Computer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Computer (disambiguation).

"Computer technology" redirects here. For the company, see Computer Technology Limited.

Computer

A computer is a general purpose device which can be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or
logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than
one kind of problem. The essential point of a computer is to implement an idea, the terms of which are satisfied
by Alan Turing's Universal Turing machine.

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element and some form of memory. The
processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can
change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be
retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved.

A computer's processing unit executes a series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then
store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the
machine or its environment.

In order to interact with such a machine, programmers and engineers developed the concept of a user
interface in order to accept input from humans and return results for human consumption.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United Kingdom and
United States. Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred
modern personal computers (PCs).[1] In this eramechanical analog computers were used for military
applications.

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early
machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices,
and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms
are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded
computers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the
most numerous.

Contents
  [hide] 

1 History of computing

o 1.1 Limited-function early computers

o 1.2 First general-purpose computers

o 1.3 Stored-program architecture

o 1.4 Semiconductors and

microprocessors

2 Programs

o 2.1 Stored program architecture

o 2.2 Bugs

o 2.3 Machine code

o 2.4 Programming language

 2.4.1 Low-level languages

 2.4.2 Higher-level languages

o 2.5 Program design

3 Components

o 3.1 Control unit

o 3.2 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

o 3.3 Memory

o 3.4 Input/output (I/O)

o 3.5 Multitasking

o 3.6 Multiprocessing

o 3.7 Networking and the Internet

o 3.8 Computer architecture paradigms

 4 Misconceptions

o 4.1 Required technology

5 Further topics

o 5.1 Artificial intelligence

o 5.2 Hardware

 5.2.1 History of computing

hardware

 5.2.2 Other hardware topics

o 5.3 Software

o 5.4 Languages

o 5.5 Professions and organizations

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

9 External links

History of computing

The Jacquard loom, on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England, was one of the first
programmable devices.

Main article:  History of computing hardware

The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations,
or computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the
end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out
computations.[3]

Limited-function early computers

The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies, automated calculation and
programmability, but no single device can be identified as the earliest computer, partly because of the
inconsistent application of that term. A few devices are worth mentioning though, like some mechanical aids to
computing, which were very successful and survived for centuries until the advent of the electronic calculator,
like the Sumerian abacus, designed around 2500 BC[4] of which a descendant won a speed competition against
a modern desk calculating machine in Japan in 1946, [5] the slide rules, invented in the 1620s, which were
carried on five Apollo space missions, including to the moon[6] and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera
mechanism, an ancient astronomical computer built by the Greeks around 80 BC.[7] The Greek
mathematician Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting
10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a
means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when. [8] This is the essence of
programmability.

Around the end of the 10th century, the French monk Gerbert d'Aurillac brought back from Spain the drawings
of a machine invented by the Moors that answered either Yes or No to the questions it was asked. [9] Again in
the 13th century, the monks Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon built talking androids without any further
development (Albertus Magnus complained that he had wasted forty years of his life when Thomas Aquinas,
terrified by his machine, destroyed it).[10]

In 1642, the Renaissance saw the invention of the mechanical calculator,[11] a device that could perform all four
arithmetic operations without relying on human intelligence.[12] The mechanical calculator was at the root of the
development of computers in two separate ways. Initially, it was in trying to develop more powerful and more
flexible calculators[13] that the computer was first theorized by Charles Babbage[14][15] and then developed.
[16]
 Secondly, development of a low-cost electronic calculator, successor to the mechanical calculator, resulted
in the development byIntel[17] of the first commercially available microprocessor integrated circuit.

First general-purpose computers

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched
paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting
Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to
define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.
 The Most Famous Image in the Early History of Computing [18]

This portrait of Jacquard was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and required 24,000 punched cards to create (1839). It was
only produced to order. Charles Babbage owned one of these portraits ; it inspired him in using perforated cards in
his analytical engine[19]

The Zuse Z3, 1941, considered the world's first working programmable, fully automatic computing machine.

It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers.
In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmablemechanical
computer, his analytical engine.[20] Limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design
meant that the device was never completed—nevertheless his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified
version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its
use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to the Science museum in South Kensington in 1910.
In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine-readable medium. Earlier uses
of machine-readable media had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled
on punched cards ..."[21] To process these punched cards he invented the tabulator, and
thekeypunch machines. These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing
industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890 United States
Census by Hollerith's company, which later became the core of IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number
of ideas and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers, had begun to
appear: Boolean algebra, thevacuum tube (thermionic valve), punched cards and tape, and the teleprinter.

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly
sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis
for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of
modern digital computers.

Alan Turing is widely regarded as the father of modern computer science. In 1936 Turing provided an influential
formalisation of the concept of thealgorithm and computation with the Turing machine, providing a blueprint for
the electronic digital computer.[22] Of his role in the creation of the modern computer, Time magazine in naming
Turing one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, states: "The fact remains that everyone who
taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a
Turing machine".[22]

The ENIAC, which became operational in 1946, is considered to be the first general-purpose electronic computer.
EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored-program (von Neumann) architecture.

The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) was the world's first electronic digital computer, albeit notprogrammable.
[23]
 Atanasoff is considered to be one of the fathers of the computer. [24] Conceived in 1937 by Iowa State College
physics professor John Atanasoff, and built with the assistance of graduate studentClifford Berry,[25] the
machine was not programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear equations. The computer did
employ parallel computation. A 1973 court ruling in a patent dispute found that the patent for the
1946 ENIAC computer derived from the Atanasoff–Berry Computer.

The first program-controlled computer was invented by Konrad Zuse, who built the Z3, an electromechanical
computing machine, in 1941.[26] The first programmable electronic computer was the Colossus, built in 1943
by Tommy Flowers.

George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While working at Bell
Labs in November 1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for
"kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use binary circuits to perform an
arithmetic operation. Later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and
programmability.[27]

A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and
1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics
(largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps,
but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult. Shannon 1940 Notable
achievements include:
 Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine
featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998
the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer. [28]

 The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (commenced in 1937, completed in 1941) which

used vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory. The use of
regenerative memory allowed it to be much more compact than its peers (being approximately the size of
a large desk or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then fed back into the same set
of computation elements.

 The secret British Colossus computers (1943),[29] which had limited programmability but demonstrated

that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It
was used for breaking German wartime codes.

 The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability. [30]

 The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic and is

sometimes called the first general purposeelectronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941
used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which
essentially required rewiring to change its programming.
Stored-program architecture
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which
came to be known as the "stored-program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This design was first
formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in
1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced
around this time, the first of which was completed in 1948 at the University of Manchester in England,
the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"). The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator (EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM at Cambridge University, was the first practical, non-
experimental implementation of the stored-program design and was put to use immediately for research work
at the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was
completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.

Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait
by which the word "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed
dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann
architecture.
Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor(actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging.

Beginning in the 1950s, Soviet scientists Sergei Sobolev and Nikolay Brusentsov conducted research

on ternary computers, devices that operated on a base three numbering system of −1, 0, and 1 rather than the
conventional binary numbering system upon which most computers are based. They designed the Setun, a
functional ternary computer, at Moscow State University. The device was put into limited production in the
Soviet Union, but supplanted by the more common binary architecture.

Semiconductors and microprocessors

Computers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the
1960s had been largely replaced bysemiconductor transistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster,
cheaper to produce, required less power, and were more reliable. The first transistorised computer was
demonstrated at the University of Manchester in 1953.[31] In the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the
subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and further
increased speed and reliability of computers. By the late 1970s, many products such as video
recorders contained dedicated computers called microcontrollers, and they started to appear as a replacement
to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The 1980s witnessed home
computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers
are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household [citation needed].

Modern smartphones are fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the
most common form of such computers in existence[citation needed].

Programs
Replica of the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), the world's first stored-program computer, at the Museum of
Science and Industry in Manchester, England

The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can
be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and
it will process them. While some computers may have strange concepts "instructions" and "output"
(see quantum computing), modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine
code in the form of an imperative programming language.

In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions,
as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can
execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of
operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams
of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

Stored program architecture

Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming

This section applies to most common RAM machine-based computers.

In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one
location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the
computer's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are
usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the
program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches). Furthermore,
jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used
depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly
support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another
instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in
sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest.
Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over
and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is
what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two
numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take
thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a
computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:

mov No. 0, sum ; set sum to 0

mov No. 1, num ; set num to 1
loop: add num, sum ; add num to sum
add No. 1, num ; add 1 to num
cmp num, #1000 ; compare num to 1000
ble loop ; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
halt ; end of program. stop running

Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human
intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of
a second.[32]

Bugs
Main article:  software bug

The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the Harvard Mark II computer

Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the
program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases they may cause the program or the entire system to
"hang" – become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes – to completely fail, or to crash.
Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing
an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are
usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are
nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design. [33]

Rear Admiral Grace Hopper is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in computing after a dead moth
was found shorting a relay in the Harvard Mark II computer in September 1947.[34]

Machine code
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a
unique number (its operation code or opcodefor short). The command to add two numbers together would have
one opcode, the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers
are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several
hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store
numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are
just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated
inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the
computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program,
architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate
from the data it operates on. This is called theHarvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern
von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU
caches.

While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this
technique was used with many early computers, [35] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in
practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is
indicative of its function and easy to remember – a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These
mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in
assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done
by a computer program called an assembler.
A 1970s punched card containing one line from aFORTRAN program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled
"PROJ039" for identification purposes.

Programming language
Main article:  Programming language

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural
languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely
written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine
code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter.
Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.

Low-level languages
Main article:  Low-level programming language

Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level
programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM
architecture computer (such as may be found in a PDA or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the
machine language of an Intel Pentium or the AMD Athlon 64 computer that might be in a PC.[36]

Higher-level languages
Main article:  High-level programming language

Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often
difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level
programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby
help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or
sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called
a compiler.[37] High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly
language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It
is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the
machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video
games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and
various video game consoles.

Program design
Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of
inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and
algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become
larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms
such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and
more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a
significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable
schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software
engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

Components

Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor

A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit,
the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected
by busses, often made of groups of wires.

Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by
means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit
is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are
arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other
circuits.

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are
collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate
components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called
a microprocessor.

Control unit
Main articles: CPU design  and  Control unit

Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various
components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of
control signals which activate other parts of the computer.[38] Control systems in advanced computers may
change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps
track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. [39]

The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps
may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.

2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other
systems.

3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.

4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device).
The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.

5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.

6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to
perform the requested operation.

7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.

8. Jump back to step (1).

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations
done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place
100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as
"jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction
execution (both examples of control flow).

The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short
computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer
called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

Main article:  Arithmetic logic unit

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. [40]

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or
might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some
can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit
with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be
programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any
computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its
ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and returnboolean truth
values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater
than 65?").

Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful for creating

complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions
simultaneously.[41] Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that
can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.

Memory
Main article:  Computer data storage

Magnetic core memory was the computer memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor
memory.

A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has
a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123
into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put
the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters,
numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not
differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what
the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits
(called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128
to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When
negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are
possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can
store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or
even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more
rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on
the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main
memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main
memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory or RAM and read-only
memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with
data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store
the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the
computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program
called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM
whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk
drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware,
because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM
and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than
conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.
[42]

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than
registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move
frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the
programmer's part.

Input/output (I/O)
Main article:  Input/output

Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. [43] Devices that provide
input or output to the computer are calledperipherals.[44] On a typical personal computer, peripherals include
input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the displayand printer. Hard disk
drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer
networking is another form of I/O.

I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A graphics
processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D
graphics[citation needed]. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in
performing I/O.

Multitasking
Main article:  Computer multitasking

While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems
it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by
multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. [45]

One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the
computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it
was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running
"at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second,
causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of
magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even
though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-
sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn. [46]

Before the era of cheap computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the
same computer.

Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more
slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time
waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the
mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has
occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously
without unacceptable speed loss.

Multiprocessing
Main article:  Multiprocessing
Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration,
a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe
computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal
and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a
result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic
stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers. [47] They often feature thousands of CPUs,
customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful
only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of
the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics
rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.

Networking and the Internet

Main articles: Computer networking  and  Internet

Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S.
military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-
purpose commercial systems such asSabre.[48]

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their
computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and
the computer network that resulted was called the ARPANET.[49] The technologies that made the Arpanet
possible spread and evolved.

In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The
emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer
operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of
other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of
the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in
high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web,
combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer
networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing
phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate
and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is
becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

Computer architecture paradigms

There are many types of computer architectures:

 Quantum computer vs Chemical computer

 Scalar processor vs Vector processor

 Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) computers

 Register machine vs Stack machine

 Harvard architecture vs von Neumann architecture

 Cellular architecture

The quantum computer architecture holds the most promise to revolutionize computing. [50]

Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms.

The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile,
distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility:
any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing-complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the
same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore any type of computer
(netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given
enough time and storage capacity.

Misconceptions

A computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even a hard disk. While
popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal computer, the definition of a computer is
literally "A device that computes, especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-
speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes
information."[51] Any device which processes information qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is
purposeful.

Required technology
Main article:  Unconventional computing

Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors.

However, conceptually computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost
anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); an oft-quoted
example. More realistically, modern computers are made out oftransistors made
of photolithographed semiconductors.

There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical
computers, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and
are able to calculate any computable function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating
speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for
example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by quantum factoring)
very quickly.

Further topics

 Glossary of computers
Artificial intelligence
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative
solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part
of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Hardware
Main articles: Computer hardware and Personal computer hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power
supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.

History of computing hardware

Main article:  History of computing hardware

Antikythera mechanism, Difference
Calculators
engine, Norden bombsight
First Generation
(Mechanical/Electromechanical)
Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark
Programmable Devices
I, Z3

Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC

Calculators
60, UNIVAC 120

Second Generation (Vacuum

Tubes) Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale
Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester
Programmable Devices Mark 1,Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti
Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM
701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22

Mainframes IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH

Third Generation (Discrete
transistors and SSI, MSI,
LSI Integrated circuits)
Minicomputer PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36

Fourth Generation (VLSI Minicomputer VAX, IBM System i

integrated circuits)

4-bit microcomputer Intel 4004, Intel 4040

Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola

8-bit microcomputer
6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80

16-bit microcomputer Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802

32-bit microcomputer Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM

architecture
 Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-
64-bit microcomputer[52]
64

Embedded computer Intel 8048, Intel 8051

Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop

computer, Personal digital
Personal computer
assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet
PC, Wearable computer

Quantum
computer, Chemical
computer, DNA
Theoretical/experimental
computing, Optical
computer, Spintronics
based computer

Other hardware topics

Mouse, keyboard, joystick, image scanner, webcam, graphics
Input
tablet, microphone

Peripheral
Output Monitor, printer, loudspeaker
device (input/output)

Floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, optical

Both
disc drive, teleprinter

Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB

Computer busses
Long range (computer
Ethernet, ATM, FDDI
networking)

Software
Main article:  Computer software

Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols,
etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such asBIOS ROM in an IBM PC
compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between
hardware and software.

UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD

Unix and BSD
operating systems

GNU/Linux List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions

Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows

Microsoft Windows
Me, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7

Operating
system DOS 86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS

Mac OS Mac OS classic, Mac OS X

Embedded and real-
List of embedded operating systems
time

Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs

Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL

Library

Programming library C standard library, Standard Template Library

Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP

Data

File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG

Graphical user
Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua
interface(WIMP)
User
interface
Text-based user
Command-line interface, Text user interface
interface
 Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database
Office suite management system, Scheduling & Time
management, Spreadsheet,Accounting software

Internet Access Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging

Design and Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management,

manufacturing Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management

Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation

Graphics
editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing

Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer

Application Audio
music

Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated
Software engineering development environment, Software performance analysis, Revision
control,Software configuration management

Educational Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator

Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person

Games
shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction

Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package

Misc
management systems, File manager

Languages
There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful
only for highly specialized applications.

Programming languages

Lists of Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by

programming category, Generational list of programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-
languages English-based programming languages
Commonly
used Assembly ARM, MIPS, x86
languages

Commonly
used high-level
Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal
programming
languages

Commonly
used Scripting Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
languages

Professions and organizations

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving
computers.

Computer-related professions

Hardware- Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications

related engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoengineering

Computer science, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information

Software-
technology, Information systems, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game
related
industry, Web design

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need
for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

Organizations

Standards groups ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C

Professional Societies ACM, AIS, IET, IFIP, BCS

 Free/Open source
Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation
software groups

What are the components of a computer?

In: Computers
 DataCenter Cloud ComputerSupermicro.com.tw/NetworkStorageHPCServers
Workstations Motherboards w/ Intel® Xeon® Processor E5 Series
 Searching For Answers?www.Facebook.comUse Facebook Questions! Get Quality
Answers. Explore Any Topic For Free
Ads

Answer:
Historically, a computer is any device that can store and process data. Today it usually refers to an
electronic device with circuits that allow for data to be manipulated in binary form. So the main
components are software (memory and programs to process data) and hardware (devices used for the
storing and processing of that data). And, lastly, an array of components for humans to interact with
the electronic data 'machine.' 
Modern personal computers usually contain the following components: 

 A Motherboard - The backbone of the computer, designed to transfer information and power to
and from all of the major components. Other components are usually plugged into this device, and it
is almost always the largest board in the computer. Also called a "Mainboard" or "mobo". The
motherboard contain the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) that allows all the components to
communicate with each other. 
 CPU (Central Processing Unit) - The Central Processing Unit that is usually attached directly to
the motherboard. It is comprised of a chip with usually dozens of pins which are connected to the
motherboard. They are usually obscured by a large heat sink (large metal components which divert
heat away from chips).
 RAM (Random Access Memory) - Usually Dual-Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs), they are
plugged directly into the motherboard as well. Some high-performance versions are cased in metal
which help cool the chips on them. There are usually 8 chips on a stick of RAM (random access
memory), sometimes there is a 9th "parity" chip, which helps check for errors within the memory.
 ROM (Read Only Memory), usually on a Hard drive - This is usually a large metallic rectangular
prism-shaped device about 3.5 inches wide. It stores data onto metal discs within the device and have
recently come out with capacities as large as 1 TB (Terabyte, or 1000 Gigabytes, 1,000,000
Megabytes etc). In the 'old days' these were cards, ticker tape, or magnetic discs labeled as A drive or
B drive. Now most computers have C drive, which is the hard drive mentioned earlier. 
 A Power Supply - Computers need specific power voltages for each component and always
have a power supply which takes power from the wall and outputs power at specific voltages on
specific cable formats within the computer.
 The OS - The operating system; the primary functions of the operating system are to manage
the hardware resources (disk space, memory, CPU and so on) and provide facilities to manage and
run programs.
 A case to hold all the components, usually in a tower.
 Human Interface Devices (HID) - These are the components that allow a human being to
interact with the computer and access and/or process data. These can include a keyboard, mouse,
monitor (digital video screen, usually now an LCD monitor), video cam, microphone,
headphones/speakers, graphics tablet, or other devices. 

Accessories and Peripherals include: 

 Optical Devices - It has become common for a computer to contain optical storage devices (such as
CD-ROM or DVD drives). 
LAN CARD - Known officially as a Network Interface Card (NIC), these devices connect a computer to
a network, usually to a router or modem which establishes connectivity to the Internet. These are
usually PCI expansion cards or built into a motherboard and output in RJ-45 format. The cable tips
(RJ-45) look similar to a phone cable (RJ-11), but are larger.

USB ports - 

Printers - 

Flash Drives - 

Read
more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_components_of_a_computer#ixzz1y8jkV
orv What are capabilities and limitations of computers?
In: Computer Programming, Computer History [Edit categories]
 DataCenter Cloud ComputerSupermicro.com.tw/NetworkStorageHPCServers
Workstations Motherboards w/ Intel® Xeon® Processor E5 Series
 RS Components PhilippinesPhilippines.RS-online.comWe Stock Over 550,000
Products. No Minimum Purchase, Order Online!
Ads

Answer:
[1] Like all machines, a computer needs to be directed and controlled in order to perform a task
successfully. Until such time as a program is prepared and stored in the computer's memory, the
computer "knows" absolutely nothing, not even how to accept or reject data. Even the most
sophisticated computer, no matter how capable it is, must be told what to do. Until the capabilities
and the limitations of a computer are recognized, its usefulness cannot be thoroughly understood. 
[2] In the first place, it should be recognized that computers are capable of doing repetitive
operations. A computer can perform similar operations thousands of times, without becoming bored,
tired, or even careless. 
[3] Secondly, computers can process information at extremely rapid rates. For example, modem
computers can solve certain classes of arithmetic problems millions of times faster than a skilled
mathematician. Speeds for performing decision-making operations are comparable to those for
arithmetic operations but input-output operations, however, involve mechanical motion and hence
require more time. On a typical computer system, cards are read at an average speed of 1000 cards
per minute and as many as 1000 lines can be printed at the same rate. 
[4] Thirdly, computers may be programmed to calculate answers to whatever level of accuracy is
specified by the programmer. In spite of newspaper headlines such as 'Computer Fails', these
machines are very accurate and reliable especially when the number of operations they can perform
every second is considered. Because they are man-made machines, they sometimes malfunction or
break down and have to be repaired. However, in most instances when the computer fails, it is due to
human error and is not the fault of the computer at all. 
[5] In the fourth place, general-purpose computers can be programmed to solve various types of
problems because of their flexibility. One of the most important reasons why computers are so widely
used today is that almost every big problem can be solved by solving a number of little problems -
one after another. 
[6] Finally, a computer, unlike a human being, has no intuition. A person may suddenly find the
answer to a problem without working out too many of the details, but a computer can only proceed as
it has been programmed to. [7] Using the very limited capabilities possessed by all computers, the
task of producing a university payroll, for instance, can be done quite easily. The following kinds of
things need be done for each employee on the payroll. First: Input information about the employee
such as wage rate, hours worked, tax rate, unemployment insurance, and pension deductions.
Second: Do some simple arithmetic and decision making operations. Third: Output a few printed lines
on a cheque. By repeating this process over and over again, the payroll will eventually be completed

Read
more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_capabilities_and_limitations_of_computers#ixzz1y8kJQjw
n