CE 323/ BES 222

MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

SUMMER 2020

CHAPTER 2 – STRAIN

INTRODUCTION

So far, we have dealt mainly with the strength, or load-carrying capacity, of structural members. Here we begin
our study of an equally important topic of mechanics of materials—deformations, or strains. In general terms, strain is
a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body. There are two types of strain: normal strain, which
characterizes dimensional changes, and shear strain, which describes distortion (changes in angles). Stress and strain
are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of materials. Their relationship to each other defines the mechanical
properties of a material, the knowledge of which is of the utmost importance in design.
Although our emphasis in this chapter will be on axially loaded bars, the principles and methods developed here
apply equally well to more complex cases of loading discussed later. Among other topics, we will learn how to use
force-deformation relationships in conjunction with equilibrium analysis to solve statically indeterminate problems.

1. Simple Strain
2. Stress-Strain Diagram
3. Axial Deformation
4. Shearing Deformation
5. Poisson’s Ratio
6. Statically Indeterminate Members
7. Thermal Stress

Simple Strain
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to the original
length.

Ɛ=

where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus is dimensionless.

Stress-strain Diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial load is
gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured at each increment of the load
and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of
the specimen, the normal stress σ and the strain ɛ can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along
the y-axis and the strain ɛ along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in
form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is one
having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel and aluminum, whereas brittle
materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05
mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between these two classes.
 CE 323/ BES 222
MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
SUMMER 2020

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation
between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke’s
Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or

σ ε or σ = kε

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young’s Modulus and is equal to the slope
of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

σ = Eε

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape when the load is
removed, or it is the maximum stress that maybe developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation
when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape when the load is
removed, or it is the maximum stress that maybe developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation
when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to R is called the plastic
range.

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding without any increase in
load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
 CE 323/ BES 222
MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
SUMMER 2020

Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking strength.

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to P, in
N.m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E
(the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a
permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to R, in
N.m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a
material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum safe stress that a
material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as
either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield
strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

Axial Deformation
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to strain and is given by
σ = Eε
since σ = and Ɛ = ,

then =E

= =

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the stress must not
exceed the proportional limit.

If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by considering a
differential length and applying integration.
 CE 323/ BES 222
MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
SUMMER 2020

= ∫

where A=t(y) and y and t, if variable, must be expressed in terms of x.

For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation due to its own weight is

where ρ is in kg/m3, L is the length of the rod in mm, M is the total mass of the rod in kg, A is the cross-sectional area
of the rod in mm2, and g = 9. 81 m/s2.

Stiffness, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement. It has the unit of N/mm.

k=

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Problem 1: A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended vertically from
one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 × 103
MN/m2, find the total elongation of the rod.
 CE 323/ BES 222
MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
SUMMER 2020

Problem 2: An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads applied at the positions
shown in Fig. P-209. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E = 10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is suitably
braced to prevent lateral buckling.

Solution:

Problem 3: The rigid bar ABC shown in Fig. below is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the
largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end
C must not exceed 0.10 in.

Solution:
Free- body and deformation diagrams:
 CE 323/ BES 222
MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
SUMMER 2020