uses the AllWinner A10 SoC

SoC,, popular on cheap tablets, phones and media
PCs. This SoC is used by developers of
o f the lima
lima driver,
 driver, an open-source driver
for the ARM Mali GPU. It was able, at the 2013 FOSDEM demo, to run
3 at 47 fps in 1024×600.
ioquake 3 at

The Cubieboard team managed to run an Apache Hadoop computer cluster

using the Lubuntu
Lubuntu Linux
 Linux distribution.