CULTURE of INDIA PDF

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2016
UPSC Civil Services Exam
[CULTURE OF INDIA]
A Comprehensive approach for UPSC Pre & Mains
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Beginner’s Note:
This section of the examination is considered as the most scaring part by most of the aspirants if not by
all. However, it should not be the case. Indian culture is something that we all can relate to as we are
part of it and we create it daily as we live our lives.
My suggestion would be – first of all familiarize yourself with a broad outline of our history – from
ancient to modern. This is because – culture is all about our accumulated achievements – in both
tangible and intangible sphere. It is not about monuments and figures, but about the people and their
lives also who created these.
Secondly, culture is also about visulaisation of human creation. When you see and hear things, you
become more comfortable with them. So, whenever you read about some cultural item, google its image
or videos. It will deepen your understanding and will also simplify the things.
Thirdly, don’t understand culture in terms of facts and data, but understand it in terms of stories and
narratives. Stories which are driven by political factors, religion, geographies and above all human
values.
To start with, there is a beautiful book of class 11th by NCERT – An Introduction to Indian Art. It doesn’t
cover all the things, but it is very graphic and easy to understand. Attempt the questions given in it to
deepen your understanding. Another book is by NIOS – Indian Culture and Heritage. The book fairly covers
all the topics, but has some factual errors in it, so verify wherever you have a doubt.
Finally, when you are done with these, you may start with these notes which I have prepared through elaborate
search and multiple iterations. Hope these will help.
Always keep things manageable. It is not so important that how much you read, but how well you read.
Keep in mind that whatever you read, you have to revise that also at times of mains exam. So, limit your
study material.
Best of luck!
Nitin Sangwan
AIR 28 (2016), AIR 359 (2015), AIR 320 (2014)
Drop me a comment at: www.meandupsc.blogspot.in if you need some further help in the exam,
suggestions or any major discrepancies in these notes for benefit of others.
CULTURE
Culture is a way of life. Culture is the embodiment of the way in which we think and do things. It is also
the things – tangible and intangible – that we have inherited as members of society. All the
achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture. Culture, thus, refers
to a human-made environment which includes all the material and nonmaterial products of group life
that are transmitted from one generation to the next.
India was earlier called Jamboodweepa and was called ‘India’ by Greeks for the first time as the ‘region
byond Sindhu’. Similarly, Arabs called Indians as ‘Hindus’ as they couldn’t pronounce ‘S’ in Sindhu.
Religion of Aryans who lived there in 1000 BCE was called Brahminism and not Hinduism.
Islam and Hinduism existed peacefully for 700 years and first Muslims came to India in form of
merchants on Malabar Coast.
A BRIEF HISTORY of CULTURE

Indus Valley was cradle of early civilization and culture because, the place has features which made it
conducive for early settlers. Rainfall from Indus to Brahmputra plains gradually increases from 25cm to
250 cm and this was also the reason that vegetations in low rainfall regions were easier to clear to pave
way for the cultivation. So, Indus valley came into being in Indus area, Vedic civilisation in Gangetic
plain, Guptas spread further towards east and in medieval periods, Assam plains also became important.
Rivers in ancient India served like arteries for carrying of goods easily. They also provided fertile land
and most importantly acted as boundaries for political and cultural groups.
EARLY ROCK PAINTINGS
Earliestexamples of the art and paintings are found in pre-historic works in caves and on rocks.
Rock paintings at Bhimbhethka in Madhya Pradesh are most important among them which
themselves belong to the larger Vindhya and Kaimur group findings. In Bhimbhetaka, near
Bhopal, there are more than 500 hundred rock shelters with paintings making them richest site
in India.
The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. In
Uttarakhand also, rock paintings on banks of river Suyal at Lakhudiyar (meaning lakh caves) have
been found. Here three types of figures are shown – man, animals and geometric figures. Hand
linked dancing figures are famous among them. Though artists during this period used many
colors, but white and red were their favorite. Scenes from hunting, dancing etc. are shown in
these paintings.
Earliest paintings have been identified in three periods, out of which, the one belonging to the
Mesolithic period or the middle period are the largest. In the last period, the painters were
probabl settled as agricultural communities and hence, their paintings also depict
congregational events in large numbers. Painting style also became sophisticated with time, for
example, paintings reaching upto high ceiling were made.
INDUS VALLEY
Harrapans used varous forms of art which include sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery,
terracotta figures, etc. Harappans made sculptures of terracotta, stone and metal/bronze.
Harappan also domesticated Elephant and produced rice which

Mesopotamians didn’t.
Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, no evidences of temples have been

found.
Harappan also produced sesamum and mustard also.
People of Lothal also used rice.
Indus people were the earliest to produce cotton.
Animal domesticated – ox, camel, ass, dog, cat etc. Evidence of horse as domesticated animal
are weak. They were also aware of rhinos as evident from seals.
The weights used by Harappans were multiple of 16 (16, 64, 160 etc) and even till recently, 16 in
measure was common as in case of 16 annas being one rupee.
I. Stone sculpture – Stone figures were not in much abundance and very few refined
figures have been found. In stone are
two male figures are important – one is a
torso in red sandstone and the other is a
bust of a bearded man in steatite.The
figure of the bearded man interpreted as
a priest, is draped in a shawl coming
under the right arm and covering the left
shoulder. This shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns. The eyes are a little elongated,
and half-closed as in meditative concentration.The hair line is partitioned from middle.
II. Bronze/metal sculpture – ‘Lost Wax’ technique was known during this time for making
bronze statues and ‘Dancing Girl’ statue is famous example and it is perhaps the first
copper statue in the world. Animal figures were also made. The copper dog and bird of
Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan are in no way inferior to the
human figures of copper and bronze from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
III. Terracotta sculpture – The Indus Valley people made terracotta images
also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta
representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley. They are
more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan. The most important
among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess. In terracotta, we
also find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled hair, their posture rigidly upright.
The repetition of this figure in exactly the same position would suggest that he was a
deity. A terracotta mask of a horned deity has also been found. Toy carts with wheels,
whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in
terracotta.
Various seals are also found which were usually made of steatite, and occasionally of agate,
copper, and terracotta, and even gold and ivory with beautiful figures of animals, such as
unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc. The purpose of producing
seals was mainly commercial. It appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the
persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards. Harappans knew how to write
and most of their seals contain some form of a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
The most remarkable seal is the one depicted with a figure in the centre and animals like tiger,
elephants, antelopes and rhinoceros and
a buffalo around. This seal is generally
identified as the Pashupati Seal by some
scholars whereas some identify it as the
female deity. Figures and animals are
carved in intaglio on their surfaces. Seals
engraved with animal figures like the
humped bull, elephant and rhinoceros
suggest that these animals were
considered sacred. ‘Peepal’ has been found depicted on many seals.
The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheelmade wares, very few being hand-
made. Plain pottery is more common than painted ware. Red and black pottery of various types
is also found. Plain pottery dominates over painted pottery. Polychrome pottery is rare and
mainly comprises small vases decorated with geometric patterns. Incised and perforated
potteries have also been found. Miniature vessels of less than half a inch have also been found.
Pottery for household purposes is found in as many shapes and sizes as could be conceived of
for daily practical use.
There are also traces of ornaments including anklets, armlets etc made up of various materials
precious and semi-precious. There are examples of dead in mounds with such ornaments – a
grave was discovered in Farmana Haryana with ornaments. Woman during Harrapan times also
wore ornaments made of beads made in local factories as well as from various stones, metals
and terracotta. Beads were made of stones like cornelian, amethyst, crystal, quartz, steatite etc.
Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay were also
used for manufacturing beads in varying shapes—disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-
shaped, and segmented. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together,
some of stone with gold covers. Some were decorated by incising or painting and some had
designs etched onto them. Great technical skill has been displayed in the manufacture of these
beads. Different hairstyles were in vogue and wearing of a beard was popular among all.
Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic and facepaint, lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) were also
known to them.
It is evident from the discovery of a large number of spindles and spindle whorls in the houses
of the Indus Valley that spinning of cotton and wool was very common. The fact that both the
rich and the poor practiced spinning is indicated by finds of whorls made of the expensive
materials as also of the cheap pottery and shell.
In architectural field also they had made significant progress. Harappan civilization is the first
known urban culture in India. The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town
planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad well-laid roads. They built double storied
houses of burnt bricks each one of which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well. The walled cities
had other important buildings such as the Great Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls. Towns
were well planned and most of the towns were divided into a higher placed citadel – probably
used for elite or for sacred purpose – and non-citadel for commoners. Many stone structural
remains are also found at Dholavira which show how the Indus Valley people used stone in
construction.
Religion of Harappa
 Female deity
 Male deity – Yogi or Pashupati Mahadeo
 Nature worship
 Phallus symbols
Trade evidences of Harappa
 Tin used in Bronze making was possibly brought from Afghanistan

 Many Harappan seals were found in Mesopotemia and vice-versa
 Harappans are also found to have practiced some form of makeup which Mesopotameans
used to do
 Dockyard at Lothal shows that boats were used for trade
VEDIC PERIOD
During Vedic times, Aryans came from outside and settled in area around Indus valley. Aryan
society was patriarchal, but women were treated with dignity and honor. The family was the
smallest social unit. Several families (kula) made a village (grama) and several villages formed a
vis. Varna system emerged during this period and Vedas were also composed during this period.
Varnashramadharma also emerged during this time in which life is divided into four phases. The
early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods and goddesses.
Indra, Agni, Varuna, Marut (natural deities) were some of their gods while Usha, Aditi, Prithvi
were some of their goddesses. Indra or rain god is called ‘Purandara’ or breaker of forts in
Rigveda and was the most important deity to who 250 hymns are attributed. Second most
important deity was Agni to whom 200 hymns are attributed. Varuna or god of water was third
most important god.
In later Vedic period many social-religious changes occurred in society. Caste system became
rigid one and many older deities like – Indra and Agni (natural deities) were replaced by the
Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh. Religion became extremely ritualistic. Sanskrit mantras,
which were the monopoly of Brahmins, became an essential part of all religious functions. This
made the Brahmins very powerful and the Yajnas expensive. Participation in them was restricted
to the upper three classes. The kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya sacrifies
to establish their position. Vedic religion also transformed itself into what is now called as
Brahminism. When Brahminism became too rigid and ritualistic, Buddhism and Jainism
emerged as alternative movements.
Vedic Aryans lived a simple life which revolved around agriculture. Cows, horses, sheep, goats
and dogs were common domesticated animals. Aryan used horse – unlike Harappan – which
afforded great mobility to them. They also used chariots. We have not found any material
evidence of their habitation which indicates that they might be pastoralist.
They also drank a beverage called Soma. Games of chess, chariot racing etc. were their modes of
entertainment.Cows were the measure of wealth and no currency was used. Iron, which was
not used during Harappa period, was now used and it changed agricultural practices as well. Use
of horses also became popular and it helped in fighting wars as well.
Politically, by the end of 6th century BCE, large units came into existence called Mahajanpadas.
They were some 16 in number and Buddha also belonged to one of such Janpadas.
The term Bharata first appeared in Rig Veda which was probably a clan.
In crafts also, progress was made and Painted Grey Ware were now made unlike relatively
simple red pottery of Harappans. Later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of pottery –
Painted grey Ware (most distinctive), Black and Red Ware,
Red ware (most prevalent) and black striped ware. Painted
grey ware that were found were in form of plates and bowls
and were probably used for rituals.
In the later Vedic times, the Sabhas lost their democratic

character and were now dominated by nobility and Brahmins.
Women were also debarred. Kings became more powerful as
their kingdoms expanded.
MAURYAN PERIOD
Next important artistic developments took place during

Mauryan period. There are little traces left of the period in
between probably because architecture and sculpture in this time was not primarily made of
stone and hence were perishable. Probably, since Gangetic area was moist, mud brick and
wooden structures that were made during Mauryan period and before didn’t last. However, it
cannot be said that there were not any stone buildings at all. According to Magesthenese,
capital Patliputra was as magnificent as capital of Iran and in architecture, Mauryan introduced
use of stone for the first time.
Chandragupta Maurya succeeded Nandas. Greek king Sikandar or Alexander had just departed
India before Chandragupta ascended throne and Greeks became the first foreigner to invade
India in 326 BCE. Writers who accompanied him left a vivid account of prosperity and social life
during that times and arrival of Alexander in India is an important even which have helped in
arranging historical records as well. The route that he followed was also used for cultural
contacts as well.
It is a well-known fact that the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta, Bindusara and
Asoka, maintained friendly relations with the Hellenic West and this led to some foreign
influence on Mauryan art.
Kharoshti script from Iran was also brought which was later used by Ashoka on inscriptions as
well. It was written from right to left. Iranian influence on Mauryan sculpture was also
significant. The lotus motifs used by Ashoka is borrowed from Persian architecture. From Iran,
Greeks also came to know about the riches of India and Greeks under Alexander planned
invasion of India at a time when Iran and Greece were vying for world supremacy. Greeks under
Alexander also destroyed Iranian civilization.
Achaemenid rulers of Persia had various areas under their control which were in close vicinity of
Mauryan Empire. The Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing called kharoshthi
and it was used in many Mauryan inscriptions as well. Mauryan pillars were also influenced by
Persian/Achaemenid art. The monolithic pillar edicts of Asoka with their bell-shaped capitals are
somewhat like the victory pillars of the Achaemenid emperors which have been found in
Persepolis.
Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script and other
local scipts like Kharoshthi. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script
over hundreds of years.
Many pillars, capitals, rock cut caves and monumental figures were also constructed. The
Yaksha image from Parkam and Yakshini image from Besnagar are examples of popular art,
while pillars and capitols are examples of court art.
Ashoka was greatly disturbed by the massacre of Kalinga war and he decided to relinquish
violence and he instead went on path of ‘Dhamma Vijay’ or victory through Dhamma which
combined in itself the good points of all sects and was essentially a moral code. ‘Dhamma’ is the
Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’. Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god,
or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a
duty to instruct his subjects. He erected many capitols and edicts to propagate his Dhamma. In
his 13th major Rock Edict, Asoka states that true conquest is by piety and virtue. In his 12 th major
Rock Edict, he states that in honoring of other sects lies the honor of one’s own sect. He saw
himself as a father and the subjects as his children. He gave up the practices of the royal hunt
and pleasure tours and instead began Dhamma Yattas tours for the furtherance of Dhamma. By
giving his empire a common Dhamma, a common language, and practically one script (Brahmi)
he brought further political unification. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve the social problems.
So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place
teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars,
instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Though
he himself became a Buddhist he did not impose it on the others but followed a tolerant
religious policy. He made gifts and grants to non Buddhist as well as anti-Buddhist. According to
him, ‘It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect
the other’s religion.’
Monolithic pillars and capitols made during this period are prime example of Mauryan art. The
important places where the pillars have been found are Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh,
Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath. These pillars were carved in two types of stone viz. the spotted
red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura and buff-coloured fine grained hard
sandstone usually with small black spots quarried inthe Chunar near Varanasi.The uniformity of
style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted bycraftsmen from the same
region. Bull capitol of Rampurva, Lion Capitol of Lauriya-Nandangarh, and Sarnath Capitol, found
near Varanasi, are famous examples. The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya
Nandangarh (Bihar). This thirty-two feet tall column has an almost fifty ton seated lion capital
placed on its top. Sarnath capitol, built in commemoration of the historical event of the first
sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the Buddha at Sarnath, is made from sandstone
and has four lions, sitting on an abacus with four animals, inverted lotus as a base, a crowning
wheel representing theDhammachakrapravartana (which is now damaged) on a monolithic
shaft. The four voluminous roaring lion figures firmly stand on a circular abacus which is
carvedwith the figures of four animals proceeding clockwise around the drum, suggesting
themovement of the wheel of dharma – a striding elephant, a galloping horse, awalking bull and
a prancing lion. Four lions placed back-to-back face thecardinal directions, indicating the spread
of dharma. The capital without the crowning wheel and
the lotus base has been adopted as the National Emblem
of Independent India.
In sculptures, one of the finest examples of popular

Mauryaart is the Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna and
Yaksha image from Parkam are examples of popular art
(Yakshas and Yakshis were part of both pre-Buddha and
post Buddha religions and tradition and they also made a
place in Buddhism and Jainism). Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are also found at many
other places like Vidisha and Mathura. These monumental images are mostly in the standing
position. One of the distinguishing elements in all these images is their highlypolished surface.
The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail. It shows
the popularity of Yaksha worship and how it became part of figure representation in Buddhist
and Jaina religious monuments. A monumental rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Orissa has also
been found.
In architecture, influence of Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Yaksha worship and some sects like
Ajivika can be seen. A rock cut cave – Lomus Rishi Cave carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in
Bihar is another fine example of Mauryan art and architecture. The facade of the cave is
decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance.The cave was patronised by Ashoka
for the Ajivika sect. Due to the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, stupas and viharas were
constructed on a large scale. However, there are also examples of a few Brahmanical gods in the
sculptural representations. Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagraha,
Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina. One
of the best examples of the structure of a stupa in the third century BCE is at Bairat in Rajasthan.
It is a very grand stupa having a circular mound with
a circumambulatory path. Another stupa was made
at Sanchi which is made of bricks. As Buddha is
depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas,
lotus throne, chakra, etc only during early phase of
Buddhism, it is shown through these symbols only in
Maurya architecture – for example Chakra in
Ashokan pillars. It was only in later-Gupta period that
narrative became a part of the Buddhist tradition.
Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka
stories, were depicted on the railings and torans of
the stupas. The main events associated with the
Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted were
events related to the birth (lotus and bull),
renunciation (horse), enlightenment (bodhi tree),
dhammachakrapravartana (chakra), and
mahaparinibbana or death (empty chair). Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted
are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and
Shama Jataka.
In Eastern India, burnt bricks were used for the first time during Mauryan period.
Prohibition on rituals, sacrifices and absence of gifts made Brahmins averse to Dhamma of
Ashoka. Ashokan Empire declined due to huge expenses on military, large gifts to Buddhists,
heavy expenditure on building of Stupa, oppressive rule in provinces etc. Last Maurya ruler
Brihadratha was killed in public by his Brahmin general Pushyamitra Sunga. Sungas tried to
revive Brahminic order and even persecuted the Buddhists.
POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast
Mauryan Empire – the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north and parts of central
India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakataks in southern and western India. Shakas,
Kushans and Pratihars (were collectively called Yavanas) were foreigners, but later assimilated
themselves into the Indian caste system as Kshatriyas as they were from warrior creeds. Such
instances of mass level social monilty in caste system happened only during post-Mauryan
period. The period of the second century BCE also marked the rise of the main Brahmanical
sects such as the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas which also led to building of Hindu temples and
sculptures as well apart from Buddhist art.
Post Mauryan period is dominated by the rock-cut architecture. This period also witnessed
painting forms which still survive. In early periods, Sunga in North and Satvahana in south
contributed to post-Mauryan art. They embellished the stupas with features like stone railings.
Some of the prominent examples of the finest sculpture of Post-Maurya period are found at
Vidisha, Bharhut and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta (Andhra
Pradesh), Mathura (UttarPradesh), Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).It’s worth note that till the development of the Gandhara and
Mathura art school, Buddha wasdepicted mainly as symbols.Year of Kanishka’s accession i.e. 78
CE also marks the beginning of the Saka era and Kushana art overshadowed Sunga art.
In south India, Satvahanas emerged as strongest power in post-Mauryan period. After

Satvahanas declined, many small kingdoms emerged in South and the first among them was that
of the Vakatakas. Kalinga (present Odisha) also emerged important cultural place under king
Kharvela. After the Vakatakas came the Chalukyas of Vatapi and Kalyani. The Chalukyas kept
fighting with the Rashtrakutas (towards the north) and the Pallavas (towards the south). The
Chalukya rule came to an end in 753 CE when the Rashtrakutas defeated them. Further down
south, Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas were always at war with
each other.
BUDDHIST ART in POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
Bharhut is one of the prominent places of early Buddhist

art, a stupa was build here around 100 BCE by Sunga
rulers. Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of
Yaksha and Yakhshini in the Mauryan period. Though the
stupa got damaged, it has one of the earliest surviving
railings which are now preserved. Here, sculptures are
carved out with features like – low relief, densely packed
with objects, persons with folded hands as there was no
scope of projections due to low relief etc.Figures ofyaksha-yakshinis along with natural
settings were common themes apart from scenes from Jatak tales. Stories are depicted
in terms of a narrative in form of multiple panels of sculpture. As relief was low, it was
less refined style. ‘Queen Mahamaya's dream’ is one of the most famous sculptures
apart from scenes from Jatakas.
The sculptural at Sanchi Stupa (and also at Mathura, in UP and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh)
shows stylistic progressionfrom Bahruta. There are actually three stupas here one of
which is believed to have relics of Buddha. The stupa at Sanchi has upper as well as
lower pradakshinapatha and four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events
from the life of theBuddha and the Jatakas. Upper Pradakshina path is something which
is unique to this stupa. Originally, the stupa was a small brick structure which expanded
over a period and was covered with stone, vedika and the torana (gateways) which are
profusely decorated. The Ashokan lion capital pillar with an inscription is found on the
southern side of the stupa, indicating how Sanchi became a centre of monastic and
artistic activities. In comparison to Barhut, the relief of figures is high and they fill up
inthe entire
space.Buddhas continues
to be prominently
depicted assymbols rather
than in form of human
figures. The narratives get
moreelaborated;
however, the depiction of
the Mahamaya dream
episoderemains very
simple showing the
reclining image of
thequeen and the
elephant at the top.There
are also guardian images
on pillars and the Shalbhanjika (lady holding tree branch).
Sunga Art was followed by Kushan Art. During Kushan period, first gold coins were also
introduced, art of which was borrowed from Greek. Gandhara art of Kushans has more
foreign influence as compared to Mathura art. Kushana art distinctively showed
emperor in divine form. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the confluence of
Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara tradition. The local sculptural tradition at
Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India.
The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures found at Sanghol in the Punjab.
Apart from Mathura, a school also developed at Sarnath and Kosambi. This image of the
Buddha from Sarnath belonging to the late 5th century CE i.e. from Gupta period. It has
been made in Chunar sandstone. The Buddha is
shown seated on a throne in the padmasana. It
represents dhammachackrapravartana as can be
seen from the figures on the throne. Many Buddha
images in Sarnath have plain transparent cloth
covering both shoulders (while in Mathura only left
shoulder is covered), whereas the Mathura Buddha
images continue to depict folds of the drapery in
the Buddha images and the halo around the head is
profusely decorated. The roundness of the cheeks
has reduced as compared to the earlier images from
the Kushana Period at Mathura. The hands are
shown in dhammachakrapravartana mudra placed
just below the chest. At Sarnath, there are also
standing images of Buddha, but at Mathura and
Gandhara predominantly only sitting Buddha is
shown.
In south, Vengi was important Buddhist center of scuplpture and architecture under
Satvahan rulers in 200 BCE. Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like
Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli, etc. Amaravati was third
important center of Buddhist art apart form Gandhar and Mathura during Kushan
period. It had a mahachaitya and had many sculptures, out of which Amravati is one of
the most important sites. Amravati stupa was started around 1st century BCE, but was
finally completed in 1st century CE. Like the
Sanchi Stupa, the Amaravati Stupa also has
pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika
on which many narrative sculptures are
depicted. The domical stupa structure is
covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs
whichis a unique feature. There were
toranas also built on the stupa, but they
disintegrated with time. In this stupa also
events from the life of the Buddha and the
Jataka stories are depicted like Sanchi stupa. Like Sanchi, images of Buddha were also
added in 3rd century CE. However, sculptures at Amravati are more complex and full of
emotions unlike Sanchi which are simpler. Figures are slender, have a lot of movements,
bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. in tribhanga posture). However, with the rise of
Vajrayana Buddhism many Boddhisattva images like those of Avalokiteshvara,
Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya etc were added as a part of the
personified representations of certain virtues or qualities as propagated by the Buddhist

religious principles for the welfare of the masses. Apart from stupas, Chaityas and
Viharas were also made, but they didn’t survive over time.
In Western India, many Buddhist caves have been excavated. Most of these are in
Maharashtra and a few in Gujarat. They include caves at Kanheri near Mumbai, Karla
(here biggest rock cut Chaitya has been found), Nasik, Junagarh, Ajanta, Ellora, Bhaja etc
are more well known. In the first phase, which started in 2nd century BCE, mainly three
architectural types were executed –
I. Apsidal (semicircular) vault-roof (in form

of arch) chaitya halls (found at Ajanta,
Pitalkhora, Bhaja)
II. Apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall (found at
Thana-Nadsur)
III. Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a
circular chamber at the back (found at
Kondivite)
The front of the chaitya hall is dominated by the

motif of a semi-circular chaitya arch with an open.
In all the chaitya caves a stupa at the back is
common.
Later some modifications were made in 1st

century AD to above designs. Karla chaitya hall is
decorated with human and animal figures. They
are heavy in their execution, and move in the
picture space. Further elaboration over the Karla
chaitya hall plan is observed at Kanheri Caves.
The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites. The plan of the viharas consists of a
veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall. Some of the important vihara caves
are Ajanta, Bedsa Cave, Nashik Cave etc. Many of the early vihara caves are carved with
interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches and the vedica designs over the cell doors
of the cave.
Junnar, Maharashtra has the largest cave excavations – more than two hundred caves
around the hills of the town – whereas Kanheri in Mumbai has some hundred caves.
The Ajanta Cave,near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India are 29 rock-cut cave – 25 Viharas
and 4 Chaityas – monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE from Mauryan
times,but primarily built during Gupta periodand discovered only in 1829. Further, 5
belong to Hinyana period and rest belong to Mahayana period. Cave number 26 is
especially elegant architecturally. It is very big andthe entire interior hall iscarved with a
variety ofBuddha images, the biggestone being the Mahaparinibbanaimage.
All three primary art forms viz – architecture, sculpture and paintings – are associated
with these caves. The caves include paintings and sculptures considered to be
masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art (which
depict the Jataka tales) as well as frescos (while
making a fresco, first a layer of clay mixed with
some rice husk and cow-dung is spread on rock
wall, then a coating of lime plaster is done on
which natural colors are painted and the wall is
still kept wet while painting is made). Some of the
famous frescos are – preaching Buddha, dying
princess, flying apsaras. A bodhisattva holding a
lotus is perhaps the most famous and the most
well preserved of them all. Lines are
clearlydefined and are very rhythmic. Body color
getsmerged with the outer line creating the effect
ofvolume. The figures are heavy like the
sculpturesof western India.Figures in these caves
are paintedwith considerable naturalism andthere is no over-stylisation.Ajanta is only
surviving example of paintings of 1st century BCE and 5th Century CE.
Cave 26 has famous ‘Mar Vijay’ sculpture of Buddha which depicts the victory of Buddha
over Mara (desire) figuratively in which army of Mara and his daughter is shown
surrounding Buddha. The event is part of theenlightenment. It is a personification of
thecommotion of mind which the Buddhawent through at the time ofenlightenment. In
this, a dialogue between the Buddha and Mara is shown,and the Buddha is shown with
his right hand indicating towardsearth (bhoomisparshamudra) as a witness to his
generosity. This relief sculptural panel ishighly animated and shows a very matured
sculptural style atAjanta.This is the largest sculpturalpanel at Ajanta.
Since these caves belong to a long period, they also had multiple patrons and the artists
of those time worked for different guilds and hence had different affiliation and style
which is reflected in the stylistic differences in different caves. Among the important
patrons at Ajantawere Varahadeva (patron of Cave No. 16), the prime ministerof the
Vakataka king, Harishena; Upendragupta (patron ofCave Nos. 17–20) the local king of
the region andfeudatory of the Vakataka king, Harishena;Buddhabhadra (patron of Cave
No. 26); andMathuradasa (patron of Cave No. 4).Since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Ellora caves are another important example of cave architecture during post-Mauryan
times located 30 km from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra
largely built by the Rashtrakuta rulers, with significant contribution from Gupta rulers as
well. They were built between the 5th century and 10th century.Elora represents the
epitome of Indian rock-cut architecture.The sculptures at Elloraare monumental, and
have protruding volume that createdeep recession in the picture space.
These caves have a great cultural significance as they are unique in terms of existence of
Hindu, Buddhists and Jainist caves at one single place. Buddhist caves also represent
confluence of multiple Buddhist traditions like Vajrayana, Mahayana etc. It perhaps
reflects the religious harmony that prevailed at that time as well. Architecturally also
they are of supreme importance as they represent a confluence of multiple architectural
tradition because various guilds which patronized various caves at Ellora came
fromdifferent places like Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Naduand carved the sculptures.
Thereby it is the most diversesite in India in terms of the sculptural styles and there is a
confluence of Nagara, Dravidian and other architectural styles.
They are total 34 caves – 17 Hindu, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain caves, built in proximity.
Among Hindu caves, both Vaishnavite and Sahivite puranic deities are found. Amongthe
Shaivite themes, Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara are
profusely depictedwhereas among the Vaishnavite
themes, the differentavatars of Vishnu are depicted.
Cave No. 16is known as Kailash leni. A rock-cut

temple has been carvedout of a single rock, a unique
achievement of the artisans. This Kailashnath
temple is the most magnificent among these cave
temples and was built by Rashtrakuta rulers. It has a
Dravida architecture.
One of the caves (cave no. 10) is also dedicated to Vishvakarma god – patron deity of
craftsmen.Ravan ki Khai (cave no. 14), Dashavtara Cave (cave no. 15) are other caves.
The Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island in
Mumbai Harbor. It is contemporary with Ellora. The island, located on an arm of the
Arabian Sea, consists of two groups of caves – the first is a large group of five Hindu
caves, the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock
cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva. It
is said that caves were originally Buddhist, but were later dominated by Shaivite caves.
Elephanta sculptures are known for theirremarkable qualities of surface smoothness,
elongation andrhythmic movement. Their composition is very complex. Maheshmurti
image of Shiva in which Shiva is shown as a three headed deity with heads of Shiva,
Bhairava and Uma is epitome of this type of art.
Ajanta vs Ellora Caves –

 Ellora Caves are 100 km from Ajanta caves which have not only Buddhist, but also Hindu
and Jaina caves.
 Ajanta Caves are on an almost perpendicular cliff, while Ellora caves are on a slopping
hillock and hence Ajanta caves have no courtyards.
 Ellora caves are more in number – 34, as compared to Ajanta caves which are 29
 A unique achievement of architect at Ellora caves is 3 storey caves, while at Ajanta only one
or two 2 storey caves are there.
 All the caves at Ellora were plastered and painted but nothing visible is left, but caves at
Ajanta have many murals which are still surviving.
 Buddhist caves at Ellora mostly belong to Mahayana sect, but Ajanta caves also have
Hinyana art as they are older.
Eastern India also witnessed contemporary growth of Buddhist architecture like
Western India and mainly in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, and in Odisha from
2nd century BCE onwards. One of the main sites in Andhra Pradesh is Guntapalle in Eluru
district. The caves have been excavated in the hills along with the structured
monasteries. Perhaps it is among the very unique sites where the structured stupas,
viharas and the caves are excavated at one place. The Guntapalle chaitya cave is circular
with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaitya arch carved at the entrance. The cave is
relatively small when compared to the caves in western India. Another important site is
Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam, where caves were excavated and a huge rock-cut
stupa was carved out of the hillock during the 4th–5th centuries CE. It is a unique site as it
has the biggest rock-cut stupas in the country. In Odisha, caves are found near
Bhubneshwara called Udaigiri and Khanadagiri caves which are Jainist caves.
HINDU and NON-BUDDHIST ARTnin POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
Brahminical temple and architecture also started to come on the basis of myths
mentioned in the Puranas etc. Temple had a principal image of a god and the shrines of
the temples were of three kinds –
I. Sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha)

II. Nirandhara type (with pradakshinapatha)
III. Sarvatobhadra (which can beaccessed from all sides)
Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,
Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are
simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.
Ellora caves also have Hindu caves which were built around 5th century 10th century CE
to and belonging to both Shaiv and Vaishnav traditions. Among the Shaivite themes,
Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara are profusely
depicted whereas among the Vaishnavite themes, the different avatars of Vishnu are
depicted.
Elephanta caves also had Shaivite caves which were believed to be Buddhist caves
earlier. They are contemporary of Ellora caves and unlike them they don’t have any
Vaishnavite caves.
Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar are scattered and have

inscriptions of Kharavela kings. According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for
Jain monks. Later some of these were also dominated by Hindus.
The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan and they are found not only in
Maharashtra but also in Karnataka, mainly at Badami and Aiholi, executed under the patronage
of the Chalukyas; in Andhra Pradesh in the area of Vijayawada; and in Tamil Nadu, mainly at
Mahabalipuram, under the patronage of the Pallavas. The post-sixth-century development of art
history in the country depended more on political patronage than the collective public
patronage of the early historic periods.
GUPTA PERIOD
The last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early 4th century CE and ends in about the 8th CE
or from Gupta period (4th century to 6th century)to post Gupta period. It was during Gupta
period that Brhminism made a shift to contemporary Hinduism and Buddhism declined.
Vaishnavism became predominant religious trend and The Puranas were finally compiled in this
age. The theory of Ten Avatars or incarnations (Dashavatara) of the supreme god Vishnu came
to be accepted and among them, Krishna was considered the most important. Banaras and
Prayag emerged as places of pilgrimage and idol worship became more popular.Prominent
features of modern Hinduism took shape during the Gupta period.
During the Gupta period the condition of women and Shudras improved as they were now
allowed to study the holy texts and even worship a new God called Krishna, but number of
untouchables increased especially Chandals and their social status was deteriorated.
Gupta period is golden period of Indian art. Guptas

were Hindu and Puranic Hinduism and its three deities
– Shiva, Vishnu Shakti came to fore. However, Gupta
were also tolerant towards others also. Buddhist art
reached to its climax during Gupta period. The artistic
achievement of the age is exhibited in the delicate
workmanship and the variety of designs shown in
different kinds of Gupta coins. The king is shown in
many positions – shooting a tiger or a lion, playing a
musical instrument seated on a high backed couch etc
in these coins. Figures of Hindu god and goddesses
were now profusely made which started with Buddha
images during Kushan time. The Gupta period marks
the beginning of the construction of free-standing
Hindu temples. It was in Gupta period that buildings made up of lasting material were built.
Examples of the Gupta art can be seen at the Dashavataratemple at Deogarh and the
cavetemples in Udaigiri hills. However, the most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain
are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath. Gupta artists were also
skilled in bronze. A two meter high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj
(near Bhagalpur in Bihar). Painting as an art form reached a high degree of perfection during the
Gupta times. The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Baghcaves
(near Gwalior) bear evidence of this.
Art was mainly religious. Exquisite sculptures of Buddha were made in Mathura and Sarnath.
Ajanta paintings were also made primarily during Gupta period. Images of Vishnu and Shiva
were made for the first time. Generally, the main deity was made larger than the other deities
which also reflected the social distance that prevailed. In general, architecture of Guptas was
not very advanced as we find very few brick and stone temples.
However, Gupta period is remarkable for production of secular literature. Bhasa wrote 13 plays.
Kalidasa also wrote many of the plays and Mahakavays. Abhijanshakuntalam was one of the
earliest Indian works to be translated into European languages apart from Bhagvadgita. All the
plays produced during the Gupta period were comedies, there was none of them which was a
tragedy. Secondly, different people from different classes speak different languages. Woman
and Shudras speak Prakrit. Commentaries on Sanskrit grammer were also written in this period.
Amarkosha is a lexicon written by Amrasimha who was in the court of Chandragupta 2. Ornate
style of Sanskrit was developed which was different from the simple Sanskrit of earlier period.
Greater emphasis was on verse (poetry form) than prose.
Religious literature was also galore during the Gupta period. Ramayana and Mahabhaarata were
finally systematically compiled in 4th century AD. Puranas were also compiled in this period.
Many smritis or lawbooks were also written.
In field of science and technology also advances were made. An inscription from Allahabad
shows that decimal system was known during that period. In field of Astronomy, a book called
Romaka Sidhanta was written which reflected Greek influence.
Guptas also excelled in Iron and Bronze work with examples like bornze statue of Buddha in
Diadarganj and Iron Pillar which was later brought to Allahbad.
MEDIEVAL INDIA
Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in India during the medieval times
have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite culture of India. New religions
movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with Bhakti movement contributed to this process. The
period also saw rise of Islam in India.
During the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural painting has been reported from the royal palaces
and royal bed-chambers and mosques. The early Turkish rulers which ruled India from 12th
century (1200 CE) to 16th century (1526) were called Sultans, as they were supposed to rule on
behalf of the Caliphs. During the Sultanate period, we notice the Persian and Arabic influences
on Indian painting. They also made a beginning of Indo-Islamic architecture.
Mughals his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations.
From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most
vital form of art. Architecture also took many strides in form of tombs, forts and mausoleums.
Afghan ruler Sher Shah made a small interregnum in Mughal period and he built some buildings
also. He struck beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper which were imitated by the Mughal
Kings and Indian Rupee, though was named earlier, took popular shape during his time. His
administrative methods were also adopted by Mughals. He also built Sadak-e-Azam a 1500 kos
long road from today’s Bangladesh to today’s Pakistan.
During 14th – 15th centuries CE miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat
and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern India because of the patronage of rich
Jain merchants. Mandu in MP, Jaunpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern India
were other great centers of manuscripts illustrated with paintings.
Withdrawal of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to
different places in the country. This helped in the development of the art of painting in
Rajasthan and the Punjab hills giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for example, Rajasthani
and Pahari Schools.
After decline of Chola, Vijaynagara rose as a Hindu Kingdom in 14th century and Bahamani
kingdom as an Islamic kingdom. The Bahamani and Vijayanagara kingdoms were pitted against
each other over the rich Raichur Doab. Both contributed to art and architecture in their own
ways.
MODERN INDIA
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries paintings comprised semi westernized local styles which
were patronized by British residents and visitors. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for Lady Impey
and the portrait paintings of Ghulam Ali Khan for William Fraser and Colonel Skinner are the
examples of some excellent paintings of this period. In the later nineteenth century art schools
on the European model were established in major Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras. Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore depicting mythological and social
themes became highly popular at this time. Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, EB
Havell and Ananda Kehtish Coomaraswamy played an important role in the emergence of the
Bengal school of Art. The Bengal School had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where
Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan. In architecture also, great strides were made
during colonial times as they made huge buildings to demonstrate their might.
Another significant development was the formation of the Progressive Artists Group in Art and
Architecture Bombay in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S H Raza,
MF Husain, KM Ara etc. This group broke away from Bengal School of Art and represented the
modern forceful art of independent India.
Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. The National
Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under one roof. The second one is
the Lalit Kala Akademi which recognizes and patronizes artists in all fields.
RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHIES
HINDUISM and HINDU LITERATURE

Hinduism is one of the oldest religions with no definite theories of its origin and starting point. Earliest
literary and religio-philosphical works are in form of Vedas and other literature. There are four Vedas
and each of them also has – Samahitas, Brahmanas, Upnishadas and Araynakas – as four parts.
The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz.

Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is ‘that which has been heard’ and is
canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is
considered eternal. Shruti describes the sacred texts comprising
the central canon of Hinduism viz. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
& Upanishads. Smiriti literally means ‘that which is remembered,
supplementary and may change over time’. It is authoritative only
to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti and it is
entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature. It
comprises Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda,
Tantras, Agamas, Upangas. There is no distinct division between
Shruti and Smriti. Both Shruti and Smriti can be represented as a
continuum, with some texts more canonical than others. First among Smritis is Manu Smriti.
Three older Vedas excluding Atharveda are called as ‘Trey’. Rigveda contains many hymns and Gayatri
Mantra is one of them. In Samaveda, ‘Sama’ means melody Brahmvaidini were the women during
and it contains the Rhythmic compilation of Hymns of Vedic period who composed many hymns
Rigveda. ‘Yajus’ means ‘sacrificial formula’ and Yajurveda is during Rig Vedic period. Among such
the book of sacrificial and ritual prayers. It contains the women, some of the prominent were –
rituals of the Yajnas. It ranks next in sanctity and importance Lopamudra, Ghosa, Maitreyi. Lopamudra
to the Rigveda. It contains 1549 hymns which are meant to was the wife of the sage Agastya.
be sung at the soma sacrifice by a special class of Brahmans. Maitreyi, (the wife of Yajnavalkya) is
accredited with about ten hymns in Rig
Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much
Veda.
of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in
other Indo-European literatures. It also mentions Dhanvantri
as earliest medical person. Atharveda was not written by priestly class unlike other three Vedas.
The Samahitas contain hymns. There are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda :
Shukla(white) and Krishna(black)
The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give explanation and
applications and related stories of their origin. They also have some stories related to the certain
persons related to the Vedic Text.
Aranyakas were written in forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans. Aranyakas don’t lay much
emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy and mysticism. So they have moral science
and philosophy. It also provides the details of the Rishis who lived in jungles. They were studied and
taught by men during their Vanprastha ashrama.
Upanishads are also called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote the last phase of
the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda. They are called Vedanta
also because they were taught at the end to the disciples. The Sanskrit term Upanishad derives from upa
- (nearby), ni - (at the proper place, down) and pad (to sit) thus meaning – ‘sitting down near’, implying
sitting near a teacher to receive instruction. The main motto of the Upanishads is ‘Knowledge Awards
Salvation’. More than 200 Upnishads are known, of which the first dozen or so, the oldest and most
important, are variously referred to as the principal, main (mukhya) or old Upanishads. Copilation of 108
Upnishadas is also called ‘Muktika’. All Upanishads have been passed down in oral tradition. First and
the largest Upnishada is Vrihat Aranyaka which is a discourse between Yajnavalyaka and Gargi on
philosophical aspects of Dharma. ‘Aum’ is contained in Chandyuga Upnishad. Katha Upnishad contains
dialogue between Yama and Nachiketa and it is about basic questions regarding Atma and Parmatma.
Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.
There are four basic components of Hindu philosophy – Karma, Dharma, Soul and Parmatma.
Traditional Hindu life was governed by two fundamental principles – Varnavyavastha i.e theory of four
varnas and Ashramavayavastha i.e. four stages of life and the associated principles. Around the time
when Jainism and Buddhism were becoming popular, brahmins developed this system of ashramas.
Today, Hinduism can be broadly seen in two streams – orthodox and heterodox. Orthodox view believes
that Vedas are the ultimate source of knowledge, failth and morality and they were not written by
humans i.e. they are revealed. This is also known as ‘Sanatan’ view. Heterodox stream is more liberal
and includes strands including ancient Lokayatta hilosophy to philosophy of Upnishadas, Sankhya, Yoga
and Adwait.
VEDIC INDIAN PHILOSOPHY SCHOOLS or SHADDARSHANA
During the later Vedic period definite ideas and philosophies about the true nature of soul and
the cosmic principle or Brahman, who represented the ultimate reality, were developed. These
Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools of philosophies called
‘Shada-darshana’ –
I. Samkhya System – It talks of ‘Dukha’ and its remedy in Karma and Discipline. The
founder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the ‘Samkhya-sutra’. It does not
recognize god. According to it, liberation is possible only through real knowledge and
knowledge can be acquired through observation, inferences and words. According to it,
the world is a production of natural forces.
II. Yoga – Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is
found in the ‘Yogasutra’ of Patanjali believed to have been written in the 1000 BC. Yogic
techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Freedom could be attained by
practicing self-control (yama), observation of rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana),
breath control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the mind
(dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self,
merging the mind and the object (samadhi). Yoga admits the existence of God as a
teacher and guide.
III. Nyaya – Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. According to Nyaya, valid
knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object as it
exists. Gautama is said to be the author of the ‘Nyaya-sutras’.
IV. Vaisheshika – Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy
of universe. Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed
of five basic atomic elements – earth, water, air, fire and ether. Kanada wrote the basic
text of Vaisheshika philosophy and he got this name as he was always interested into
the smallest of particles ‘Kana’.
V. Purva Mimamsa or Mimansa – Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of
interpretation, application and the use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana
portions of the Veda. According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess
all knowledge, and religion means the fulfillment of duties prescribed by the Vedas. It
was given by Jaimini.
VI. Uttar Mimamsa or Vedantic Philosophy – It deals with Vedanta or it implies the
philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of the Vedas. It rejected the rituals
and propounded the philosophy of atma-parmatma monism. It was given by Badrayana,
but popularized by Adi Shankaracharya who wrote the commentaries on the
Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita. This philosophy largely shaped
contemporary Indian culture.
Manu Smriti is officially called Manav Dharam Shastra. It is a metrical (one that is written in poetic
verses) text, which presents a discourse given by the Prajapati Manu – the legendary first man and
lawgiver, to a congregation of seers after a Mahapralaya (great Floods) in ancient India. In its present
form it dates from the 1st century BC. It prescribes the dharma of each Hindu, stating the obligations
attached to his or her social class and stage of life.
According to Hindu tradition, the Manusmriti records the Purushartha is a doctrine in Hinduism
which is derived from – Purush or Human
words of Brahma. It contains the source of law, origin of
and Artha or aim or meaning. It lays
universe and most importantly division of society into four
down four aims for all – Dharma, Artha or
subtypes or varnas. Brahmanas are given the highest place. wealth, Kama and Moksha. Dharma is to
It is the most authoritative of the books of the Hindu law be followed duwing Brahmcharya
code (Dharma-shastra) covering a wide range of topics ashram, Arth and Kaama are to be
such as creation of the world, sacraments like ‘Upanayana' followed during Grihastha ashram and
(wearing of sacred thread by upper castes) and marriage; Moksha during Sanyas.
duties of men and women placed in different strata of
society and stages of life; penitential rites for violation of codes of conduct; and so on.
Yajnayallaka Smriti is another one. It is important for its two commentaries – Mitakshara by
Vijneshwara in 12th century AD and Dayabhaga of Jimutvahana. Mitakshra for the first time talked about
the rights of women in property and inheritance. Jimuntavahana was an Indian Sanskrit scholar and
writer of legal and religious treatises of early medieval period. He was the earliest writer on smriti (law)
from Bengal. Dayabhaga has dealt with the laws of inheritance. This treatise differs in some aspects
from Mitakshara (another treatise on law), which was prevalent in other parts of India. The right of a
widow without any male issue to inherit the properties of her deceased husband is recognized in
Dayabhaga.
Apart from these scriptures and philosophies, there are also puranas and upvedas. Purana literally mean
old. Purans are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation
to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology,
philosophy and geography. The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be
heard by everybody, including women and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They
were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them. Mythologically, both the
Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been compiled by Vyasa. Earliest puranas were
composed during Gupta period. They are colored with superstitions and also represent a corrupt form of
Hindu Philosophy. They promoted avtarvaad or re-incarnations and it also promoted polytheism in
HInduism. They proclaimed that even Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu (Bhagwat Purana, 9th
century AD) and similarly, Rishabh Deva, first Jain teerthankara, was also termed as an incarnation of
Vishnu. There are 18 major Puranas and, they today shape the dominant Hindu culture.
Upaveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain the subjects of certain
technical works. They are as follows –
I. Ayurveda deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda

II. Dhanurveda deals in Archery and associated with the Yajurveda
III. Gandharvaveda deals with Music and Dance and associated with the Samaveda
IV. Shastrashastra deals with military technology and associated with the Atharvaveda.
JUDAISM
It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions of the world and both Christianity and Islam developed
from Judaism. Basic belief of the Jews is that God has promised to bless Abraham and his descendents if
they remain faithful to him and God repeated the same to son and grandson Jacob or Israel of Abraham.
This is the reason that all Jews are called children of Israel. Their basic teachings come from Torah or the
first five books of Hebrew bible. Ten Commandments that god gave to Moses on Mount Sinai are
principles that should govern the way of life of Jews.
India has two Jewish communities – the Malyali speaking Cochinis and the Marathi speaking Bene
Israel.
ZORASTRIANISM
The Parsi or Zoroastrian religion was founded by Zarathustra or Zoroaster, in the eighth century BC. He
preached monotheism in the region now known as Persia (modern Iran).
He taught the worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of Ahura Mazda and Ahura
Man. He also taught the ethical doctrine of kindness and charity. These doctrines are enshrined in the
Zend Avesta.
The Zoroastrian religion spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant religion till the
eighth century AD when Muslims conquered this region. Most of the Parsis migrated to different parts
of the world. They also came to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat, and later on spread to almost all
parts of India. Zoroastrianism is not a proselytizing religion and no new entrants are accepted into its
fold under any circumstances.
They have contributed a lot to Indian culture. It was Dadabhai Naoroji, the famous nationalist leader and
a Parsi, who exposed the hollowness of the British claim of civilizing India and not exploiting it. Another
outstanding figure, who belonged to this community, was Jamshedji Tata, a pioneering Indian
industrialist.
They don’t bury or burn their dead as according to them dead matter pollutes all, so they put their dead
in open to be eaten by vultures. Tower of Silence in Mumbai is one such place.
BUDDHISM
Both Buddhism and Jainism emerged in background of rising orthodoxies in Hinduism and as a reaction
and alternative to it. Both rejected caste, rituals, polytheism and even notion of God. Buddha as well as
Mahavira challenged the authority of Vedas. Buddha emphasized on moral progress which was
independent of any creator of the universe. Buddha was younger to Mahavira and was his
contemporary. Greeks, Kushans and Shakas embraced Buddhism rather than Hinduism because
Buddhism rather than Hinduism provided easy access to Indian society and Buddhism was open to all
castes, creeds, nationalities, races and so on while Hinduism was strictly ascriptive and one could be a
Hindu by birth only. Both Gautama Buddha and Vardhaman Mahavira preached their doctrines during
the reign of Bimbisara.
The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakyagana, his father was Suddhodana. His mother
Mahamaya died 7 days after his birth and he was brought up by his step mother Gautami (that’s why he
is called as Gautam Buddha also). The site of nativity of Gautama Buddha is marked by the celebrated
Rummindei Pillar of Ashoka.
He enjoyed married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula.
After seeing an old man, a sick man, an ascetic and a corpse, he dicided to become a wanderer.
His chariot was Chann and Kanthaka was his favorite horse. His leaving of palace life is called ‘Maha-
Bhinishkramana’ at the age of 29. Initially he practiced severe asceticism, but found it of no use.
He attained Nirvana six years later at the age of 35 under a peepal tree known as Bodhi Tree. According
to him Nirvana is not extreme asceticism, but it is a state of bliss and peace of mind. After that
enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One.
He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he delivered his first sermon which is called Dhamm-
Chakra-Parbartana or turning the wheel of law. He was also called Gautam or Sakya Muni or Amitabh or
Tathagat also.
He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed
away at Kusinara.
According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it is also
soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow
(dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. He considered the world as full of misery. Man’s duty is to seek
liberation from this painful world.
The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand
his message.
Buddhism was atheistic, in as much as God was not essential to the Universe.
The acceptance of nuns in the Buddhist monasteries was a revolutionary step from the point of view of
the status of women.
The doctrine of karma was essential to the Buddhist way of salvation. Unlike the brahmanical idea,
karma was not used to explain away caste status, since Buddha rejected caste.
Buddhism stands on three pillars –
I. Buddha
II. Dhamma – His teachings
III. Sangha – Order of Buddhist monks and nuns
TEACHINGS of BUDDHA
He called for a ‘middle path’ – neither extreme indulgence nor self-mortification. He showed
way for self-restraint instead of self mortification and right action instead of inactivity.
His teachings are –
I. Four Great Truths (World is full of sorrow; cause of all pain and misery is desire; Misery
can be ended by controlling desire; desire can be controlled by 8 fold path)
II. Eight Fold Path or Ashtangika marga (Right faith, right thought, right action, right
livelihood, right efforts etc)
The doctrine of karma was essential to the Buddhist way of salvation.
Buddha didn’t recognize god or soul unlike Jaina.
BUDDHISM BRANCHES
Buddhism remained confined to a few place like Magadh and Koshala till around 100 years of his
death and gained true prominence only during rule of Ashoka.
Over the years, Buddhism developed into many branches. Some of them are -
I. Theravada – literally, ‘the Teaching of the Elders’ or ‘the Ancient Teaching’, is the oldest
surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India. It is relatively conservative and closer
to early Buddhism and is still prevalent in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indonesia etc.
II. Hinyana – It is also the oldest and original branch and perhaps more orthodox. It depicts
Buddha and incidents associated with his life only through symbols and prohibits
representation of Buddha in human form.
a. Lotus and bull – Birth of Buddha
b. Horse – Renunciation
c. Bodhi Tree – Nirvana or Enlightenment
d. Wheel – It stood for first sermon at Sarnath,
e. Stupa – Parinirvana
f. Empty chair – Mahaparinirvana
III. Mahayana – Mahayana (literally the ‘Great Vehicle’) is one of the two main existing
branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and
practice. Mahayana Buddhism originated in India during times of Kushana. It was
popularized by Kanishka and believes in gods, putting Buddha at the top of them. Its
emphasis is more on devotion, charity and prayer instead of austere self-restraint. It
depicts Buddha in human form, while earlier and original Hinyana form prohibits it.
According to the teachings of Mahayana traditions, ‘Mahayana’ also refers to the path
of seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called
‘Bodhisattvayana’, or the ‘Bodhisattva Vehicle’; Bodhisattva is an enlightened being
(bodhi – gyaan, Sattva – existence) or a minor god. Padmapaani is the most popular
Bodhisttva. Others are like Amitabh, Vajrapani etc. In early Indian Buddhism the term
bodhisattva was used generally to refer specifically to the Buddha in his former lives.
The Jatakas, which are the stories of his lives, depict the various attempts of the
bodhisattva to embrace qualities like self-sacrifice and morality.
This had two distinct features as compared to Thervada and Hinayana –
a. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs.
For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the
peepal tree. Now, statues and pictures of the Buddha were made.
b. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas. These were supposed to be
persons who had attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment,
they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of
doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people to find
salvation.
Many Buddhist Councils were held after death of Buddha.
I.First Buddhist council – Rajgriha, Ajatshatru – According to the scriptures of all Buddhist
schools, the first Buddhist Council was held soon after the mahaparinirvana of the Buddha,
dated by the majority of recent scholars around 400 BCE, under the patronage of king
Ajatasatru at Rajgriha (now Rajgir). Its objective was to preserve the Buddha's sayings (Suttas)
and the monastic discipline or rules (Vinaya). The Suttas were recited by Ananda, and the
Vinaya was recited by Upali. According to some sources, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, or its
matika, was also included.
II. Second Buddhist Council – Vaishali
III. Third Buddhist Council – Patliputra, Ashoka
IV. Fourth Buddhist Council – Kashmir, Kanishka King was patron and was presided over by
Vasumitra, and Mahayana Buddhism is born. Though Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism had
certain differences, they agreed on teachings of Buddha and differed only in the ways it
should be followed.
Budhhist Literature is classified as canonical and non-canonical. Canonical literature includes Tripitaka
and non canonical literature includes Jatakas, probably written by ordinary people and later compiled,
which tell stories of Buddha in past lives. Milinda Panha is another non-canonical text. Milinda Panha
means ‘Questions of Milinda’. It contains the dialogue of Indo-Greek king Meander and Buddhist monk
Nagasena in 100 BC. Nagasena answered questions of Milinda and he was converted to Buddhism.
Dipavamsa or ‘Chronicle of Island’ is another non-canonical text. It is the oldest historical record of Sri
Lanka. Other non-canonical Buddhist literature includes – Mahavamsa written in Pali, Buddha Charita
etc.
Tripitaka – After his death his teachings were compiled by his disciples at a council of ‘elders’ or senior
monks at Vaishali in present-day Bihar. These compilations were known as Tripitaka or Three baskets.
Tripitaka traditionally contains three compilations –
I. Sutta Pitaka – carried teachings/sermons of Buddha. It also contained some Nikayas which were
another category of Buddhist literature. It was compiled during first Buddhist Council.
II. Vinaya Pitaka – includeed rules and regulations for those who joined thes angha or monastic
order
III. Abhidharma Pitaka – dealt with philosophical matters Buddhist principles.
Other Concepts related to Buddhism –
I. Pariniravana – In Buddhism, parinirvana is the final nirvana, which occurs upon the death of the
body of someone who has attained complete awakening (bodhi). Parinirvana of Budhha is called
Mahaparinirvana.
II. Therigatha – It is a part of Buddhist literature that was compiled by Buddhist nuns.
III. Pavarna – It is a ceremony of Buddhists during which monks confess the offences committed by
them during their stay at monetary.
IV. The Sangha – Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could
gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha, an association of
those who left their homesor monks. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives.
They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for foodduring fixed
hours.
V. Monasteries and Vihars – Both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout
the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season,
when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in
gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the
monks and nuns, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so
monasteries were built. These were known as viharas. Very often, the land on which the vihara
was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came
with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the monks and nuns. In return, they taught the
people.
VI. Madhyamaka School – It was founded by Acharya Nagarjuna who was an important Buddhist
teacher and philosopher belonging to Satvahana kingdom. Along with his disciple Aryadeva, he
is credited with founding the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism.
Causes for decline of Buddhism in India –
I. Bikhsus started to receive large doles and indulged themselves into luxuries, leading to their
moral degeneration.
II. Buddha at that time was considered as one of the incarnations of the Vishnu and thus became a
part of Vasihnavism.
III. Both Buddhism and Jainism started image worshipping during later part.
IV. Hinduism reformed itself
V. Monks were cutoff from common lives, relinquished Pali for the Sanskrit
VI. For their riches, monasteries became targets of choice for invaders
JAINISM
Jaina comes from the word – jina – means conqueror.
Jain teachers are known as Tirthankaras. One who attains moksa is referred to as a siddha, but only a
siddha who establishes or revitalizes Jainism – one who establishes a tirtha across the river of human
misery – is called a tirthankara. In Jainism, a Tirthankara is a human being who achieves moksa through
asceticism and who then becomes a role-model and teacher for those seeking spiritual guidance.
Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankar. Parshavnath was 23rd
Tirthankara. His emblem was ‘snake’ and his main teachings were 4 – non-injury, non-lying, non-
stealing, non-possession of property. The 24th and last Tirthankar is Mahavira, who lived from 599 to
527 BCE. He added – ‘Celibacy’ to the 4 existing principles given by Parshavnath. Earlier 22 Tirthankars
are considered to be mythical while evidence of only last two has been ascertained.
Thus, Jainas believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one
must practice the following ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words/speech and action –
I. Ahimsa or Non-injury
II. Satya or Non-lying
III. Asteya or Non-stealing

IV. Brahmacharya
V. Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism)
The teachings of the Tirthankaras before Mahavira are known as Purva. There were total 14 Purvas
which were memorized and passed on through the ages, but later lost into oblivion.
3 Ratnas or Three fold path of Jaina teachings are –
I. Right Faith – In the infallibility and competence of teachers

II. Right Knowledge – Correct understanding of the teachings of omniscient Teerthankaras.
III. Right Conduct – Observance of charity, chastity and renunciation
Vardhamana Mahavira was a kshatriya. The parents of Mahavira were Siddhartha, a Janatrika
chief of Kundapura, and Trishala. His mother Trishala was sister of Lichavi prince Chetak. He was
related to Bimbisara and was married to Yashodha. He became an ascetic at the age of 30 after
the death of both his parents.
He attained supreme knowledge or Kaivalya outside the town of Jrimbhikagrama and became a Jina or
the conquerer. He was also called Arihanta. He died at Pavapuri.
He taught a simple doctrine – ‘men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes’
to join the Sangha. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing
livingbeings. ‘All beings,’ said Mahavira ‘long to live’. All men could join the sangha. However, children
had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the
king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’
permission.
Like Buddha he used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country,
and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was
known as Magadhi.
One of the major differences of Buddhism and Jainism is that while the former called for a ‘middle path’,
later called for severe non-violence. Everything in the universe, material or otherwise, has a soul
according to Jainas. This is also the reason that the Jainism became out of bound of peasants and
kshatriyas who have to kill living beings for one reason or another. So, Jainism was supported mainly by
traders. Today, Jainas are concentrated mainly in Rajasthan, South India etc.
Like Buddhists, Jainas also held councils after his death. First Council was held in Patliputra presided by
Sthulbhadra and it led to compilation of 12 Angas or scriptures of Jainas or Holy books of Jainas.
Acharanga Sutra is the first of the 12 Angas. Angas are part of a wider group of Jaina teachings called
Agamas.
After his death, his followers divided into two branches –
I. Shvetambara or wearer of white cloth of North India, guided by Sthulbhadra.
II. Digambara or wearer of sky (remained nude) of south under guidance of Bhadrabahu.
According to them, like other possessions, clothes increase dependency and desire for material
things. Bhadrabahu is considered to be the last expert of fourteen Purvas. Bhadrabahu was also
a guru of Chandragupta Maurya. Since women cannot be naked, they cannot attain moksha. But
under Shvetambras, women can attain moksha. The Kalpa Sutra is the holy book of the of
Jainism (Digambaras) religion written by Bhadrabahu. It includes the biographies of Jain
thirthankaras.
Jainas also place low importance on gods and placed gods lower than Jina.
Core beliefs and principles of Jainas are –
I. Everything has a soul. The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated.
Even stones, rocks and water have life. Jaina believed that – monastic existence is a necessary
condition of salvation.
II. They don’t believe in a creator deity. They believe that world is created by a ‘Universal Law’ and
not by God (though, they recognised gods and placed them below Jina). Jainas rejected the idea
of creator as well as authority of Vedas, though it doesn’t oppose caste system. Jainas as well as
Buddha believed in Karma and transmigration of soul.
III. Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power,
and bliss (masked by its karmas).
IV. Ultimate aim is Nirvana
V. Another important principle of Jainism is ‘anektawad’ or principle of pluralism which refers to
multiplicity of viewpoints. It says truth can be perceived differently and no single truth is the
ultimate truth.
Jainas believe in 8 symbols –
I. Swastika – Signifying well being

II. Vardhmanaka
III. Bhadrasana
IV. Kalasha
V. Minayugal – Fish couple signifying victory over desires
VI. Darpana
VII. Shrivatsa
VIII. Nandyavartya
Monastries established by Jains were called – ‘sthanakas’ – likeViharas of Buddhists.
One of the major impacts of Jainism on Hinduism and Indian society was practice of non-violence and
vegetarianism. Animal sacrifice was also given up by most of the Hindu society due to influence of
Jainism and Hinduism.
Merchant class was attracted to Buddhism and Jainism because, both the religions preached non-
violence and it was conducive for spread of trade. Dharmashastra also decried the practice of lending
money and merchant class wanted to improve their status.
Further, Buddhist and Jainist literature is also one of the oldest written sources of earliest history.
Ashvaghosha was one of the Sanskrit writers. Buddhist and Jaina texts list sixteen Mahajanapadas and
hence give information about later Vedic period also.
SIKHISM
Guru Nanak dev founded Sikh sect and he was a nirguna Bhakti saint. He preached universal
brotherhood and discarded caste.
It was Guru Angad who introduced Gurumukhi and Guru Granth Sahib – which is now revered as a living
Guru – was compiled by Guru Arjun Dev. It not only carried vanis of Sikh Gurus, but also carried
teachings of Farid, Kabir, Namdev and others as well. So, it was not just a religious book, but a book of
composite culture and symbol of humanity, brotherhood and communal harmony.
ISLAM
Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the 7th century AD in Arabia. He was born in AD 571 in the
Quraysh tribe of Arabia. He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the beginning of
the Hijira Era. According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad
through his archangel Gabriel. Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith
or Hadees. After his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs. The Muslims
first came to India in the 8th century AD mainly as traders. While Hindu society was divided into castes,
Islam preached equality. Politically, India came under Muslim rulers only in 11th century with
establishment of Delhi sultanate. Sultanate was replaced by Mughal rule in 1526 after First Battle of
Panipat who ruled till 1707, after which they were only nominal rulers till 1857.
BHAKTI
It is a religious movement which started in medieval India as a bid to rationalize Hinduism. Specifically, it
refers to movements of 13th-16th century, but it has long roots in religious reforms movements of 7th-8th
century in Tamil Nadu where Alvaras and Nayanars laid its foundation.
The word Bhakti comes from the Sanskrit term bhaj meaning ‘to share’. Its basic premise was devotion
to a personal god for salvation or to unite with god. This suggests an intimate, two-way relationship
between the deity and the devotee. Devotees repeat the name of their gods through Bhajan, Kirtan,
Shabds etc. This form of worship gradually spread to different parts of the country. According to this
system of belief, if a devotee worships the chosen deity with a pure heart, the deity will appear in the
form in which he or she may desire. So, the deity could be thought of as a human being, lion, tree or any
other form. Once this idea gained acceptance, artists made beautiful images of these deities. Anybody,
whether rich or poor, belonging to the so-called ‘high’ or ‘low’ castes, man or woman, could follow the
path of Bhakti.
Features of Bhakti Movement –
 They said that the path to God lay in devotion and Bhakti to Him and not in any rituals.
 They disputed the role of middlemen – priestly class – in meeting the god
 They rejected the Vedic gods like Indra, Varuna and Yama and instead focused on – pre-Aryan
gods like – Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti
 They abdicated language of the elites – like Sanskrit – and adopted language of masses and
devised their own ways of expression like – vachna, doha, prabandha, bijak, bhajan, kirtan,
burrakatha, haarikatha, abhang, baramasa and so on.
 Bhakti inspired some of the best expressions in art – sculpture, poetry and architecture.
 They condemned rituals and sacrifices.
 It preached of oneness of god and universalism
 They welcomed the ideas of equality and brotherhood which the Sufi saints also preached. It
broke caste and gender barriers.
 The Bhakti saints belonged to various backgrounds but mainly from the lower castes.
 Role of guru and ‘guru-shishya parampara’ had important place in Bhakti movement. Guru is the
one who is capable of guiding the disciple to the right path to god.
They disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings. The Bhakti saints did
their entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible even to simple minds.
SOUTH INDIAN MOVEMENTS and SAINTS
The 6th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements in Southern India, led by
the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all
castes including those considered ‘untouchable’.
Avaras were Vaishnav saints. The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha. The
revered alvars came from all castes, a symbolic notion in Vaishnavism to show that devotion to
God transcends above caste. There were 12 Alvaras. Vishnu Bhakti movement also had Vaishnav
teachers known as Vaishnav Acharyas. While Alvaras presented emotional side, Acharyas
presented intellectual aspect. They also included participation of women, Andal was one such
famous woman and is often called ‘Meera’ of South. One of the Alvar saints was also a king –
Kulashekhara – of Chera dynasty and he also promoted Kuttiyattam a dance form. Their songs
were compiled into a single volume in 10th – 11th century in Divyaprabandham by Nath Muni.
Naynars on the other hand were devotees of Shiva. Unlike Vaishnavism, Shaivism had its origin
in antiquity. There are two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram Stotras, also known as
Dravida Veda, and Tiruvacakam or Thiruvasagam (‘sacred utterance’). The latter is a volume of
Tamil hymns composed by the ninth century Shaivite bhakti poet Manikkavasagar. It contains 51
compositions and constitutes the eighth volume of the Tirumurai, the sacred anthology of Tamil
Shaiva Siddhanta compiled by Nambi and other saints. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Isaignaniyaar were
among the three women amongst the 63 Nayanars. Appar was the most famous of these saints.
Together the two laid the foundation of Bhakti Movement in South India and India as a whole.
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against
the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system.
Alvars and Nayanars are also said to be opposed to Buddhism and Jainism.
Some of the other Bhakti saints of South are –
SHANKARA or ADI SHANKARA (8th century)
Shankara, one of the most influential philosophers of India, was born in Kerala in the 8th
century. He was an advocate of ‘Advaita’ or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual
soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that Brahm, the only
or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes.
He established four mathas at four corners of India – Dwarka, Puri, Badrinath, Sringeri.
Mathas, like Sanghas and Monastries, were centers of religious discourse, education etc.
RAMANUJA (11th century)
Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the 11th century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.
According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to
Vishnu. He propounded the doctrine of ‘Vishishtadvaita’ or qualified oneness in that
the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct. Only limited
people are able to join paramatma. Ramanuja disagreed with Shankara and said that
God can be found through love and not knowledge. He thus advocated Bhakti and he
also rejected caste. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which
developed in north India subsequently.
MADHAV (13th century)
He was a Bhakti saint from South who pioneered the philosophy of ‘Dvaita’ or dualism.
It was in contrast with Advaita philosophy of Shankaracharya.
VALLABHACHARYA (15th century)
According to him, joining of atma and parmatma is impossible and to end suffering, one
must surrender to the god (Krishna). His philosophy is also known as ‘Pushtimarga’ or
‘Shuddhaadvaita’ and the school was called Rudrasampradaya. He was a teacher of
Suradasa.
VIRSHAIVA MOVEMENT
This movement began in Karnataka in the 12th century during reign of Kalachuya kings.
Their reign was marked by dominance of traditional Brahminical Hindu values, a social
system based on caste and a polity and economy governed by feudal principles.
Virashaiva movement emerged a akind of militant movement initiated by
Basavanna/Basavesvara and his companions like Allamaprabhu and Akkamaha Devi.
The term 'Akka' (elder Sister) is an honorific given to her by great Veerashaiva saints like
Basavanna.
They wanted to replace the conservative Shaivism by a more egalitarian and free order.
Their followers were known as – Virshaiva (heroes of Shiva) and Lingyats (wearers of
Linga). The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the ‘pollution’ attributed to
certain groups by Brahmanas. The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all
human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.
They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
They also produced literary works which are now known as ‘vachnas’.
NORTH INDIAN MOVEMENTS and SAINTS
While Southern Saints mainly focused upon two deities – Shiva and Vishnu. Northern Saints
largely focused upon Rama and Krishna – two incarnations of Vishnu. Hence Northern Bhakti
movement was largely Vaishnavite in theme.
In North, Bhakti was pioneered by Ramananda, who was a saint from Varanasi. Ramananda had
many popular disciples like Kabir, Ravidasa and Sena. Other saints were – Guru Nanak, Meera
Bai, Namdev, Tukaram etc.
In Northern India, it developed into two streams, Nirguna bhakti and Saguna bhakti. Most of
the saints belonging to Nirguna and Saguna bhakti lived during Lodhi period i.e. from 15th – 16th
century. The nirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously
as Rama, Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were Kabir and
Nanak.
The saguna bhaktas were devotees of god with attributes or in human form. Vishnu in its
incarnations as Rama, or Krishna, are most popular deities that were worshipped by Saguna
Bhakti saints. Thus, Saguna bhakti movement of North India was essentially vaishnavite in
character as compared to Southern Bhakti movement which had both Vashnav as well as Shaiv
streams. Some of the best examples of Saguna bhaktas were Tulsidas, who idolized Rama in his
famous Ramcharita Manas, and Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his famous Sursagar.
Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord Krishna, also belonged to this tradition.
Some of them like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions. Others like
Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible
to all.
Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions, compiled in the Sursagara,
Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion.
RAMANANDA
Swami Ramanand, was a Vaishnava saint in 15th century. He pioneered the Ramanandi
sect or worshippers of Vishnu in for of Rama. Ramananda for the most part of his life
lived in the holy city of Varanasi, and was a pioneer of the Bhakti movement, as well as a
social reformer in Northern India.
He campaigned against caste system and his disciples were from all castes and he was
the first to use simple Hindi for preaching bhakti thus breaking the hegemony Brahmans
who used Sanskrit language for holy texts. Ramananda played an important role in
reviving a religious sect that provided a spiritual pathway to people of all castes. Kabir –
a weaver, Namdev – a tailor, Sain – a barber and Ravidas – a Cobbler were all his
disciples.
RAVIDAS or RAIDAS
He was a disciple of Ramananda. Ravidas also populary known as 'Bhagat Ravidas' or

'Sant Ravidas' was a north Indian saint in the 15th century CE.He belonged to shoemaker
community and rejected the idea of 'Jati' and emphasized on deeds of individual.
SURDAS
Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a blind
poet, whose songs are centered around Krishna. His Sursagar recounts the exploits of
Krishna during his childhood and youth with gentle affection and delightfulness.
DADU DAYAL
Dadu Dayal (1544–1603) was a saint from Gujarat, India. He was a disciple of Kabir. He
was reputedly found by an affluent business man floating on the river Sabarmati. He
later moved to Amber (city), near Jaipur Rajasthan, where he gathered around himself a
group of followers, forming a group that became known as the Dadu-panth.
MIRABAI
Mirabai is perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition. She was a
Rajput princess from Marwar who was married against her wishes. She defied her
husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother, instead
recognizing Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu, as her lover. Her in-laws tried to poison her,
but she escaped from the palace to live as a wandering singer composing songs that are
characterized by intense expressions of emotion.
KABIR
He is the most important Nirguna Bhakti saint. Kabir’s teachings were based on a
complete, indeed vehement, rejection of the major religious traditions and vouched for
Nirguna form of Bhakti. His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of
both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the
caste system. Kabir was from Benaras and he tried to bridge the gap between Hindus
and Muslims. The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi widely understood
by ordinary people. His dohas are still very popular and relevant.
GURU NANAK
His ideas were similar to Kabir and Ramdas and he also vouched for Nirguna form of
Bhakti (god without form). He preached above caste and religion and his langar all were
welcome. He himself used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching,
which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct. His
teachings are now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna.
SAINTS OF MAHARASHTRA
Most of them belonged to the Untouchable 'Mahar' Caste and belonged to Varkari and Dharkari
communities. This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple
in Pandharpur, as well as on the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people.
These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences
based on birth. In fact they even rejected the idea of renunciation (unlike Shankara) and
preferred to live with their families, earning their livelihood like any other person, while humbly
serving fellow human beings in need. Another unique feature of these saints was that, many of
them advocated use of politics to protect religion. A new humanist idea emerged as they
insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain. They wrote devotional hymns which are known
as ‘Abhangs’. Prominent saints and women were –
JANDEVA
He was the first Marathi Bhakti saint in 13th century. He wrote a Marathi commentary
on Bhagwat Gita known as Janeshwari. It made it Gita accessible to all.
NAMDEV
He was a disciple of Ramananda. Born in a low caste tailor family in Maharashtra in 15th
century, Namdev uttered the word, ‘Vithala’, when he was merely two years old and
since then, he was a devotee of Vithala. Bhagat Namdeo emphasized the importance of
living the life of a householder and that even through marriage and having a family one
could attain enlightenment. Namdev did write a large number of bhajanas, including
short poems.
EKNATH
Eknath (1533–1599) was a prominent Marathi Saint, scholar and religious poet. In the
development of Marathi literature, Sant Eknath is seen as a bridge between the
towering predecessors Dnyaneshwar and Namdev and the equally noble successors
Tukaram and Ramdas.
TUKARAM
Sant Tukaram (1608–1650) was a prominent Varkari saint and spiritual poet during a
Bhakti movement in India (Maharashtra). Saint Tukarm accepted Saint Namdev as his
Guru. Saint Tukaram was a devotee of god Vitthala or Vithoba, a form of Krishna. He
was a contemporary of Jhangir, he is said to have inspired Marathas to rise against
Mughals.
RAMDAS
He was the most important Dharkari saint and was also guru of Shivaji. He wrote
‘Dasbodha’.
SAKKUBAI
She was also a devotee of Vithala
OTHER SAINTS
CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU
He was a Vaishnava saint and social reformer in eastern India (specifically present-day
Bangladesh and states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Manipur, Assam, and Odisha of
India) in the 16th century. He laid the foundation of Vaishnavism in Bengal and Eastern
India, where till then Shakti cult was dominant. Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya too
was willing to welcome everyone, irrespective of caste, into the fold.
He is believed by followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism to be the full incarnation of Lord

Krishna. Specifically, he worshipped the forms of Radha and Krishna and popularized the
chanting of the Hare Krishna maha mantra and is inspiration behind ISKCON movement.
He also introduced Kirtan style of songs and introduced a new musical instrument called
‘Khol’ which is similar to a Mridangam, smaller at one end and broader at the another.
GHASI DAS
Ghasi Das founded a socio-religious movement in Chhattisgarh and called it the

Satnamis. He was born in the year 1756 in a dalit family in village Girodhpuri of Raipur
District (presently in Chhattisgarh). Ghasi Das instigated a socio-religious order that
discarded and helped in demolishing the hierarchical caste system from the society. This
new order initiated by Ghasi Das through Satnamis principles treated all people as
equal.
NARSINGH MEHTA
A Vaishnav Gujarati poet whose hymns were also used by Gandhi in his everyday
prayers.
SHANKARDEVA
He was a Vaishnav saint who brought Bhakti movement to Assam. He wrote several
religious texts which are still part of dances like Sattriya sect etc. He is credited to
introduce Vaishnavism to Assam where Skhati cult dominated in form of Devi
Kamakhya. Shankardeva in Assam began the practice of setting up namghars or houses
of recitation and prayer, a practice that continues to date.
SOMDEV
He was a Shaivite and wrote Kathasaritsagara (ocean of the streams of stories) a

famous 11th century collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales. The work was
compiled for the entertainment of the queen Suryamati, wife of king Anantadeva of
Kashmir. Kathasaritsagar was perhaps the most popular Sanskrit work in medieval
times.
NATHPANTHIS, SIDHHAS and YOGIS
A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized the ritual and
other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical
arguments. Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis. They
advocated renunciation of the world. To them the path to salvation lay in meditation on
the formless Ultimate Reality and the realization of oneness with it.
To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices
like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation. These groups became particularly
popular among “low” castes. Their criticism of conventional religion created the ground
for devotional religion to become a popular force in northern India.
Contribution of Bhakti Movement –
I. Bhakti movement was not only about religion, but also about how society should be organized.
II. It broke the boundaries of caste in Hindu society and tried to make it more equitable. Bhakti
saints were from all castes and they tried to make caste irrelevant.
III. It encouraged universal brotherhood and communal harmony and brought together people
from various castes and creeds including from Islam. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both
Hindus and Muslims to become his disciples.
IV. For example – through the concept of ‘Langar’ or common kitchen, the sikh gurus emphasized
on the equality of all in society
V. Marathi saints even took political interest and mobilized Marathas against the Mughal forces
and they popularized ideals of local identity and sub-nationalism.
VI. They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were
encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses that are popular
even today. Akka Mahadevi, Mira, Sakkubai are example from south India are other examples.
VII. A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages
and could be sung. They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from
generation to generation. It promoted regional languages and hence contributed to the growth
of local literature. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in
Hindi, Shankaradeva popularizing Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message
in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.
VIII. It made religion accessible to downtrodden, which was earlier hegemony of upper caste
Brahmins.
SUFISM and SILSILAHs

In the early centuries of Islam in around 1200 CE, a group of religious minded people in Persia called
Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a
religious and political institution. Word Sufi is derived from ‘suf’ which means coarse wool cloth that
such saints wore.
Sufism is a common term used for Islamic mysticism. Their sense of piety, tolerance, sympathy, concept
of equality and friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from lower classes, to Islam.
Features of Sufi movement –
I. They sought union with God much as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
II. They had dual purpose – self development and service of humanity.
III. They didn’t promote strict asceticism like Bhakti saints, but discoraged a materialistic outlook
while still working for the necessities of life.
IV. It also played a key role in bringing the Hindu and Muslim communities together.
V. The Sufis sought an interpretation of the Quran on the basis of their personal experience and
rejected the dogmas.
VI. The Sufis were very liberal in their religious outlook. They believed in the essential unity of all
religions.
VII. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behavior demanded by Muslim
religious scholars.
VIII. They took ideas not only from Quran, but also from Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity etc.
IX. They preached spirituality through music and doctrines that professed union with God. Their
musical gatherings were called ‘sama’.
X. Like Bhakti saints, ‘Pir-Murid’ i.e. Guru-Shishya tradition was central and not rituals.
XI. Like the Bhakti saint-poets, the Sufis too composed poems expressing their feelings, and a rich
literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them.
By the 11th century Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement with a body of literature on Quranic
studies and Sufi practices. Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e-
Shakar were the pioneer Sufis who are still loved, respected and honoured in India.
Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan) developed as important centers of Sufism.
They preached the unity of God and self-surrender unto Him in almost the same way as the votaries of
the Bhakti movement did.
Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals. Many took to
mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.
They were known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc. Because of their
deliberate defiance of the sharia they were often referred to as be-sharia, in contrast to the Sufis who
complied with it and were called ba-sharia and included Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and
Naqshbandi silsilahs. Thus, silsilahs were divided into two types – Ba-sharia and Be-sharia.
SUFI SILSILAS or ORDERS
The Sufis were organized into religious orders or silsilahs. These silsilahs were named after their
founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadri and Naqshbandis. Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-
i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis. Each order had its own khanqah, which served
as a shelter for the Sufi saints and for destitute, and later developed as a centre of learning.
When a Sufi Saint died, his tomb-shrine dargah became the centre of devotion for his followers.
This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death
anniversary or ‘Urs’ (It is an annual gathering to mark the death anniversary of a Sufi, urs
signifies marriage of his soul and God).
Chishti order/silsilah was named after the town of Khwaja Chisht near Heart in central
Afghanistan. The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders. It had a long line of
teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (founder of Chisti movement in India in 1142 CE and is
also called Garib Nawaz as he believed that serving mankind was the best form of devotion and
therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden) of Ajmer (where there is now his famous
Dargah), Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid or Fariddudin Ganj e Shakkar (called so
due to his sweet voice) of Punjab (Pak Patan, now in Pakistan), Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of
Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga. Nizamuddin Auliya was a brave and outspoken
sufi saint who spoke his mind even to Sultan. Devotees of all descriptions including members of
the royalty and nobility, and ordinary people flocked to these khanqahs. A major feature of the
Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power. Aamir
Khusro was also a follower of Nizamuddin Aulia who established Chisti silsilah in Delhi.
Satari Silsila was founded by Mohammad Ghaus of Gwaliar and it laid emphasis on Yogic
exercises as the basis of Sufism.
Suhrawardi Silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India
by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He set up a leading khanqah in Multan, which was
visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya
openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha and received from him the title
Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam). It must be noted that unlike the Chishti saints, the Suhrawardis
maintained close contacts with the state. They accepted gifts, jagirs and even government posts.
The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind.
Quadri Silsilah was similar to Suharawardi, but emphasized on music. Dara Shikoh was one of
followers of it.
Firdausi Silsilah was another silsila which expounded that hunger is the root cause of trouble.
Contribution of Sufis –
I. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more liberal
movements of the 15th century. They called for religious unity and according to them, all human
beings are children of one god irrespective of different religions.
II. A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of
society. While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day problems of the
people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people. Nizamuddin Auliya
was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or caste. It is said
that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah.
III. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional
literature. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages. Baba Farid
recommended the use of Punjabi for religious writings. The most notable writer of this period
was Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) the follower of Nizamuddin Auliya who wrote in Hindavi. Syed
Gesu Daraz was the first writer of Deccani Hindi.
IV. The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. In fact, The Islamic emphasis upon
equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema. Even today, Dargahs of Sufi
saints are visited by both Hindus and Muslims and people from all castes.
OTHER RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS, BHAKTI, PHILOSOPHY, PRINCIPLES

and ORGANISATIONS
AJIVIKA
Ajeevika, an ascetic sect that emerged in India about the same time as Buddhism and Jainism
and that lasted until the 14th century. It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra, a friend of
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.
Basic premise of this school was ‘Niyati’ or destiny. So, Ajivikas were fatalists and adhered to
inaction as according to them everything is pre-determined. Ashoka built Lomus caves in Barbar
Hilla near Bodh Gaya, Bihar for them.
CARVAKA or LOKAYATA or BRAHSPATYA PHILOSOPHY
It is one of the earliest schools of philosophies and Brihaspati and/or Charvaka is supposed to be
the founder. The word Carvaka means ‘sweet/agreeable talkers’.
This philosophy is even more materialistic and according to it, what cannot be recognised by the
senses of humans doesn’t exist and hence god also doesn’t exist. According to Charvaka there is
no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and pleasure the ultimate object in life.
Charvaka recognizes no existence other than this material world. It doesn’t believe in atma,
parmatma or transmigration. Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not
recognized by Charvakas. Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the
Charvakas do not recognize ether as it is not known through perception. The whole universe
according to them is thus consisted of four elements.
This school is also called Lokayatta which means prevalence of world. Kautilya’s Arthshastra
refers to only 3 philosophies – Samkhya, Yoga and Lokayata. Due to its rejection of traditional
doctrines of Hinduism, it is also known as a heterodox or naastik school.
ANTAYAJAS
Antayajas were a class of people living outside the town, as they were considered untouchables.
The synonym Chandala has also been used for them. They were considered even lower than the
sudras and outside Chaturvarna system.
DIN-e-ILAHI
It was a monistic religion that was propounded by Akbar. It was based on 10 virtues and concept
of Sulah-e-kul or universal harmony.
PASHUPATA
Pashupata Shaivism was one of the main Shaivite schools. The Pashupatas are the oldest named
Shaivite group.
The Pasupata doctrine gave rise to two extreme schools, the Kalamukha and the Kapalika,
known as Atimargika (schools away from the path), as well as a moderate sect, the Saivas (also
called the Siddhanta school), which developed into modern Saivism.
VAJRAYANA
It is also known as Tantric Buddhism and it grew out of infusion of Tribal ideas. According to
Vajrayana scriptures Vajrayana refers to one of three vehicles or routes to enlightenment, the
other two being the Hinayana and Mahayana. It also has a new goddess – Tara. A new form of
paintng is also associated with it which is called ‘Thanka painting’. Its main scriptures are called
Tantras.
ARCHITECTURE & SCULPTURES
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS
Broadly architecture has three forms in India – Rock Cut Caves, Rock Cut Temples etc and Structured
Temples/Buildings made of stone, mortar etc.
ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE
It includes both caves and other architecture. Rock cut architecture flourished in India due to
presence of a large number of hills and mountains.
In India this type of architecture style was used in building of temples.
The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, a World Heritage Site, are the earliest example of Rock Cut
cave-architectures. Another example of cave temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples
at Badami, the early Chalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century. Badami shifted from Timber
based rock cut cave architecture to stone architecture.
Another earliest example of rock cut temples is Ajanta temples which were influenced by
Buddhist art and temples depict life of Buddha. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more
sophisticated as in the Ellora Caves, culminating ultimately in the monolithic Kailash Temple by
Rashtrakuta rulers.
The Pallava architects in South started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies
of structural temples. Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is also an example of this architectural
style. Rock cut caves were also produced by Pandyas as well.
ROCK CUT CAVE ARCHITECTURE
It progressed in three phases
I. Buddhist, Jain, Ajivika caves (3rd BC to 2nd AD) – Kanheri, Nashik, Udaigiri, Barbar
II. Ajanta, Ellora Cave (5th to 7th AD), Gupta period
III. Elephanta, and Mahabalipuram caves (7th to 10th)
Earliest rock cut caves belonged to Ashokan period Caves of Barbar (which Ashoka made for
people of Ajivika sect) and Nagarjuni Hills are such examples in today’s Bihar.
Later from 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE, cave architecture focussed mainly on Buddhist
architecture and cave architecture took shape of viharas and chaityas. Examples included –
Kanheri, Bedsa, Karla, Nasik, Bhaja and Ajanta. Buddha was portrayed through certain symbols.
From 5th century onwards, timber was eliminated from usage which was earlier used, starting
from Badami caves in South. In West and Central India, images of Buddha emerged as dominant
subject.
In South, Satvahan kings built many rock cut structure known as Amravati style focusing on
Buddhist architecture. They made the largest and most famous artificial caves.
Dravidian architecture has mandpa and ratha as dominant features in Mahabalipuram. Early
examples of cave architecture in south is also there of Pandaya’s times as in case of caves of
Tiruchi.
Some of the famous rock cut caves and architecture monuments are –
a. Barbar and Nagarjuni Caves near Bodh

Gaya, Bihar – They were built during
Mauryan rule in around 200 BCE and
were donated to Ajivika sect ascetics.
They are oldest rock cut caves in India
made for religious purpose.
b. Udaigiri and Khandagiri Caves, Odisha –
The caves are situated on two adjacent
hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri and these
were originally built for Jain monks by
Kharvela kings of Kalinga in 200 BCE. The most important of this group is Ranigumpha in
Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery. These caves also have inscriptions of
Khavela kings of which Hathimgumpha inscription is the most prominent one. Many elegant
statues were also made at Udaigiri of which
elephant statues are most prominent.
c. Nasik Caves or Pandu Leni Caves – These are
Buddhist caves belonging to Hinyana period
carved between the 3rd century BC and the
2nd century AD. Most of the 24 caves which
are there are Viharas. The caves were called
Pundru which in Pali language means ‘yellow
ochre color’ and Pundru was later deformed
into Pandu. They were probably made by
The Kshatrapas, The Satavahanas and The
Abhirs.
d. Kanheri Caves, Mumbai – They are from 2nd
Century BCE to 9th Century AD and represent
both Hinyana and Mahayana Buddhism.
There are more than 100 caves. Their main
feature is a series of connected stairs and
stone seats for monks to sit on. Kanheri
comes from the Sanskrit Krishnagiri, which
means black mountain which is due to dark
basalt rocks from which these caves are
carved out. Most of the caves are used as the Buddhist viharas, meant for living, studying,
and meditating. The larger caves were chaityas. Among the various figures that have been
carved out, the Avalokiteshwara is the most distinctive figure. The large number of viharas
at Kanheri demonstrates the well organized establishment of Buddhist monks.
e. Jogeshwari Cave, Mumbai – They are Buddhist and Hindu caves and largely Belong to
Mahayana Buddhism. The caves date back to 520 to 550 CE. They are one of the earliest
major Hindu cave temple in India. The cave also has purported footprints of goddess
Jogeshwari (Yogeshwari), whom the area is named after and also considered as a Kuladevi
to some Maharathi people.
f. Karla, Bhaja and Bedsa, near Pune – They are near Mumbai and are Buddhist caves. Karla
caves belong to Mahayana Buddhist and have one of biggest Chaityas in India. They house
many sculptures like that of elephants, lions etc with beautiful railings. Bhaja Caves are near
Pune. They are supposedly built for Buddhist nuns. They are older that Karle caves and
perhap belongs to 2nd century BCE and belong to Hinyana sect and stupas and other
architecture is very plain. These caves are notable for their indications of the awareness of
wooden architecture. Bedsa Caves are also near Pune and are from a period slightly later
than Bhaja Caves.
g. Ellora and Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad, Maharashtra – Built by Chalukya and Rashtrakuta
rulers from 6th to 12th century. Ajanta are Buddhist caves and are unique because they have
all three forms of art – Paintings/fresco, sculpture and architecture. They have works from
Hinyana as well as Mahayana phase of Buddhism. There are total of 29 caves – 15 Viharas
and 4 Chaityas. Dying princess is one of the most famous frescos. Ellora Caves are unique as
they have caves from three religions – Buddhist, Jain and Brahmnical. Unlike Ajanta, they
are not on a perpendicular cliff, but are on the slope of hill. Famous Shiva temple was built
by Rashtrakuta rulers and it is one of the largest monolithic structures in the world. Ravan ki
Khai is another prominent Hindu cave.
h. Eladipattam – These are Jaina caves in today’s Tamilnadu and were used as places to live by
Jaina monks. Jaina monks used to do penance at these caves.
i. Sittanvasal Caves, Tamilnadu – They and a lot of other caves were made by Pandyas. Many
of them existed earlier also as Jain viharas. Pandyas also built caves around Tiruchi. Caves
made during Pandyas were
mainly Shaivite and Vaishnavite
in nature.
j. Udaigiri Caves near Vidhisha,
Madhya Pradesh – They were
built during Gupta period in 4th –
5th century CE. They are Hindu
caves. Varah Cave is one of the
most famous of the 20 caves. The
site also has inscriptions of the
Gupta dynasty belonging to the
reigns of Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta. The caves also have a reclining statue of
Vishnu and Vishnu as Narshimha as well. (This Udaigiri should not be confused with other
Udaigiris as there are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable
being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri
Caves in Odisha).
k. Bagh Caves, Madhya Pradesh – The Bagh Caves
are a group of 9 rock-cut monuments, situated in
MP. They are rock cut caves having fresco
paintings from life of Buddha. They belong to
Gupta period period.
l. Elephanta Cave, Mumabi – They got their name
from a giant elephant statue at the entrance. They
were probably made by Rashtrakutas and with
some contribution from Chalukyas as well, though
no concrete proof is there about their builders.
They are a group of 5th – 8th century caves and
consist of two groups of caves—the first is a large
group of five Hindu caves, the second, a smaller
group of two Buddhist caves. The caves are hewn
from solid basalt rock like many other caves like
Kanheri caves. They have many sculptures inside them. Masterpiece is a three faced image
of Trimurti Shiva which resembles the figure of Shiva made by Rashtrakuta in Kailasha
temple at Ellora.
m. Undavalli, Andhra – They are 7th century Hindu and Buddhist caves. Main attraction is giant
reclining Vishnu figure cut out o single granite rock.
n. Badami Caves – They were made by Chalukyas of Badami and they are Hindu, Buddhist and
Jainist caves. They marked the culmination of the rock-cut cave architecture in India. They
were carved out of softer soapstone and hence figures in these caves were very elegant.
HINDU ARCHITECTUAL STYLES – NAGARA, DRAVIDA and VESARA

Shilpshastra defines three types of architectural styles – Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. Today, only
temple architecture remains from ancient India, but it doesn’t mean that other types of buildings were
not constructed. Non-religious buildings were made from perishable materials and hence are not to be
found today. Often old houses were destroyed to built new ones, but religious places were not
destroyed as they had sacred value.
NAGARA STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE
This style of architecture is spread throughout the country, but mainly it's associated with
northern India. Developed around 5th century, the Nagara style is characterized by a beehive
shaped tower called a shikhara on a cruciform base, in northern terminology made up of layer
upon layer of architectural elements. Some of the best examples of the north Indian style
(Nagara style) of temple architecture are the Khajuraho Group of temples, Sun temple, Konark,
Sun temple at Modhera, Gujarat etc.
Within Nagara style also there were many variations.
In Central India – UP, MP, Rajasthan etc – material used was sandstone. Some of the oldest
surviving structural temples from the Gupta Period are in Madhya Pradesh – mainly at Udaigiri,
near Vidisha and Sanchi. These are relatively modest-looking small shrines each having four
pillars that support a small mandapa which look like a simple square porch-like extension before
an equally small room that served as the garbhagriha. In UP, Dashavatara temple of 6th century
represents the next phase in evolution when Shikara became a tall curivilinear structure which is
the classical example of nagara style.
In West, in 10th century more elaborate styles of Nagara architectures evolved in form of
Khajuraho temples. Many other schools in West also emerged including Solanki School.
In East – Bengla, Odisha and North-East – as well, variations of Nagara style evolved. Each of
these three areas produced distinct types of temples. The history of architecture in the North-
East and Bengal is hard to study because a number of ancient buildings in those regions were
renovated, and what survives now are later brick or concrete temples at those sites. It appears
that terracotta was the main medium of construction till around 7th to 8th century. In Assam,
Ahom style developed as a result of mixed influence of Pala School and Burmese art. In Bengal
and Bihar, Pala School flourished around 9th to 11th century CE.
DRAVIDA ARCHITECTURE or DRAVIDIAN STYLE of ARCHITECTURE
This is mainly related to temple building style of Southern India. Dravidian architecture was a
style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago in Southern part of the Indian
subcontinent or South India. It started during Pallavas and reached its pinnacle during Cholas.
They consist primarily of pyramid

shaped temples called Koils which
are dependent on intricate carved
stone in order to create a step
design consisting of many statues
of deities, warriors, kings, and
dancers.
Vimana or central figure (like

Shikhara in North) of Dravida
temples is usually smaller because,
a temple was improved upon by
many a rulers and everyone of
them enhanced gopurams by
redrawing a new gopuram with a new boundary wall to show his might. This is also the reason
that Dravidian temples may even have multiple concentric gopurams and a comparatively
smaller central vimanam.
Temples have not only been religious centers, but were also used for administrative activities,
controlling vast areas of land and were also centers of education.
Following are notable features of Dravidian style of architecture -
I. The principal part, the temple itself, is called the

Vimanam. It is almost always ‘square’ in plan and
surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more
stories; it contains the cell – Sanctum sanctorum or
Grabhgriha – where the image of the deity or his or
her emblem is placed.
II. The porches or Mandapams, which precede the door
leading to the central shrine or sanctum sanctorum.
III. Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal
features in the quadrangular enclosures that
surround the more notable temples.
IV. Pillard halls (Chaultris or Chawadis) are used for
many purposes and are the invariable
accompaniments of these temples.
V. Crowning part is called shikhara unlike northern
temples in which the whole vertical structure is
called shikhara.
VI. It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank,
These are basically of five different shapes – square, usually called kuta, and also caturasra;
rectangular or shala or ayatasra; elliptical, called gaja-prishta or elephant-backed or also called
vrittayata, circular or vritta; and octagonal or ashtasra. These different layouts were so to suit
the different nature of different deities. Greatest examples of Dravida architecture are found at
Mahabalipuram or Mammlapuram, Madurai, Gangaikondacholapuram, Tanjore, Kumbakonam,
Kanchipuram and so on.
The Pallavas were one of the ancient South Indian dynasties that were active in the Andhra
region from the 2nd century CE onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu and they were
the pioneer of this style. Dravidan architecture reached its zenith during the time of Cholas.
DRAVIDA vs NAGARA STYLE of ARCHITECTURE
I. Location – According to the Silpasastras, the temples in North India are Nagara style while
those situated between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari are Dravida.
II. Central Tower – The Nagara style which developed for the fifth century is characterized by a
beehive shaped curvilinear tower (called a Shikhara, in northern terminology) made up of
layer upon layer of architectural elements and a cruciform ground plan. While Dravida
architecture had a pyramidical shaped central tower (called Vimana in Dravida style). There
can be multiple Shikharas in Nagara style, but in
Dravidian style there is only a single Shikhara or
Vimana. Usually central tower is crowned in
both the styles and in Nagara style, it is called
Kalasha.
III. Gopuram – The Gateway – The most significant
visual difference between the later northern and
southern styles are the gateways. In the north
the shikhara remains the most prominent element of the temple and the gateway is usually
modest or even absent. While in Dravidian style, the Gopurams are very stylized and big in
size.
IV. Boundary – Nagara style temples have less emphasis on boundary and is generally absent,
while Dravida temples have elaborated boundary. Further, on boundary, the deities of
directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key directions on the outer walls of the
sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple.
V. Entrance – While in Nagara style, Ganga and Yamuna rivers are depicted in personified form
at the entrance of Garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum, in Dravida style ‘Dwarpalas’ are there
on entrance.
VI. Tower – There is always a single tower in Dravida style temple, while there are multiple
towers in many of the Nagara style temples as in case of Khajuraho temples.
VII. Pedestal – Nagara style temples are put on a pedestal considerably higher than ground,
Dravida style are more or less at ground level.
VIII. Deities on the Outside – Dravida architecture had deities on the outside, while mostly
Nagara style temples have deities inside.
IX. OrnamentalDetails – In Dravida architecture, the details on the outside and inside – in form
of carvings, sculptures of deities etc – are so enormous that they often make the architecture
itself look insignificant as in case of Madurai temple, Tanjore temple etc.
X. Reservoir – In Dravida style temples, there is usually a reservoir tank also inside temple.
XI. Consistencyof Architecture – Since Southern Dravida style was restricted in small area and
was less prone to outside influences, its architecture style was more or less consistent over
the period, while Nagra style had more variation due to influence of other style such as
Greeko Roman, Buddhist, Islamist etc. Nagara temples are classified on the basis of its
shikhara style in three types – Rekha Prasada/Deul type shikhara; Phamansa type and
Vallabhi type. In Vallabhi type, shikhara has a square base.
XII. Material Used – Hard crystalline rocks like granite typical of the area around Mamallapuram
prevented detailed carving and resulted in the shallow reliefs associated with Pallava temples
of the seventh and with centuries. Overall, there are a lot of variations in material used
across India.
XIII. Purpose – Most of the temples in Nagara style had only religious prupose, but temples in
South have not only been religious centers, but were also used for administrative activities,
controlling vast areas of land and were also centers of education.
XIV. Examples of Nagara style temples are Khajuraho temples, Sun Konark, Jagganath temple,
Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, Varah Temple at Eran. The finest examples of Dravidian style
(south Indian style) are temples of Tanjore, Madurai, Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram.
VESARA or CHALUKYA or KARNATAK STYLE
Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples. The two other prominent styles
are Dravida and Nagara. Vesara is a combination of these two temple styles which existed in
Deccan. In the border areas between the two major styles, particularly in the modern states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, there was a good deal of stylistic overlap as well as several
distinctive architectural features.
Chalukyas of Badami can be said to have laid the foundation of this style which was later taken
forward by the Hoysalas who built temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura. Generally,
pillars, door frames and ceilings are intricately carved in both the styles.
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE – A BRIEF HISTORY

Fortified cities with stupas, viharas, and temples were
constructed during the Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE).
Buddhism and Jainism introduced the art of rock-cut caves. The
caves were cut out of solid rocks and were in two parts, one
called the hall of worship or Chaitya and the other the
monastery for living of monks or Vihara.
Wooden architecture was popular in the earlier phases of rock

cut architecture. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and
then of brick. Guardrails – consisting of posts, crossbars, and a
coping – became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.
The Indian gateway archs, the torana, reached East Asia with
the spread of Buddhism. Buddhist architecture blended with
Roman architecture and Hellenestic architecture to give rise to
unique blends – such as the Greco-Buddhist school during the
time of Kushanas.
Sunga and Satvahana rulers (around 1st century BCE) also

patronized Buddhist art and architecture. It is visible in the
Bharhut stupa, stupas around Sanchi (originally commissioned
by Ashoka, but later repaired by Sunga and other), Amravati
etc. This mainly involved stonework along the railings. Their
works includes small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as
the Chaitya at Bhaja Caves.
During Gupta period also many Buddhist shrines and sculptures were made. In East, post-Gupta,
Palakingdom promoted Buddhist architecture starting from 8th century, while in West many Rajput
kingdoms came up.
Bodh Gaya is one of the most important Buddhist centers in India with Mahabodhi Temple as prime
attraction and it is a brick temple. The first shrine is said to have been made by Mauryan King Ashoka,
the Vedika was added in post-Mauryan time and later additions were done by Pala rulers in 8th century.
The design of the Mahabodhi temple is neither dravida nor nagara. It is narrow like a nagara temple, but
it rises without curving, like a dravida one.
Nalanda is another example of Buddhist architecture and it was a Mahavihara as it housed many
Viharas. Today, only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated as most of it lies
buried under the existing human settlements. Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the
records of Xuan Zang or ‘Hsuan-tsang’ which states that the foundation of a monastery was laid during
Gupta rule by Kumargupta I in the 5th century CE and this was carried forward by the later monarchs
before it was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji and as a result Buddhists in India also migrated to East Asian
countries. There is evidence that all three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana –
were taught here and monks made their way to Nalanda from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north,
and Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma etc. Monks and pilgrims took back small sculptures and illustrated
manuscripts from here to their own countries and it had a decisive impact on the arts of all Buddhist
countries in Asia. The sculptural art of Nalanda, in stucco (a type of plaster), stone and bronze, and was a
direct offshoot the Gupta Buddhist art of Sarnath and it later infused local elements to emerge as a
unique style of its own leading to the formation of the ‘Nalanda school of sculpture’. The characteristic
features of Nalanda art, distinguished by its consistently high quality of workmanship, are that the
precisely executed sculptures have an ordered appearance with little effect of crowding. Sculptures are
also usually not flat in relief but are depicted in three-dimensional forms. The back slabs of the
sculptures are detailed and the ornamentations delicate. The Nalanda bronzes, dating between the 7th
and 8th centuries to approximately the 12th century outnumber the discovery of metal images from all
other sites of eastern India and constitute a large body of Pala Period metal sculptures. Like their stone
counterparts, the bronzes initially relied heavily on Sarnath and Mathura Gupta traditions. The Nalanda
sculptures initially depicted Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition (like Buddha and Bodhisattvas
and other deities), but when Nalanda became important center of Vajrayana Buddhism in 12th century,
it was dominated by Vajrayana deities such as Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati) Khasarpana,
Avalokiteshvara, etc. Depictions of crowned Buddhas also occur commonly only after the tenth century.
Buddhist monasteries like Nalanda, thus, were prolific centres of art production that had a decisive
impact on the arts of all Buddhist countries in Asia.
Odisha also witnessed growth of many Buddhist monasteries like Ratnagiri and port-town of
Nagapattinam was also a major Buddhist centre right until the Chola Period. One of the reasons for this
must have been its importance in trade with Sri Lanka where large numbers of Buddhists still live.
Laddakh Art also developed influenced initially by Kushan art and later infused local elements. This
architectural style profusely uses wooden elements and is influenced by Tibetan architecture. In painting
also a new style called ‘Thanka’ painting evolved.
CAVE ARCHITECTURE
Evolution of Buddhist Cave Architecture

I. It began with the construction of Lomarishi and Sudama caves in Barabar Hills by Asoka.
These were simple caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There
was one large rectangular room followed by a smaller circular room.
II. The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve. The cave was cut perpendicular to
the rock face and the inner room now contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path
around it.
III. The next stage was when rows of pillars were built parallel to the walls creating a
circumambulatory passage right after entering. The central roof was high, vaulted and
side roof was low and half-vaulted. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples.
Sometimes cells, rock cut beds were cut around the central hall. An example is Bedsa
caves.
IV. During the Kshatrap-Satvahna kings, caves got royal patronage and became more
elaborate and ornamented. The basic features of previous phase continued. A variety
of mithun couples were carved on the gates, the pillars came to have elaborate capitals,
the side roof became flat. Multi-storied caves came up. Double storied viharas came up
at Karle and triple storied at Ajanta. Other examples are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri
caves, Pitalkhora.
Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves –
I. Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut but not good for sculpting. But
Buddhist caves were cut into hard rocks and were better for sculpting.
II. The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. Later, however, some cells
were enlarged into shrines. The Buddhist caves on the other hand had clear halls and
the shrine area.
III. The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of jina monks. The cells were
tiny (not tall enough to stand, not long enough to stretch while sleeping, small
entrances so as to bend very low). The only luxury was occasional shelves cut into rocks
and sloping floor acting as a pillow but actually designed to keep of water from
accumulating. Only the outer portions were carved sometimes. The Buddhist caves on
the other hand were an elaborate and spacious affair.
IV. In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs like animals, plants. The
honeysuckle style is similar too. Examples of such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in
Puri.
STUPA
The word stupa means a mound. While there are several kinds of stupas, round and tall, big and
small, these have certain common features. Generally, there is a small box placed at the centre
or heart of the stupa. This may contain bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the
Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins. Maximum
numbers of Stupa were built by Maurya kings – more than 80, 000 of them. Sunga kings also
built and refrubished the old ones.
General features of a stupa
I. Harmika – It is built on the top of the oval shaped stupa.
II. Medhi – It is an elevated circular path around the stupa used for Pradhikshina
III. Torana – It is the Gateway to the stupa. Sculptures can be seen on both Toranas and
Medhi.
IV. Vedica – It is a railing meant for the protection of the holy place.
V. Chatras – They are umbrella like structures on top of a Stupa and are three in
number representing ‘Tri-ratnas’ of Buddhism viz – Buddha the enlightened one,
Dham or doctrine and Sangha or order.
VI. Pradakshina Path – Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around
the stupa. This was surrounded with railings. Entrance to the path was through
gateways. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture. Surface
of the hemispherical body of Stupa was built with bricks and inner side had thick
layer of plaster.
Famous stupas are – Sanchi stupa by Maurya and later Sunga rulers, Bharhut (MP) constructed
by Sunga rulers and Amravati Stupa by Satvahanas. Nagarjunkonda is another place that is
famous for Buddhist architecture.
Bharhut Stupa was probably originally made by Mauryas in 300 BCE, but was later improved by
later rulers like Sunga in 100 AD. Sungas added exquisitely carved railing around the Stupa which
depicts scenes from Jataka. Relief in Bharhut is provided with inscriptions also which is not
found in later stupas. Though art made progress over simple art of Mauryas, figures are too
crowded and relief is low. Yaksha and Yakshi are recurring themes. Queen Mahamayas’ Dream
is also shown. Queen Mahamaya, mother of Buddha has a dream of him on the night of his
conception. She had a dream that a young white elephant entered into her womb, after which
she became pregnant.
Sanchi Stupa was initially built by Mauryan kings, was later refurbished by other kings like Sunga
kings who added Pradakshinapath, railing etc. It is a stylistic progression over Bharuht and relief
is high in carvings than those in Bharhut. Earlier it has representation of Buddha only in symbolic
form, as original Buddhism has, later Jatak tales and imagery of Buddha were also added. There
are guardian images on pillars and Shalbhanjika i.e. a lady holding a branch of tree are
prominent features of the sculpture work. Neither at Bharhut nor at Sanchi was Buddha
depicted in Human form, it was only during Kushana period in 100 CE that he was depicted in
human form.
Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh is a place where a magnificent stupa once existed. Amravati has a
‘Mahacahiatya’ and many sculptures. The Amaravati School developed under the patronage of
the Satavahanas of the Andhra region.
JAIN ARCHITECTURE – A BRIEF HISTORY

Jainas were prolific temple builders like the Hindus, and their sacred shrines and pilgrimage spots are to
be found across the length and breadth of India except in the hills.
The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar dating back to
Mauryan times.
Udaigiri and Khandagiri caves are also old Jain sites which were built in 2nd
century BCE by Kharvela kings.
In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be
found in Ellora and Aihole. Karnataka also have Jain architectures around
Sharavanbelagola. Here the statue of Lord Bahubali/Gomatehwara is the
largest monolithic freestanding statue of the world. Jain architecture has an
origin in its own style which is considered as more Turanian. The main
feature of Jain buildings is the horizontal archway. Sittanvasal caves are also examples of old Jain
paintings and architecture.
In Central India, Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi and Gwalior have some excellent examples and
Rajasthan and Gujarat are traditional strongholds.
Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These were
built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were built under the patronage
of Solanki rulers. They are notable for a simplistic exterior in contrast with the exuberant marble
interiors with rich sculptural decoration.
The great Jain pilgrimage site in the Shatrunjay hills near Palitana in Kathiawar, Gujarat, is imposing with
scores of temples clustered together.
Jain sculptures are mainly shown in either Yogic mudra or standing position with symbols of their
teerthankars unlike Buddha which is shown in various
other positions like reclining also.
North Indian Jaina architecture style – The shikhra or

tower or the vimana is a common to both Jaina and
Hindu architecture in Northern India. The image in a
Jain temple is always placed in a square cell and
receives its light only from the doorway.
South Indian Jaina architecture style – Jain Architecture in South India is divided into bettus and bastis.
The bettus contain images of Gomata Raja. Bastis are ordinary Jaina temples dedicated to the
Tirthankars and those at Shravanabelagola are best specimens of Jaina architecture in India. They are of
the Dravidian style and the towers are surmounted with a small dome. Jaina temple is always twelve
pillared here.
ARCHITECTURAL CHRONOLOGY
HARAPPAN, 2,500 BCE
 Meluha is also the name given to Indus region by Mesopoteans

 The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planning skills
and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout
 The Harappan people
had constructed mainly
three types of buildings
– dwelling houses,
pillared halls and public
baths
 Well planned drainage
system which was
generally covered and
underground as well. Street drains were also equipped with manholes. Drainage system of
Harappa was more sophisticated than any other civilization and no other civilization has paid so
much attention on hygiene as they did.
 Large granaries were found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
 All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people
 Rectangular intersecting roads
 In Egypt dried bricks were used, but in Harappa, burnt bricks were used.
 Most of the cities are divided into citadel – a higher part – and a lower part. Citadels included
public buildings including granaries
 Houses made of burnt bricks of uniform sizes
 There are also evidences of big buildings which
were perhaps for administrative purposes etc, but
there is no proof of temples being built
 Use of stone and wood in buildings also found
 Even double storied houses were there
 Public bath was a common feature – including
famous baths like the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro
which is significant that most of the houses had
private wells and bathrooms.
 Large granaries was another feature of houses and there are also evidences of large public
granaries
 There were some specific features at certain places as well. For example, Lothal had a docyard
VEDIC ARCHITECTURE
• Vedic Aryans were mainly rural society and homes and other buildings were made of perishable
materials like wood or clay bricks (Vedic people didn’t use burnt bricks like Harappans,
somehow, this knowledge seemed to be lost upon Vedic people) and hence their structures
were not very durable like those of Harappan structures.
• The most important feature of the Vedic period was the making of fire altars which soon
became an important and integral part of the social and religious life of the people even today.
In many Hindu homes and especially in their marriages, these fire altars play an important role
even today.
MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE, 3rd Century BCE
 Mauryan architecture exhibits influence of Greeks as Achamaemenian Empire shared borders

with Mauryan Empire as well.
 Monolithic Pillars and Capitols and capitols, bell shape of capitol was perhaps influenced by
Persian architecture. The monolithic pillar edicts of Asoka with their bell-shaped capitals are
somewhat like the victory pillars of the Achamenian emperors which have been found in
Persepolis.
o In Mayryan pillars shaft is made of monolith stone, while in Achaemenid pillars it is
made of multiple sandstone pieces. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus
displaying the carver’s skills, whereas the Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces
by a mason.
o Further, Achamenian pillars were not independent, but Mauryan pillars were.
o Mauryan pillars were made up of Chunar sandstone, taken from Bihar.
Pillars were erected to mark victories or were symbols of state. Examples are – Bull capitol and
Sarnath capitol. Lion capital at Sarnath (now our national emblem) is the most famous of the
capitals. This pillar symbolizes Dharmchakraparbartna or
first sermon by Buddha. Capital at Ramparva is another one
apart rom the ones at Nandangarh, Lauriya etc.
 Stupas start during this period with Buddha relics, though
there are evidences that they were built during the Vedic
period as well. Ashoka is known to have built 84,000 stupas
to commemorate various events of Buddha’s life. Stupas at
Sanchi and Sarnath were started by Mauryans which were
later improved by the other rulers. They were made of
brick and were simple with little carvings.
 The ‘rock cut cave architecture’ also made real beginning
during Maurya period. Two distinctive features were added
by Mauryas – polishing inside the caves and development
of artistic gateways. Barabar Hill near Bodh Gaya contains four caves, namely, Karan Chaupar,
Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visva Zopri. Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves are the earliest examples
of rock-cut architecture in India. The Lomash Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the
Sudama caves are examples of such architecture. Lomash Rishi cave was donated to ascetic of
Ajeevika sect. These caves cut from solid rock were provided by Ashoka for non-Buddhist monks.
Other examples include Nagarjuni Caves, also near Bodh Gaya in Bihar, which has a group of 3
caves (that were also donated to ascetics of Ajeevika sect).
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and
cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 269 BCE to 231
BCE. The Ashokan inscriptions were in local script. Those found in northwest, in the region of
Peshawar, are in the Kharoshthi script (derived from Aramaic script used in Iran), near modern
Kandhar, the extreme west of empire, these are in Greek and Aramaic, and elsewhere in India these
are in the Brahmi script. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day
Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The
edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the
most powerful kings of Indian history. These inscriptions proclaim Ashoka's beliefs in the Buddhist
concept of ‘dhamma’ and his efforts to develop the dharma throughout his kingdom. Although
Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts, rather than
specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism. Maski edict is a minor rock
edict of king ashoka was found in 1919, bearing the name of ashoka instead of Devanampriyadass.
This helped to established the fact the devanampriyadass and ashoka were the name of the same king.
This minor Rock-edict is the only edict in which Ashoka refers to himself as the king of Magadha.
 In ‘sculptures’ also significant progress was made during Mauryan period. Exquisite Yaksha and
Yakshini figures sculpted out of stone and terracotta are prime examples of Mauryan art.
Mention of Yaksha and Yakshinis – which are divine figures in folk traditions – are found in many
lore of Hindus, Jains, Buddhism etc and even mentioned in Dravidian texts like Shilpaddikam
(Yaksh figures are found in many Buddhist stupas, all 24 Jain Teerthankaras are associated with
Yakshinis). The most well known of these is the Yakshi from Didarganj, Bihar. Most important
characteristic of the Mauryan sculptures is their highly polished surface which is a marvel even
today.
 One of the major features of Mauryan sculpture is the terracotta images. Hindu female deities
made out of clay have been excavated from Mauryan sites. The forms of the mother goddesses
are quite stylish. The sculpture of Sanchi Stupa and the sculpture of Dhameka Stupa in Sarnath
are other examples.
 In field of pottery also, Mauryas excelled to the peak and their pottery is known as ‘Northern
Black Polished Ware’ in which black color was used with highly lustrous polish. It was a luxury
ware and was very mature in its finishing over earlier styles.
 There are no traces of secular or royal buildings made during Mauryan period, but Megasthenes,
the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court described
Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement. It was a large palace
carved out of wood and this was the reason that such buildings couldn’t survive.
SUNGA, 185-75 Century BCE
 Art was primarily oriented to Buddhist themes and Jataka tales.

 Bharhut stupa was built by them and they also
built highly engraved railing and other parts of
Sanchi Stupa as well.
 Stupa at Sanchi has upper as well as lower
pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path.
 The sculpture is not in bold relief.
 Both the male and female figures are adorned
with a large number of ornaments.
 Drapery is somewhat heavy and not light as is
the case with the sculptures of later periods.
 No efforts seem to have been made for expressing emotions and abstract feelings like peace,
serenity, temptation, surprise, sobriety etc.
 Normally, the eyeballs are conspicuous by their absence.
 Female figures are seen decorating their headgears with wreaths and garlands, beads and pieces
of cloth.
KUSHAN, 60-240 Century AD
 The emperor himself was a divine authority and Kushan was the first Indian king to issue gold
coins at a large scale
 Buddha was first time given a human form during this time
 The Kushans fostered a mixed culture that is best illustrated by the variety of deities – Greco-
Roman, Iranian, and Indian –invoked on their coins. At least two major stylistic divisions can be
made among artifacts of the period – imperial art of Iranian derivation and Buddhist art of
mixed Greco-Roman and Indian sources – mainly Mathura School and Gandhara School. The
best examples of the former are gold coins issued during that time.
GANDHARA SCHOOL of ART
It was here that

Buddha was first
represented in human
form. Sculpture
tradition of Gandhara
has confluence of
Bactria, Parthia and
local Gandhara
traditions. Thus, the
new Gandhara style
of art that developed
in sculpture was a
fusion of Greco-
Roman/Hellenisitc
and Indian styles from the 1st to the 5th century. Gandhara art, named after the region of
Gandhara now in Pakistan, presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha. The
Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan were also example of the Gandhara School. Taxila,
which is also in Pakistan now, was also another important center of Gandhara art.
Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushanas was a great patron of art and architecture.
In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand
gestures and this is a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows:
I. Abahayamudra: Don’t fear

II. Dhyanamudra: Meditation
III. Dharmachakramudra: A preaching mudra
IV. Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth.
The characteristic features of the Gandhara School of art were –
I. The subject was Indian

II. The form of art was foreign.
The Gandhara sculptors made images of Lord Buddha in the Greco-Roman style. The
images of Buddha resembled Greek God Apollo. Buddha from the Kushan period has
Apollonian faces, their hair is in the Graeco-Roman style and their draperies arranged in
the style of a Roman toga.
The Gandhara School is represented in sculptures, stucco, and clay as well as in mural
paintings. Grey sandstone is primarily used in Gandhara School of Art. The other
materials used were Mud, Lime, Stucco (a type of plaster).
The greatest of all Gandhara stupas as the one erected by Kanishka outside the gates of
modern Peshawar.
MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART
It is the Buddhist art during times of Kushana and it was largely indegenous.The
Mathura School of Art was a result of the religious zeal of Brahmanism, Jainism and
Buddhism. It was inspired by the early Indian Buddhist arts of Bharhut and Sanchi of MP.
The material used in this school was the spotted red sandstone.
The image of the Buddha from the Katra mound belongs to the second century CE is
one of the most famous examples of this style. It represents the Buddha with two
Boddhisattva attendants which are identified as Padmapani and Vajrapani as one holds
a lotus and the other a vajra (thunderbolt). The Buddha is seated in padmasana (cross-
folded legs) and the right hand is in the abhayamudra, raised a little above the shoulder
level whereas the left hand is placed on the left thigh.
The Jina image and Indigenous style of Buddha’s image was a remarkable feature of
Mathura art. The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jinas standing back to back also belongs
to the Mathura school. The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi
also belong to the Mathura School.
Buddha image at Mathura is modeled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in
Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.
The garments of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder. However,
in the second century AD, images got sensual with increased rotundness and became
flashier. The extreme fleshiness was reduced by the third century AD and the surface
features also got refined. The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated.
Another most famous sculpture is the headless statue of Kanishka from Mathura. It
shows that, art was now not confined to religious purposes only.
Later this school also imbibed some elements of Gandhara art also.
MATHURA vs GANDHARA SCHOOL
Both were under the reign of Kushans, still there are some differences –
 Mathura School has more indigenous component. The Buddha image at Mathura is
modeled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic
features.
 Gandhara art is primarily Buddhist art, but Mathura art also deals with subjects from
Hinduism (both Vaishnav and Shavite images) and Jainism as well. Images of Vaishnava
(mainly Vishnu and his various forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas)
faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are found in larger numbers.
Further, the images of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas or weapons.
 Location – Gandhara is in today’s Pakistan, Mathura is in India
 The expression ofcalmness is the centre point of attraction of Gandhar Buddha. Gandhar
Buddha is primarily spiritual in a serious mood sitting in a ‘Yogic’ mudra, Mathura Buddha
is delighted in mood, seated in Padmasana and right hand in Abhyamudra and left hand
on left thigh showing masculinity. Gandhar Buddha is also bearded and bears moustaches,
while Mathura Buddha has a shaven face and
head. Gandhara Buddha has wavy hair, large
forehead with a proturbance on forehead
signifying Buddha knows all, while Mathura
Buddha. Mathura Buddha is also shown with
an ornate halo.
 Mathura tradition, Buddha images have
longer ear lobes, thicker lips, wider eyes and
prominent nose. In Gandhara images, eyes are
longer; ear lobes shorter and noses sharper and better defined.
 Mathura Buddha is also often shown accompanied by two Bodhisattvas – Padmapani
holding lotus and Vajrapani holding thunderbolt
 Mathura Schools typically used red stone for making the sculptures, while Gandhara
sculptures use grey sandstone, stucco (lime plaster).
 Most scholars are believed that Gandhara images of Buddha are earlier to those of
Mathura.
 Halo of Mathura Buddha is more elaborately carved.
 Earlier, Mathura Buddha was more fleshy, but later grew slender, probably as a result of
confluence of two schools.
 The Mathura school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder with thin muslin, the
wheel on the palm, the lotus seat, etc.
AMRAVATI or SATVAHANA STYLE, 200 Century BCE to 200 Century AD
 The third type of sculpture art – apart from Gandhara and Mathura – that flourished around the
Kushana time was Amaravati School of art in the Andhra Pradesh under patronage of
Satvahanas or Andhra dynasty and later under Vakatakas.
 This was focused on Buddhist art and architecture and later also on Brahmin art. Stupas and
sculptures were central to this art. Amravati Stupa is one of its magnificent examples was also
known as Mahachaitya Stupa.
 Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales in which
Buddha is depicted in human as well as animal form, unlike
Kushan art in which figures of Buddha are mainly sculpted.
Central characters are human beings, animals and kings,
princes and palaces figure prominently.
 Later, Lord Buddha is also depicted in a human form with
superhuman qualities. In one of the panels, he is shown as
subduing an elephant.
 Nagarjunkonda is another place that is famous for Buddhist
architecture which was an offshoot of Amravati school.
 Unlike Kushan art, it was indigenous in nature with no
Greeko-Roman influence. Further, unlike Mathura art, it was
mainly Buddhist art.
 Sculptures are not individual, but in narrative form in form of panels depicting events from life
of Buddha and Jataka tales
GUPTA ARCHITECTURE, 300-550 Century AD
 Gupta period marked the real beginning of temple architecture in India and is known as the
golden period of Indian art. Hindu subjects became focus of the art for the first time. The Gupta
period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples. For the first
time they initiated permanent materials like brick and stone, instead of perishable materials like
bamboo, wood etc in temple buildings.
 Gupta temples were durable as they were made out of durable material.
 Brics temples were started to be made during the Gupta period – Bhitragaon near Kanpur,
Bhitari near Gazipur, Deogarh near Jhasi are some examples. The Bhitargaon Temple is a
terraced brick building fronted with a terracotta panel. Built in the 6th century during the Gupta
Empire, it is the oldest remaining terracotta Hindu shrine with a roof and a high Sikhara.
 Temple style during Gupta period evolved in various phases. Earliest temples used to have flat
roofs. Later, square temples emerged – such as Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran in Vidisha.
Example of square temples with pradakshina path include Shiva temple at Bhumara, Madhya
Pradesh. They also had a covered ambulatory path and main building was on a raised platform.
In third phase most of the earlier features were retained and new features were added – now
low curvilinear shikharas were introduced and apart from main shrine, subsidiary shrines were
also built and main temple was build on a crucified platform – this style is generally termed as
‘Panchayatan’ style. Examples include Dashavtara temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and Durga
temple near Aihole in Karnataka. Later, circular temples with shallow rectangular projections
were also made – for eample – Maniyar Math at Rajgir.
 Gupta style of temple architecture is also said to have given birth to many sub-styles like –
Odisha School (Konark, Lingraja, Jagannath Puri etc), Khajuraho School, Solanki School of
Rajasthan and Gujarat etc.
 In UP, Dashavatara temple from 6th century is there in Deogarh belonging to late Gupta period
and due to presence of a curvilinear tall rekha-deol (or rekha-prasada) type shikhara, it is one of
the earliest classical examples of Nagara style. This temple is in the panchayatana style of
architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth
with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it a
total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana). There
are three main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls –
Sheshashayana (form of Vishnu where he is shown reclining on the
sheshanaga) on the south, Nara-Narayan (shows the discussion
between the human soul and the eternal divine) on the east and
Gajendramoksha (is the story of achieving moksha, with an asura
shown as an elephant) on the west.
 In many forests of central India also, examples of Gupta art have
been found, especially in the Bundelkhand region. These include the one at Bhitargaon in
Kanpur district.
 Guptas were tolerant and encouraged other religions also. While
early Gupta period Hindu architecture was largely promoted,
later Bhuddhist and Jaina architecture was also promoted. In
fact, Buddhist art reached its climax during Gupta period.
 Gupta period is also marked by development of sculpture art.
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculptures were profusely made. A new
school called Sarnath School emerged. Cream colored sandstone
was used in it. At Sarnath, Buddha is shown standing, seating as
well as in other positions as well. Buddha here is shown in calm position smiling and eyes partly
closed unlike Gandhar Buddha which is mainly only in seated position and is in somber mood.
From Besnagar a relief of Goddess Ganga is found, from Gwalior flying Apsaras are found. From
Khoh, Ekmukhi shivlinga has been discovered. Even metal sculptures were developed during this
period, for example – Sultanganj Buddha. Majority of metal sculptures of Buddha in North are
shown in Abhyamudra.
 Cave architecture and paintings also reached their zenith – Ajanta caves, Ellora caves, Bagh
caves near Bagh river in Madhya Pradesh, Junagarh Caves, Nashik Caves are examples. Junagrah
caves have a uniqueness that they have a citadel called ‘uparakot’ apart from a lower prayer
hall. Nashik Caves are also unique as they are primarily Hinyana Buddhist caves from around 1 st
century AD and Buddha is shown in form of symbols, there are 23 such caves and are termed as
‘Pandav Leni’. There are caves in Mandapeshwar caves also which are the only Brhamnical caves
converted to Christian caves and these probably belong to rather post-Gupta period.
 The artistic achievement of the age is also exhibited in the delicate workmanship and the variety
of designs shown in different kinds of Gupta coins. The general scheme that was followed was
to exhibit the portrait of the king on one side of the coin or an appropriate deity.
CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE, or KARNATAKA ARCHITECTURE 550-1100 Century AD
They followed the Vakatakas who themselves folled Satvahanas. Chalukyas included three
individual yet related dynasties. The first one was the Badami dynasty who ruled from Vatapi.
Then came the Eastern Chalukyas who ruled over Deccan. The Western Chalukyas ruled from
Kalyani. Finally, decline of Western Chalyukyas led to rise of Hyosalas in 12th century. The basic
plan of the Western Chalukya style originated from the older Dravida style, many of its features
were unique and peculiar to it. The Western Chalukya temples were smaller than those of the
early Chalukyas.
Chalukya Art is often taken synonymous with Vesara style; however they had architecture in
distinctively Dravidian style as well. It is also known as Karnataka style. It is distinctly different
from contemporary western Deccan or Vakataka styles seen at places such as Paunar and
Ramtek.
The hybridisation and incorporation of several styles was the hallmark of Chalukyan buildings.
Since this style is a hybrid, it retained two major components
of the Dravid style – Vimana and Mandapa. Unlike Dravida
style, the ambulatory path is not covered in this style.
BADAMI CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE
Earliest Chalukyas settled around Badami/Vatapi in

Karnataka in around 550 CE in 6th century. Chalukya style
originated in Aihole and was perfected in Badami and
Pattadakal. Temples at Pattadakal are both Hindu and Jain
temples. The Chalukya artists experimented with different
styles, blended the Indo-Aryan Nagara and Dravidian styles, and evolved Chalukya style. Their
style includes two types of monuments –
 The rock cut halls (caves) – earlier style – They were executed by the early Chalukyas of
Badami. Early experiments in rock cut halls were attempted in Aihole where they built
three cave temples, one each in Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina styles. Aihole is also a palce of
inscription which mention exploits of King Pulkeshin II. In Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole,
there are exquisite sculptures, among which, Natraja is most famous one. Later they
refined their style and cut out four marvelous cave temples at Badami. Badami cave
temples are composed of four caves, all carved out of the soft Badami sandstone on a hill
cliff in the late 6th to 7th centuries. The temple caves represent different religious sects.
Among them, two are dedicated to god Vishnu, one to god Shiva and the fourth is a Jain
temple. Each cave has a sanctum sanctorum, a mandapa, a verandah and pillars. The
architecture includes structures built in Nagara Style and Dravidian style. The cave
temples also bear exquisite carvings, sculptures and beautiful murals.
 Structural temples – Earliest examples of the finest structural temples of Badami
Chalukyas are located in Pattadakal. Of the ten temples in Pattadakal, six are in Dravidian
style and four in Rekhanagara style. The Virupaksha temple in many ways holds
resemblance to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram which came into existence a few
years earlier. Papanath temple is another famous temple at Pattadakal.
Badami Chalukya temples are highly ornate and exquisitely carved. Chalukya temples are known
for their extensive variations and experimental styles. Their major features and variations are –
 Virupaksha Temple and other temples at Pattadkal are made in Dravida style with
elements of Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram temple style, it has a square pyramidical
vimana. This most elaborates of all Chalukyan temples at Pattadakal was made during
the reign of Vikramaditya II around 740 CE.
 Eastern Chalukya temples like Mahakuta Temple near Badami and Swarga Brahma
Temple near Alampur show
influence of Odisha and Rajasthan
style i.e. Nagara style.
 Durga Temple near Aihole show
influence of Buddhist style and
reminds one of Chaitya halls and a
shikhara like that of Nagara
temples.
 Lad Khan Temple at Aihole is
inspired by wooden roof temples
of hills, but made of stone instead of wood.
EASTERN CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE
Eastern Chalukyas, or Chalukyas of Vengi, were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was
located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. They ruled from 7th century to 12th century. Their
rule is said as the golden period of Andhra. The Eastern Chalukyas, following the Pallava and
Chalukya traditions, developed their own independent style of architecture, which is visible in
the Pancharama shrines (especially the Draksharama temple) and Biccavolu temples. The
Golingeswara temple at Biccavolu contains some richly carved out sculptures of deities like
Arthnariswara, Siva, Vishnu, Agni, Chamundi and Surya.
WESTERN CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE
Western Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Kalyani or the last Chalukyas were last in terms of evolution
Chalukya dynasty. In 11th and 12th century and they flourished in area around Tungbhadra river
in Karnataka.
Most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in
the Koppal district, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district, the
Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti in the Bellary
district and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali in the
Davangere district. The centre of these
architectural developments was the region
encompassing the present-day Dharwad district.
In contrast to the buildings of the early Badami

Chalukyas, whose monuments were centered
around the areas of Pattadakal, Aihole, and
Badami, these Western Chalukya temples are
widely dispersed, reflecting a system of local
government and decentralisation.
The surviving Western Chalukya monuments are

temples built in the Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Jain
religious traditions.
Sometimes called the Gadag style of architecture,

Western Chalukya architecture is considered a
precursor to the Hoysala architecture of southern
Karnataka.
Chalukyan temples fall into two categories — the

first being temples with a common mantapa (a
colonnaded hall) and two shrines (known as dvikuta), and the second being temples with one
mantapa and a single shrine (ekakuta).
Often temples are so ornate with the sculptures that architecture is shadowed by it.
Ground plan used in these temple varies and uses hexagonal, octagonal and star shaped base.
The Western Chalukyan architects retained features from both northern and southern styles.
However, in the overall arrangement of the main temple and of the subsidiary shrines, they
inclined towards the northern style and tended to build one main shrine with four minor
shrines, making the structure a panchayatna or five-shrined complex. Chalukyan temples were,
almost always, built facing the east.
Legacy of Chalukya architecture was later carried on by Hyolsalas.
RASHTRAKUTA, 700-950 Century AD
By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of

the Deccan was taken by the Rashtrakutas. Their
greatest achievement is the Kailashnath temple at
Ellora. They also built some temples at Elephanta. They
gave patronage to both Jaina and Hindu art.
The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at

locations such as Lokapura in Bagalkot district and their
loyal feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty, built Jain
monuments at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.
Their architectural activities can be categorized into

three groups –
I. Ellora and Elelphanta – Many Jainist caves were

also made apart from Hindu caves at Ellora.
Kailasnath temple at Ellora is said to be a
culmination of at least a millennium-long
tradition in rock-cut architecture in India and the
huge temple is cut out from a single rock. It is a
complete dravida building with a Nandi shrine –
since the temple is dedicated to Shiva – a
gopuram-like gateway, absence of tall shikharas,
surrounding cloisters, subsidiary shrines,
staircases and an imposing tower or vimana rising to thirty metres. The sculpture of the
Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora is dynamic, the figures often larger than life-size, infused
with unparalleled grandeur and the most overwhelming energy. Ravana shaking Mount
Kailasha sculpture is a masterpiece of this temple and is an epitome of Indian sculpture
art.
II. Around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal – In Karnataka their most famous temples are
the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal.
III. At Sirval near Gulbarga – Many of these temples were build using a star base.
PALLAVA ART and ARCHITECTURE, 2nd – 9th Century AD
The Pallavas were one of the ancient South Indian dynasties that were active in the Andhra
region from the second century CE onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu. They
were influenced by Amravati architecture. Pallavas were the first recognizable South Indian
dynasty which indulged in the pursuit of architectural innovations. The first seeds of Dravidian
temple architecture were possibly sown during this period which later influenced Chalukyas and
other Dravidian dynasties like Cholas also.
Although they were mostly Shaivite, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from their reign and
they were also not untouched by the Buddhist tradition that was prevalent in Deccan.
The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples in
South. Their early buildings, it is generally assumed, were rockcut, while the later ones being
structural. Three phases of Pallava architecture can be divided as –
 The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610–
690 CE called ‘mandapas’ and later structural temples between 690–900 CE. The early
buildings are generally attributed to the reign of Mahendravarman I (also known as
Mamlla and that why
Mahabalipuram is renamed as
Mamllapuram), a
contemporary of the
Chalukyan king Pulakesin II of
Karnataka. Famous caves are
– Durga Cave with figure of
Mahishasurmardini,
Panchpandava Cave showing
Krishna lifting Govradhana.
They were made under reign
of Mahendravarman.
 Famous shore temples in
Mahabalipuram are another
example of their architecture
which were built around in 8th
century. Five monolithic
temples are called ‘ratham’
(instead of Mandapam) are
now under UNESCO World
Heritage List. Biggest is called
Dharamraj Ratham and
smallest one is called
Draupadi Ratham. They were
made under reign of Narsimha Varman II. They have signs of early gopurams as well. A
significant part of the temples have been eroded by moisture laden winds over the
years. A sculpture panel which is 30 meters long is one of the largest and the oldest in
the world which is interpreted differently by different people – arrival of Ganga from
celestial space; penance of Arjuna inspired from Keeratarjunaya – a work of Bharavi
who was an important Pallava poet.
 The Pallavas also built structural
temples like the Kailashanath
and Vaikunthperumal temples
at Kanchipuram. The
Kailashanath temple is a huge
structure with thousands of
images and is said to be the
‘largest single work of art ever
undertaken in India’.
Early temples were mostly dedicated to
Shiva. They laid an important
cornerstone in Dravidian style of
architecture which was followed by
Chola during which it reached to its
zenith. It can be said that the project
Dravidian architecture was initiated by
Pallavas, but was closed by Cholas.
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE
Temple architecture in East has three broad distinct styles in – Assam, Bengal and Odisha or
Kalinga.
PALA ART, 8th – 11th Century AD
Pala school of Bengal was one influenced by Vajryayan Buddhism in Bengal and Bihar region and
architecture and art of Gupta and local traditions as well. Later effect of Gupta style was
minimized and it developed its own distinctive style.
Their architecture was both Hindu and Buddhist. Architecture had fine finish and figures were
much decorated and well polished. The gigantic structures of Vikramshila Vihara, Odantapuri
Vihara and Jagaddala Vihara were masterpieces of the Palas. The Pala King Dharamapala had
established the Somapura Mahavihara, which is largest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian
subcontinent (now in Bangladesh). They also established Vikramshilla university for study on
Vajrayana Buddhism.
Pala also contributed to the Mahabodhi complex in Bodhgaya and enhanced the original shrine
which was built by Chandragupta Maurya.
Hindu temples made during this time were known to be in Vanga (stood for ‘Banga’) Style.
Siddheshwara Mahadev temple in Burdhwan district is one of the famous examples of early
Pala style and was similar to Odisha style and has a quite tall shikhara crowned by a large
amalaka (disk shape). Many of the temples from the 9th to the 12th century were located at
Telkupi in Purulia District as well.
Sculptures tradition was influenced by Gupta tradition

from Sarnath etc and they were predominantly stone
made, but metal sculptures have also been found. But
stone sculptures are polished so well that even they
appear metal sculptures. The main feature of Pala
sculptures is their free flowing movement. Almost all
the figures are of similar sizes and were carved out of
grayish or white spotted sandstone. Although
Buddhist sculptures dominated, sculptures from
secular themes and Hindu deities were also made.
Image of Hari-Hara from Burdwan is an example.
Apart from stone sculptures, their terracotta

sculptures were also unique and they were used for
decoration of walls. Besides the religious themes
several images representing daily life are also to be
found on these terracotta plates or plaques.
They also promoted paintings which in a way heralded

miniature paintings in East India. Colors were symbolic
and with subdued lines. However, this was not true
miniature and was largely a compact form of murals.
They were generally made on palm or paper
manuscripts. The 10th century illustrated Buddhist
text, Prajnaparamita, is the earliest known example of
painting where a canvas of micro, or miniature size
made its debut. They are said to have pioneered miniature school in India which illustrated
Vajrayana Buddhism.
ODISHA or KALINGA TEMPLES ARCHITECTURE, 8th – 13th Century AD
Odisha was a center of religious activity since long and many Ashokan edicts were built there.
Jaina caves of 2nd century BCE are also found here. Shatrughaneshwara temples of 6th century CE
are also found belonging to Pashupat Shavivite sect.
In Odisha, temples are built in a sub-style of Nagara in which Shikhara (called deul in Odisha) is
almost vertical before it curves near the top. Shikhara is preceded by a mandapa (which is called
Jagmohan or ‘dance pavilion’ in Odisha). Plan of temple is usually square and there is a
boundary wall as well. Temple gets curved gradually as we go up and is finally crowned by a
circular part called ‘Mastak’. Temples are decorated from outside, but are simple from inside.
The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e., rekha deul,
pidha deul and khakhara deul. Most of the
main temple sites are located in ancient
Kalinga – modern Puri District, including
Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara,
Puri and Konark.
The Rajarani temple is an example and was

built around 1000 CE in Bhubneshwar. This
temple is unique in Indian architecture,
because it is believed that this temple led to
development of the architecture of other
temples of central India, particularly, Khajuraho. It is also known as ‘love temple’ on account of
the erotic carvings of maidens and mithunas in the temple.
Lingaraja Temple of Bhubneshwara is one of the prominent temples. It is made in Nagara style
and has four halls – for offerings, dance, assembly and sanctuary. The present temple was
probably built by the rulers of the Somavamshi dynasty as a Shaiva temple but with the arrival
of the Vaishnavite Ganga dynasty, the temple was remodelled and elements of Vaishnavism
were inculcated in it. Thus, the temple deity came to be known of Harihara (Hari=Vishnu,
Hara=Shiv), a mixed form of Shiva and Vishnu. The consort of Hari Hara is Bhubneshari.
Sun Temple of Konark near Puri is also known as Black Pagoda (as the gate is made of black
sandstone and first rays of sun enter through these
gates) is one of the greatest Hindu temples and was
built in 13th century. It is set on a higher base. It is said
to have the highest shikhara, which crumbled under its
own weight in 19th century. It resembles the celestial
chariot of sun and has rath with wheels which is pulled
by horses. It has 12 pairs of wheel (which used to
move) drawn by 8 mythological horses of sun god.It
was erected by King Narsinmha Dev of Eastern Ganga
Dynasty. Scene of loving couples – mithuns – is one of
the distinctive features of temple.
Jagganath Puri Temple is another fine example of

Kalinga Art.
Features of Kalinga temple architecture –
 They are primarily from Nagara style.
 Later temples of Odisha don’t have pillars and the roof is partially supported by Iron
girders.
 Usually outer part is highly adorned and inner part is left unadorned.
 Shikharas are called ‘Deul’ which is highly vertical before it sharply curved inside and
mandapas are called ‘Jagmohan’ and temples have an outer boundry wall as well.
 In Odisha are three types of Deula viz. Rekha Deula, Pidha/Bhadra Deula and Khakra
Deula (It is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof, like the
gopuras.). The Rekha Deula means a shrine with different parts in a line (vimana, hall,
entrance etc).
 Ground plan of main temple is square.
 In Odishan style, sanctum, vestibule and assembly halls are usually separate unlike
typical Nagara style temples in which they are part of a single structure as in Khajuraho
temples.
AHOM STYLE, 12th – 14th Century AD
In Assam, by the twelfth to fourteenth

centuries, a distinct regional style
developed. The style that came with the
migration of the Tais from Upper Burma
mixed with the dominant Pala style of
Bengal and led to the creation of what was
later known as the Ahom style (due to
patronage by Ahom kings) in and around
Guwahati. Kamakhya temple, a Shakti
Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya
and was built in the seventeenth century.
CHOLA ART, 9th – 13th Century AD
Their architecture was influenced by their predecessors Pallavas. Karikala was the most
important ruler of this kingdom. He defeated the combined forces of the Cheras and the
Pandays. Cholas emerged as one of the most powerful dynasty in South that ever ruled. Their
unique achievements also lie in their conquests across the seas, maintenance of powerful
navies. Rajendra Chola is said to have conquered some Indonesian islands as well. They also
developed democratic institutions for governance at the village level. The village panchayat
called sabha or ur had extensive powers, including financial powers, during their times. It was in
fact the most remarkable administrative achievement of the Cholas and it is mentioned in
Uttaramerur inscription.
Nataraja Image shows Siva in his cosmic dance. In this dance, he creates and destroys the world.
There is an oval ring around the original figure of Shiva Nataraja. It represents the cosmic fire he uses
to destroy the universe as part of the cycle of destruction and creation. Shiva’s third eye represents
his cosmic knowledge. The Hindu deity is depicted with multiple arms to illustrate divine power. Shiva
Nataraja’s four arms each take a different position or hold symbolic objects, showing his strength and
constellation of skills. On Shiva’s right ear is an earring depicting a makara, a mythical water creature.
His left ear is adorned with a circular earring worn by women. The pair represents Shiva’s male and
female aspects (Ardhnarishwar) – illustrating the cosmic balance of male and female energies. The
open palm of Shiva’s right hand forms the abhayamudra, or hand gesture, signifying that the
worshipper need have no fear. In one hands, he has Damaru, that Shiva beats a rhythm that brings the
universe into creation. Nataraja has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the
apasmara, the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of the same leg. At the same time
he raises his left leg in bhujangatrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is kicking away the veil
of maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind. His left front arm crosses his chest, the hand pointing in
‘elephant trunk’ position (gaja hasta) to his upraised left foot, which signifies liberation.
The Cholas continued the temple building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and elevated the
Dravidian temple design to greater heights. Common feature of architecture are – Mandapam,
Vimana, Gopura etc. They excelled in all the three areas of art – temple architecture, paintings
and sculpture.
Over a hundred important temples of the Chola period are still in good shape and most famous
of them are Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore and temples at Gangaikondacholapuram. They
were bigger in scale than anything built by
their predecessors, the Pallavas,
Chalukyas or Pandyas.
Early temples were not as grand as those

of later temples. The Vijayalacholeswaram
near Pudukkottai in Tamil Nadu is an
example of early architecture. Early
temples had a marked Pallava influence.
It was during the middle phase of their

rule that the most progress was made
under legendry Rajaraj Chola and his son
Rajendra Chola. Chola and also Dravida
architecture culminated with
Brhdeshwara temple and
Gangaikondacholapuram temples.
The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur or Brihdeshwara or Rajarajeshwara Temple,

completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of
Rajaraja. It is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples and its Vimanam is of 70 meters height.
In this temple, gopurams are still smaller than Vimanas, which was later reversed in other
dynasties. The temple is built entirely of granite, interestingly, in a place where there is no
source of granite. It is the world's first complete granite temple. Monolithic Nandi bull in its
court is second largest in India after Lepakshi temple Nandi bull. One of the peculiar features of
the temple is that shadow of cupola on its top never falls on ground. An immense Gopuram
marks the entrance of the temple. In fact, it is in this temple that one notices for the first time
two large gopuras (gateway towers) with an elaborate sculptural work which was conceived
along with the temple. Pillared halls and sculptures depicting Bharata’s Natyashastra are also
unique features of this temple. Fine paintings and murals are also there in temples which depict
mythological narratives.
Gangaikondacholapuram temple is also similar in architecture as Brihadeshwara temple of

Tanjore. But instead of two gopurams, it has only once. The most important difference between
the two lies in the introduction of curves in the place of the strong straight lines of the
Thanjavur vimana. The pyramidal body is slightly concave in its outline at its angles. In this
temple also, there is a Nandi bull in temple compound.
The Airavateswara temple at Darasuram near Thanjavur built during the reign of Rajaraja Chola
II is an example of later Chola art. Many temples were built in this period as well. This temple
has artistic stone pillars and decorations on its walls. The front mandapam of this temple is in
the form of a huge chariot drawn by horses.
Chola period bronzes are

exquisite forms of art and were
created using the lost wax
technique. The most famous of
all the bronze icons is that of
Nataraja. Although bronze
casting has a long history in
south India, a much larger and
a much greater number of
bronze sculptures in all sizes
ranging from massive to
miniature were cast during the
Chola period than before,
further attesting to the
importance of bronze sculpture
during this period. The forms of Chola bronzes are very plastic. They are devoid of intricate
ornaments and designs in comparison with the subsequent bronzes of the Vijayanagar and
Nayaka period.
PANDYAS, 4th Century BCE – 16th Century AD
Pandya dynasty was the longest ruling dynasty in Indian history. It is said that the Pandyan
Empire was founded by a woman king and she
maintained a huge army. Earlier they ruled from a
coastal twon, but they later shifted their capital to
Madurai.
As a result of their long rule, they built both the rock-

cut and structural temples. The early rock-cut temples
have monolithic vimanas. Such rock cut temples are
found in Tirumeyyam in Pudukkottai district, Anaimalai,
Sittanavasal, Karaikudi, Kalugumalai, Malaiyadikurichi
and Trichy. These temples were mostly constructed for
Lord Siva and Vishnu and in fact some of the Jaina cave
shrines were also converted to Shaiv or Vaishnav caves.
They are mostly located on ancient trade routes. Today
they are less explored than Pallava cave temples. The
early Pandya cave temples are mostly simple with one
cella and a front mandapa. Unlike the Pallava caves, almost all the Pandya caves have the
images of Ganapati in one of the niches. These images are luxuriantly carved.
During the Pandya Dynasty rule, several structural stone temples were also built which had all
the features of bigger Dravida temples like vimana, mandapa and sikhara. In the latter period of
the Pandya rule development of elegant vimanas with finely sculptured idols and the gopurams
or portals of the temples originated. Meenakshi Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple in
Tirunelveli were built during the reign of the Pandyas. Meekashi temple is the epitome of
Pandya architecture. It is dedicated to Parvati, known as Meenakshi, and her consort, Shiva or
Sundareswarar. It houses 14 gopurams which were built by different rulers and in fact, the most
impressive of the gopurams were built by the Nayakas in 16th-17th century only. Later gopuras
were highly sculpted from outside. It is one of the few temples in Tamil Nadu to have four
entrances facing four directions. Ancient Tamil classics mention that the temple was the center
of the city and the streets happened to be radiating out like lotus and its petals.
Temples at Chidambaram, Kumbakonam, Srirangam etc are other good examples of the
development of Pandya architecture.
A characteristic symbol of their architecture was that they built high outerwalls and gopuram
and shrine itself was comparatively smaller.
HYOSALA ARCHITECTURE, 11th – 14th Century AD
With the waning of Chola and Pandya power, the Hoysalas of Karnataka grew to prominence in
South India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore region in Karnataka. It
has considerably retained many features of Chalukya style and is another important school of
Vesara school.Temples
at Belur, Halebid and
Somnathpuram are
epitome of their art,
though around more
than 100 temples still
remain.
Temple building
activities of Hyosalas
are rooted in socio-
cultural settings. The
transformation of the Karnata temple building tradition reflected religious trends popularized by
the Vaishnava and Virashaiva philosophers as well as the growing military prowess of the
Hoysala kings who desired to surpass their Western Chalukya overlords in artistic achievement.
Features of architecture –
 Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct
Dravidian influences. Hyosla architecture has minimum northern influence and dravida
influence is marked one.
 The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex
with so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square
temple that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star, and is thus known as a
‘stellate’ plan.
 The vimana of the temples is generally plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely
decorated. Kalasha on the top of the temple is in shape of a water pot.
 There are generally two Matapas – one open and other closed. The open mantapa is
supported by many lathe turned (circular or bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes
further carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs like called
salabhanjika or madanika.
 The star shaped base with the main structure standing on an almost one meter raised
platform called ‘Jagati’. The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves
as a pradakshinapatha or ‘circumambulation path’ for circumambulation around the
temple, as the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature unlike Dravida style
temples which have a covered circumambulatory path.
 Unlike a single inner chamber, there are multiple shrines around a central pillared hall.
So, the walls of the temple followed in zig-zag pattern due to a star shaped base.
 In many cases, there are multiple temples within same complex. Depending on the
number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are classified as
ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four) and panchakuta (five).
Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta. In temples with multiple shrines,
all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance.
 Structure of the temples is relatively dwarf compared to other two styles viz Dravida
and Nagara.
 The entrance of the temple is flanked by a pair of large Vaishnavite dwarpals and is
elaboratively decorated.
 A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to exquisite detail and skilled
craftsmanship. The tower over the temple shrine (vimana) is delicately finished with
intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately detailed rather than
to a tower form and height.
 Since they were made out of softer Soapstone, the artists were able to make intricate
carvings. Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition
going back to Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste maiden.
 While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain
anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their works
Three major temples of Hyosala Style are –
 Belur – Chennakesava Temple

 Halebid (capital of Hyosalas) – Dedicated to
Natraja/Shiva. The Hoysaleshvara temple (Lord of
the Hoysalas) at Halebid in Karnataka was built in
dark schist stone by the Hoysala king in 1150. The
Halebid temple is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate music
and dance. A Nandi pavilion precedes each building. There are hundreds of elephants
at the bottom platform of the temple, easch of which is in different pose.
 Somnathpuram – Kesava Temple
Sculpture art of Hyosala is also of finest quality and they have made sculptures of not only
deities, but also of many mundane subjects. Due to use of soft soapstone, they are highly
intricate in their carvings and projections. Movements in the sculptures are highly fluid. Their
workmanship shows an attention paid to precise detail. Every aspect down to a fingernail or
toenail is perfected. Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian
tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste
maiden. Madanika were also sculpted and they are seemingly engaged in artistic activities such
as music and dance.
CHANDELA ART or KHAJURAHO STYLE, 10th – 11th Century AD
Chandela School is primarily known for Khajuraho temples which are finest example of Nagara
style. There were originally 85 temples at Khajuraho, of which 25 remain today.
The Chandela architecture is divided into three groups – west, east and south. The first king who
started construction in Khajuraho was Harsha who built the 64 Yogini Temple in south
dedicated to Yoginis – perhaps Tantric deities.
The most notable prince of this dynasty was

King Dhanga whose time is known for
building the most beautiful Khaujraho
Temples of Parsvanath and Vishwavanath.
His grandson Vidyadhara built the Kandariya
Mahadev Temple. Sculptures at Kalinjar fort
are also examples of Chandela art.
The group of temples at Khajuraho is a

strikingly homogenous group. All the temples
there were built within a relatively short
period.
Kandariya Mahadev temple built around

1000 AD is one of the finest examples of
Chandela art. The Kandariya Mahadeva
temple is adorned on all sides with celestial nymphs, mithunas and many deities. The Kandariya
Mahadev Temple is built on Panchayatana style (a temple is a Panchayatana one when the main
shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines at four different corners). In fact, this feature is
repeated in many other temples of Chandela style, e.g. in Lakshmanatemple – grandest of all
Khajuraho temples – dedicated to Vishnu which was built in 950 CE. In its layout plan, it is similar
to the Kalinga or Oriya/Odisha architecture style.
Main features of these temples are –
 Main elements included – Garbha Griha, Assembly Hall, Portico or verandah with pillars
 They patronized both Hindu as well as Jaina architecture. There is a Chusath Yogini
temple as well which has female deities called ‘yoginis’ and is supposed to be dedicated
to Tantric tradition.
 These temples are marked by multiple Shikharas
with one main Shikhara.
 Platform is relatively raised one.
 Panchayatana is also quite common feature of
these temples.
 Shikharas have a crowning disc (called amalak)
which is unique feature of these temples.
 These temples have no boundary walls like
Odisha style.
 These temples have sculptures both outside and inside, in contrast to some other
temples like Odisha temples which have sculptures primarily on outsides.
 These temples also have sculptures denoting erotic figures probably taken from
Kamasutra and they are generally on outside the temple only.
 Khajuraho’s sculptures are highly stylized with typical features – they are in almost full
relief, cut away from the surrounding stone, with sharp noses, prominent chins, long
slanting eyes and eyebrows.
SOLANKI ART, 10th – 11th Century AD
The Solankis were a branch of the later Chalukyas. They built

both Hindu and Jain temples. Among Jaina temples, Dilwara
temples of Mount Abu are the most famous one which are
made of white marble. Among the Hindu temples, the Sun
temple at Modhera dates back to early eleventh century and
was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026.
There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya
kund in front of it. Proximity of sacred architecture to a
water body such as a tank, a river or a pond has been
noticed right from the earliest times. The influence of the
woodcarving tradition of Gujarat is evident in the lavish
carving and sculpture work. However, the sanctum
sanctorumis left plain without any decoration and it has a
unique feature as at time of equinox, sun raus fall directly in
the central shrine.
VIJAYANAGA ART and ARCHITECTURE, 14th – 17th Century AD
VIjaynagara was the last Hindu Kingdom of India and hence, it also represents the last major
achievements of Hindu architecture in India. Architecturally, Vijayanagara demonstrated the
confluence of old Dravidian style – a vibrant combination of the Chalukyan, Hoysalan, Pandyan
and Cholan styles – with some Islamic influence from neighboring Sultanates.
Temple architecture reached to new heights under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya who is
considered the most important Vijaynagara king who gave Vijaynagara style a distinctive
identity. Its capital was Vijaynagara or present day Hampi and the monuments in and around
Hampi are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Vijaynagara architecture is characterized by pillared mandapam/halls, impressive

gopurams/Rayagopurams etc. In Hampi walls, no mortar or cementing agent was used in their
construction.
Vitthalswami temple of 16th century at Hampi is one of the classic examples of Vijayanagara
style which took many decades to built.
Virbhadra Temple at Lepakshi in Andhra is another temple from Vijaynagara style dedicated to
lord Shiva. It has in its premises largest monolithic bull of the world. In this Shiva temple, Shiva is
surrounded by musical figures and
hence the hall is called Hall of Dance.
Figures in this temple are of low relief
which almost give a two dimensional
look. Inside the boundary there are
two structures – Kalyan Mandapam
or main hall for primary deity and
smaller Amman Shrine for consort
deity. This is a unique feature of some
of the Vijaynagara temples as most of
the other temples have a single
shrine/mandapam.
Features of Vijaynagara architecture

include –
• Vijayanagara architecture can

be broadly classified into
religious, courtly and civic
architecture.
• Its stylistic hallmark is the
ornate pillared
Kalyanamantapa (marriage
hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopuram (tower).
• Early temples were in Vesara style of Deccan, but later Dravida influence was more
pronounced for ritual purposes. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple)
of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples of early Vesara
architecture.
• In order to cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed
plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then painted it with lively colours.
• Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure.
• Monolithic Structures – One important element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving
of large monoliths such as the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Another element of the huge
Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshvara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and
Nandi Bulll is the largest monolithic bull in India.
• Massive Walls And Small Shrines – Another feature of the temple architecture in this
age was the construction of massive walls around the shrine as a safeguard against
intruders. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch.
• Granite Material – Artisans used the locally available hard granite instead of softer
socapstone that was used by Chalukyas and Hyosalas because of its durability since the
kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. Due to use of this material, artistic
quality was not very high and relief was relatively lower in sculptures.
• Gopurams – Like common features of the Dravida architecture, temples had gopurams,
but they were enlarged Gopurams. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopura built by
Vijayanagar Rayas and were called RayaGopuram.
• Pillared Structures – The pillars are the most prominent feature of these temples.
Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or Yali (supernatural horse) –
horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The
bottom supports of these pillars have engravings of Gods and Goddesses.
• Vijaynagara rulers also introduced secular
architecture as in case of Lotus Mahal.
Viajaynagara art also includes wall-paintings such as
Dasavathara (ten Avatars of Vishnu) in the
Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple at Hampi, the
Shivapurana paintings (tales of Shiva) at the
Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi.
NAYAKA or MADURAI STYLE, 17th Century AD
Nayakas succeeded Vijayanagara Empire.
The major architectures achievements are the shrine

at Tiruvannamalai and the Great Temple at Madurai.
Other significant architectural wonders included that
of the Temple at Rameswaram (famous for its long
corridors) and the Subramanya Temple at Thanjavur District.
Nayak architectural style was characterized by elaborate hundred-and thousand-pillared

mandapas, the high gopurams with painted stucco statues – of both gods and demons – on the
surface, and long corridors. The immense courtyards surrounding the central shrine of these
temples were designed to accommodate the crowds who would gather to see the processions,
when the Gods, would be taken from their shrines and displayed to the masses.
Their most famous architectural achievement was in form of Meenakshi Temple of Madurai or
Sundereswara Temple built by Thirumalai Nayak, dedicated to Parvati and Lord Shiva. It was
actually not built by the Nayakas, they only refurbished the temple by building new larger
gopurams and other changes in temple.
• It has two shrines one dedicated to Shiva/Sundereswara and other dedicated to his wife
parvati/Meenakshi.
• A large water tank in the temple is one of the distinct features of the temple.
• Parakramas or roofed ambulatory paths is another distinguishing features of Meenakshi
Temple apart from other Dravidian features.
• A thousand pillared Mandapam is another unique feature of this temple.
• This temple is also known for its highly impressive gopuram, which is perhaps more
impressive than the temple itself and it totally dwarfs the central shrines.
For all the innovation of its massive but unsystematic plan – including the large gopurams and
huge courtyards, the architecture of Madurai, under the Nayak dynasty represented only an
exaggeration of already established forms in every detail of its structure, rather than a new
development as it is best exemplified by the Meenakshi temple which was a Pandya temple,
later modified by Nayakas.
Tanjore painting, a major form of classical South Indian painting, originated under the Nayaks of
Tanjore around 1600 AD. Renowned for their surface richness, vivid colors, and compact
composition, these paintings serve primarily as devotional icons. Hindu gods, goddesses, and
saints are the most frequent subjects. Tanjore paintings are usually done on solid wooden
planks and were given an embossed look (which gives a three dimensional feel), and the
painting was covered with gold foil and finished with dyes to color the figures. In Tanjore
paintings, the figures are static and located in the center of the composition inside decorated
arches or curtains. Eyes are broad and the outer lines are either brown or red, except for the
god Krishna who's eyes are depicted in blue.
INDO–ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
It includes architecture that belongs to Turkish, Iranian, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanate, Mughals and
other Muslim rulers which have exhibited an influence of local architecture as well. Muslim architecture
was different because it used bricks, apart from stones, alongwith lime and mortar.
Indo-Islamic architecture is divided into two following broad categories –
I. Pre Mughal or Sultanate or Imperial period

II. Mughal architecture – mainly at Delhi, Agra, and Lahore
III. Deccani Style – mainly architectures of Bijapur, Golconda
IV. Provincial Style – Apart from the major Islamic rulers many provincial styles also gained
influence. Architecture of Bengal, Mandu, Bijapur and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct.
Earliest examples are from Turkish rulers who arrived in 13th century. One major departure from earlier
buildings was that Muslims forbade representation of human forms in their holy places and thus it was
replaced by geometrical patterns, calligraphy and elaborate stone and plaster work.
Indo-Islamic architecture also retained many features of the Indegenous architecture – for example –
Turned Lotus, Kalash on the domes and Ornamentation of Indian Art were adopted in the the
construction of Mosques in India.
Indo-Islamic style replaced Trabeate style with Arcuate style.
TRABEATE ARCUATE
Its entrance is lintel shaped. Its entrance is shaped in form of archs.
In this, minars were not present. In this, minars were present.

Stone was the primary material that was In this, brick, lime and limestone mortar was
used. predominantly used.
The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were –
 Instead of Shikhara, dome became the central element. Central Dome was most prominent part
and it was topped by an inverted lotus motif and a metal or stone pinnacle above it.
 The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble masonry,
which was easily available.
 Lofty towers or minarets were another distinctive element which exhibited Persian influence.
 Instead of flat roofs, arches became an integral part of the architecture.
 Now, limestone mixed mortar was used as a cementing method.
 In this phase there was more reliance on local materials.

 Human images and other images in general are not shown as Islam prohibits portrayal of Allah
in image form and instead, decoration took form of Calligraphy using Arabesque method (an
ornamental design consisting of intertwined flowing lines, leaves and flowers).
 Geomatrical and symmetrical patterns are used
 There is intricate Jali work on the walls which signifies importance of light in Islam
 Water channels and ponds are also an integral part for both beautification and utility. Persian
and Arab areas are hotter and water is important ingredient of architects.
 A lot of ‘decorative techniques’ were used including Pietra Dura. The technique is used in later
architect which involves embedding of colored stones into each other to make an intricate
flowery design on walls, floors etc. Other decorative techniques included – use of various motifs
of flowers etc, calligraphy, precious stones like Lappis Lazuli, use of intricate jail work, multiple
foliated arches etc. Walls were also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with
flower vases.
 Gardens were important part, and among these Chahar Bagh have special place.
 Forts and minars were also distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture. Forts of Chittor,
Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda are some of the prime examples.
Among minars, two most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the
Chand Minar at Daulatabad which was built in 15th century. The everyday use of the minar was
for the azaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height, however, symbolised the might and
power of the ruler.
 Tombs were another important feature. The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a
reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement. This led to the paradisiacal imagery for
tomb construction like gardens and source of water. Tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun,
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar and Itmaduddaula etc were built.
SULTANATE ARCHITECTURE or TURKISH ARCHITECTURE
It is a sub-part of broader Indo-Islamic or Indo-Sarcenic style. Sarcenic refers to a style of

architecture popular with Muslims in West Asia particularly from the 11th to the 14th century.
With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture –
the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia.
In their buildings, the Turks used the arch and the dome on a wide scale. The use of the arch and
the dome had a number of advantages. The dome provided a pleasing skyline. The arch and
dome needed strong cement and the Turks used fine quality light mortar in their buildings. Thus,
new architectural forms and mortar of a superior kind became widespread in north India.
The style of decoration used by the Turks, had no human or animal figures, since their use was
considered un-Islamic.
The Turks used scrolls of flowers and verses of the Quran, which were intertwined in a very
artistic manner. The combination of these decorative styles was called Arabesque.
They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such as the bell motif and the ‘swastika’.
Before the advent of Turks, Rajput architecture belonged to the trabeate style and had flat
roofs, false arches and stone / mud based. But Turks brought with them the Islamic style vis true
arches, domes and used lime mortar and brick based. Turkish architecture was technologically
superior as it used true arches, domes, lime mortar, headers and stretchers brick outlay, was
massive.
Sultanate architecture reflects contemporary socio-politico-economic realities in following

manner –
 Focus on Urbanization – Turks were urban dwellers. Their monuments are in urban
areas and promote urbanism.
 Concentration of wealth – The Turkish rulers extracted all the agriculture surplus in their
hands. This surplus had to be put to use and it happened in the form of grand
monuments.
 Reflects the distance between the rulers and the ruled, the despotism of the sultans –
Each monument reflects the tastes of the sultan as because of their scale each sultan
tried to build according to his likes to expand his glory. Ala-ud-din built Alai Darwaza
which was majestic in scale. This reflects the despotism of the sultan and his ability to
extract surplus from the peasants.
 Communal composition – Most of the monuments were Islamic which showed the
distribution of power in the urban society. Islam doesn't permit images of birds and
animals so floral designs, geometric designs and calligraphy came up.
 In early phase of Turkish architecture, Turkish rulers had not yet established themselves
and they needed to create awe among the ruled. Thus Iltutmish created many
monuments in Delhi so that the public could be awed. Qutub Minar was built as a
symbol of Turkish victory.
 Further the monuments of the age can't be divided exclusively into secular and religious
monuments. This is because the rulers needed monuments which could be used for
huge public gatherings of the nascent Muslim society in India. Thus they were often
located in the middle of the town and had large open garden in them, pillared
verandahs on 3 sides and the praying site facing west.
 A mosque's area is often proportional to the Muslim population living in the area. Thus
Quwwat - ul - Islam mosque was expanded by Iltutmish and Ala -ud -din. As Indian
Muslim class grew stronger it also got its fair share in the ruling class in the form of
Khaljis. So the expansion of the mosque also symbolizes rising power of Indian Muslim
class.
Gradually a shift was made to purely Islamic Turkish architecture. Balban's tomb had the
first True arch. Jamat-i-khana mosque of Alauddin is the first true Islamic
monument. Alai Darwaza can be construed to be the first monument which symbolizes
the end of the initial phase of insecurity and the Indo-Islamic architectural form.
Red sandstone, yellow sandstone and marble were widely used in construction.
I. Turk Sultans in India were always under danger of attack from Mongol and hence,
ruggedness of the architecture was the first requirement for them. Their buildings are
even today in very good shape.
II. Sultanate period starts from Slave dynasty. They started to replace the existing
buildings with mosques. The earliest building of this period is QuwwatulIslam Mosque
at Delhi was made from a Jain temple. Qutub Minar is another example and it was also
built by demolition of a Hindu temple. There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both
in the mosque and on the tower.
III. Next came Khilji dynasty. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and
built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alahi
Darwaja and is one of the most beautiful architectural designs even today and it is only
a half tomb and not full hemispherical tomb.They started using red-sandstone. Other
examples include – Siri fort in Delhi (named so because, the wall of the fort had
beheaded heads or sir of Mongols who were enemies of Khilji) which became center of
power during the Khilji rule. Another major achievement was Hauz Khas. In Urdu
language, 'Hauz’ means ‘water tank’ (or lake) and ‘Khas’ means ‘royal’, giving it the
meaning – the ‘Royal tank’. The large water tank or reservoir was first built by Allauddin
Khilji
IV. Tughlaq period architecture added new dimensions like – thick sloping walls called
Battar for strength, multi domed roofs, tapering minarets. Turkish Architecture was at
its zenith during the Tughlaq period. During Tughluq age, the monuments built were
inferior in grandeur and beauty compared to the Khalji phase. Perhaps they represented
a reaction to the excessive ways of the Khaljis or the economic problems facing the
sultan. Another feature of the Tughlaq architecture was the deliberate attempt to
combine the principles of the arch, and the lintel and beam in their buildings. The
Tughlaqs did not generally use the costly red sandstone, but cheaper and more easily
available gray stone. Thus there was an outburst of building activity, marked by the
growth of many styles of architecture in different parts of the country. During the 14th
and 15th centuries, the style of architecture evolved in Delhi under the Tughlaqs was
carried forward and modified in the various regional kingdoms throughout India. Feroz
Shah Tuglaq also established new cities like Hisar, Ferozabad etc. Some of the
achievements of this period are – Tughlaqabad fort city – the first fort city. The tomb of
Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq etc are some other examples. Under Ghiyas-ud-din
Tughluq we can see the continuation of the fusion of Indo-Islamic forms. Thus in his
mausoleum we can see a kalash kept on top of the dome. The construction work in
Tughluqabad may also reflect the haste and commotion in the face of impending
Mongol threat.
V. Lodhis were the last Sultans of Delhi. They belonged to Sultanate period, but they were
not Turks, but were Afghans, their architecture will fall under both Afghan style and
Sultanat style.
AFGHAN ARCHITECTURE
Lodhis, from Afghanistan, introduced ‘double

dome’ method which was later used in Mughal
architecture as well. Lodis believed in the kingship
theory of being first among the equals. This is also
reflected in the architecture as we find that the
monuments built by many Amirs were equal in
scale and grandeur to those built by the sultans. By
their time, the octagonal designs, double domes
and headers and stretchers brick layering styles
came up. Char-bagh style also came up. The
devices of double dome enable the ceiling inside to be placed lower and in better relation to
the Interior space it covers. This is done without disturbing the proportions and the effect of
elevation of the exterior. The method of making double dome was practiced in East Asia for
quite sometime before it was imported into India. They didn’t focus much on other
architectural buildings and only Tombs were made during this period. Sikandar Lodhi
established Agra and he also repaired Qutub Minar. Tomb of Sikandar Lodhi at Lodhi
Gardens in Delhi was first example of double dome architecture and due to a double dome,
the outer appearance of the tomb was much bigger.Some of the features of architecture
during his times are –
• Base of most of the tombs is octagonal

• Each side of the octagon is marked by triple arches
• Often entrance is marked by the Chatris
Sher Shah Suri was another Afghan who ruled India in early 16th century replacing Mughal
for a short while. Sher Shah Suri was son of a local Afghan noble and he was very ambitious.
He not only wanted to have
large area under him, but
also wanted to administer it
well. He was influenced by
the revenue and military
policies of Alaudin Khalji. Like
Khilji, he paid to army
regularly to prevent dissent
and dissatisfaction and
interacted with regularly. In
revenue administration also, like Khilji, he introduced a measurement based revenue system
so that peasant class is not over-burdened. He also build many roads, planted trees and
build sarais. He rebuild the highway to Bengal from north India, build by Mauryas, again.
Finally, he is also credited with giving the name to Indian currency the name which it is
known today – Rupiah. He would have been a great ruler, had he not been killed accidently
in a gun explosion in his face during a siege after a rule of just 5 years. This provided
opportunity to Humayun. His tomb at Sasaram in Bihar is major example of architecture
during his time. It stands in the middle of an artificial lake, which is nearly square, is known
as the second Taj Mahal of India. The tomb stands at the centre of the lake on a square
stone plinth with domed kiosks, chhatris at each of its corners. It is connected to the
mainland through a wide stone bridge. The main tomb is built on octagonal plan, topped by
a dome, 22-metre in span. Shersha also built an elegant mosque in Purana Quila of Delhi.
DECCANI STYLE
In South, Deccan style was initially

influenced by Tuglaqi style and later it
exhibited Persian influence. Later it also
exhibited Hindu architecture influence
also.
Under Bahamani Sultanate (which was

later disintegrated into five dynasties
including Bijapur, Golcunda, Ahmadnagar,
Bidar etc) highest developments took
place under Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi
rulers. The Bahamani sultans borrowed
from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey
and the temples of Southern India.
Distinctive features of Bijapur style, that developed in 15th-16th century, were – three arched
face of building with central arch larger than the other two and only central arch has a gate and
other two being only for decoration purpose. Dome was bulbous and almost spherical in shape.
Dome of Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. Lower part of dome has lotus petal
type patterns. At the corners there were numerous smaller doms instead of Chatris. Graceful,
slender, tall minarets. Gol Gumbaj, mausoleum of Adil Shah is finest examples of Bijapur Style.
Its dome is said to be largest in world and it is also famous for its whispering galleries. Bijapur
was relatively less affected by wars and attacks and hence, many of monuments are still well
preserved.
Qutub Shahi or Golcunda style is another famous style apart from Bahamanis in South. It is
marked by rich stucco (a type of plaster) carving. It is predominantly Persian with Hindu
influence. Char Minar of Hyderabad is a unique example of their style. It was built to
commemorate eradication of the plague from the city. Golcunda Fort is another example of this
style.
The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque is covered with
a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which has a covered courtyard.
PROVINCIAL STYLE
Introduction of Persian art during Sultanate period and its infusion with the local/provincial
traditions produced many beautiful results. For example – Sharqui rulers of Jaunpur produced
many beautiful results like Atala Masjid. Ahmed Shah built the city of Ahembdabad with
beautiful monuments like Jama Masjid. Malwa rulers built their palaces on the hills of Mandu
like Jahaz Mahal. All of them used the stones which were available locally, this also gave their
architectures local touch. In Bengal, brick was used as stone is not easily available, Dakhi
Darwaza is an example. In Kashmir, central Asian pattern was followed and wood was used in
the architecture. Bahamani Sultans gave stiff competition to Delhi sultans and had many
beautiful buildings in Bidar and Gulbarga etc even on older traditional styles rather than copying
Persian styles. Forts at Daulatabad and Golconda are such examples. Gol Gumbaj is an example
of infusion of local and Persian art.
Among the provincial styles, major developments took place in Gujarat. It reached its peak
during time of Mahmud Begaraha. Guajarati Indo-Islamic style is marked by extensive use of
pillar and lintel system. Another unique feature is ornamentry carvings on stones. Minarets
were elegant, screens were widely used and windows supported on richly carved brackets of
elegant designs. Mosque of Rani Rupmati of Ahmadabad is a fitting tribute to this style which
has successfully synthesized Muslims style with indigenous style.
Malwa style is marked by absence of minarets. It uses arches profusely and use of ornametry
carving is, unlike Guajarati style, is only moderate. European influence can also be found in form
of large windows. Ashrafi Mahal, Jahaj Mahal (Mandu, MP) and Hindola Mahal are some of
examples of this style.
Jaunpur style is also marked by absence of minars. It mainly flourished under Sharqi rulers and
hence also called as Sharwi style as well.
Bengal school is characterized by use of bricks and black marble. No focus on decoration, but on
massive building. Adina masjid, Kadam Rasul mosque are some examples.
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
Mughal architecture made true beginning only during Akbar as Babar and Humayun didn’t rule
sufficiently longer to leave an impact. Babur built only two mosques one of which is in Panipat
and other in Rohilkhand. Humayun fled to Iran/Persia when defeated by Sherhah and when he
returned he also brought with him Persian elements of architecture which were a part of
Mughal architecture throughout Mughal rule.
Mughal architecture, an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkish and Indian architecture, is the
distinctive style developed by the Mughals in the 16th and 17th century. It is symmetrical and
decorative in style. Double dome, char-bagh style were elements of continuity from Sultanate
architecture. Influence of provincial architecture, kalash, peitra dura style were elements of
change.
A unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardens called ‘chahar
baghs’ developed around the tombs and other buildings. The Nishat Garden in Kashmir and
Shalimar Garden in Lahore were developed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan respectively. The Lahore
garden has three stages which became an inspiration of seven stage Yadvindra garden of Pinjore
which in turn inspired the three stage garden of Viceroy palace or Rashtrapti Bhavan.
Major distinguishing features of the Mughal architecture are –
I. Arches
II. Domes
III. Jalis
IV. Minarets – which are symbols in the middle of deserts, used to guide travelers
V. Caligraphy on the walls
VI. Masjid became part of the architecture
VII. Kalsh was borrowed from the Hindu temple architecture style
VIII. Garden – Chahar-Bagh – became an integral part.
IX. All the Mughal buildings were made on a raised platform for better projection
X. Use of Red Sandstone was prominent which was later replaced by Marble
The Mughals also built impressive tombs, which include the fine tomb of Akbar's father
Humayun, and Akbar's tomb at Sikandra, near Agra, which is a unique structure of the kind and
of great merit. Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of emperor Shah Jahan
(1628–58), its crowning achievement being the magnificent Taj Mahal. This period is marked by
a fresh emergence in India of Persian features that had been seen earlier in the tomb of
Humayun. The use of the double dome (outside and inside), a recessed archway inside a
rectangular fronton, and park like surroundings are all typical of Shah Jahan period buildings.
ARCHITECTURE during AKBAR
During his reign, Mughal architecture had heavy regional Indian influence (influenced by
Gujrati, Bengali and Rajput tradition), while Jehangir and Shahjahan included
Persian/Iranian elements predominantly.
The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi and this building marked the
true beginning of the Mughal architecture in India. In this magnificent building red stone
was used and it is even said to be a precursor of Taj mahal. Akbar’s architects turned to
the tombs of his Central Asian ancestor, Timur. The central towering dome and the tall
gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in
Humayun’s tomb. It was placed in the centre of a huge formal ‘chahar bagh’ and built in
the tradition known

as ‘eight paradises’ The ‘Double Dome’ was an important features in the Indo-
or 'hasht bihisht'– a Islamic architecture during the medieval times. What was
central hall the main objective of introducing the Double Dome in
surrounded by eight Monuments? – To provide appropriate height to the
rooms. It was the monuments without losing aesthetic value. The method of
first garden tomb of making double dome was practised in East Asia for quite
India. The building sometime before it was imported into India. It was a problem
was constructed for the early Muslim builders to place a dome over an edifice
with red sandstone, effectively. If they erected it high, it left a deep void of
edged with white darkness in the ceiling of the building it cover-ed. In case
marble. It was built they kept it low. in proportion with the dimensions of the
on a raised platform, room. It diminished the monumental effect of the structure.
with double dome The fully mature form of the double dome is seen, for the
made of marble. first time in India in the Tomb of Humayun.
Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal.
The impact of other regions was also evident. In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri many
of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.
Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri influenced from Rajput tradition and
especially from Raja Man Singh Palace. Agra Fort was made of red sandstone with
Gujarati and Rajput influence. The use of domes was avoided and instead replaced by
chatris. Domes were used only in the mosque. It had two parts – Diwan-e-Aam and
Diwan-e-Khaas. Akbar made many buildings inside it, most of them were destroyed later
by Shah Jahan except a few like Akbari Mahal, Jahngiri Mahal etc which had profound
Rajput influence. Shah Jahan built Moti Masjid made of white marble in complex of Red
Fort.
Akbar also built a fort at Fatehpur Sikri and it marked second phase of architecture
during reign of Akbar. In fact, Fatehpur Sikri was the biggest architectural achievement
of Akbar. It has both religious and secular buildings. Among religious buildings, Jami
Masjid was inside the Buland Darwaja, which is perhaps the highest gate in the world.
Jami Masjid had profound Rajput and Gujarati influence and it is one of the mosques in
India with Hindu architecture inlfuence. Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti lies beside Jami
Masjiid and was made of white marble and intricate jali work and it was the first Mughal
building of made of pure white marble. The Ibadat Khana is another notable building
where Akbar used to have religious discources with the scholars of various religions.
Among secular buildings, there were many administratie and residential buildings. Royal
Mint Room or Taxal, Record room are administrative buildings. Among residential
buildings, Deewan-e-Aam, Deewan-e-Khaas, palace of Jodha Bai, Birbal’s palace,
Mariam’s house and Panch Mahal are important. Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of
ancient Indian architecture. The Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in five storeys. It
was built on the pattern of Gujrati and Rajput architecture and each storey was in a
different design.
The Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire. This building
was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is
about 41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world.
Last building started by Akbar was his own mausoleum at Sikandara which was
completed by his son. It looked more like a Pagora than a mausoleum.
ARCHITECTURE during JEHANGIR
Jehangir had more interest in painting than

architecture. Jehangir built Akbar’s tomb at
Sikandara near Agra. It has the largest Charbagh in
India. It has no dome, unlike later Mughal
architectures. But it has tall minars at its four
corners. The construction of tomb was started by
Akbar himself and it liberally uses elements of Hindu
architecture as well which reflects his pluralist
outlook. It was inspired from other buildings at
Fatehpur Sikri which were also examples of Hindu-
Muslim architecture fusion. Like other buildings in
style of Akbar’s architecture, this too predominantly
uses red-sandstone – a hallmark of Akbar Style
architecture. Chatris are also used in it which are
borrowed from Rajput architecture and they later
became part of Mughal architecture also.
Noor Jahan constructed tomb of her father Itmad-ud-Daula near Agra. Pietra dura was
extensively used in this tomb. It was during the reign of Jehangir that a building was
made with complete use of white marble and Moti MasjidofLahore was first such
example apart from tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula.
Jehangir was the first and only Mughal to built his own mausoleum while he was alive.
ARCHITECTURE during SHAH JAHAN
It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that

the different elements of Mughal
architecture were fused together in a
grand harmonious synthesis. Greater
emphasis was placed on Islamic character of buildings.
His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi.
Shah Jehan revived the lost glory of Delhi as Delhi was almost deserted after frequent
attacks by Mongols, Turks etc. The ceremonial halls of public and private audience
(diwan-i khas or aam) were carefully planned. These courts were also described as ‘chihil
sutun’ or forty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque. The
pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the
direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court
was in session. The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested
by these architectural features. The connection between royal justice and the imperial
court was emphasised by Shah Jahan in his newly constructed court in the Red Fort at
Delhi.
He widely promoted pietra-dura and

foliated arches instead of plain arches.
He built the famous Moti Masjid in Red Fort

of Agra, Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, Jama
Masjid etc. It was during his reign that
mosque building reached its climax.
Taj Mahal marked the zenith of Mughal

architecture and it was a perfect symbol of
symmattry. Marble for the building was
quarried from the Makrana mines in
Rajasthan and this white edifice is
contrasted with the red sandstone of the
surrounding structures. Four types of embellishments have been used with great effect
for the interior and exterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal. These are ‘stone carvings’ in high
and low relief on the walls, the delicate carving of marble into ‘jalis’ and graceful volutes
(spiral ornament on the pillar), and the creation of arabesques with ‘pietra dura’ (yellow
marble, jade and jasper) on walls and tombstones and geometric designs with
tessellation. Lastly, the art of ‘calligraphy’ is used with the inlay of jasper in white
marble to write Quranic verses. Calligraphy provided a decorative element on the walls
and a continuous connection with the Almighty.
He also made a new city – Shajahanabad in Delhi. It is believed that Shahjahanabad was
more beautiful than Baghdad in Iraq and Constantinople in Turkey. Here he built the
huge Red Fort and a large mosque – Jama Masjid. There were numerous buildings
inside the Red Fort and Deewn-e-Aam, Deewan-e-Khaas, Rang Mahal are some of them.
It is in Rang Mahal that it is written ‘If there is heaven on earth, it is here, it is here’. An
artificial canal passes through every apartment of Red Fort which is called ‘canal of
heaven’.
Architecture and art declined during time of Aurangzeb as he discouraged them.

Mosques inside Delhi Red Fort and his wife’s mausoleum Bibi ka Makbara are only noted
examples. Bibi-ka Makbara is said to be a poor imitation of Taj Mahal.
Mughal Architecture as a Reflection of Contemporary Life
 It symbolizes the great power of the ruling class on one hand and the great
divide between the rulers and the ruled on the other hand. They also made use
of glasses for their windows and Jahangir even used colored glasses which were
very expensive. On the other hand commoners used mud bricks or kuccha
houses.
 They reflect the increasing power of the emperor even in respect of his own
amirs. Thus, in the Lodhi rule we find that the monuments of his amirs were as
good as those of the sultan, in mughal age monuments of the emperors were
way above anybody else's.
 We can see the impact of Akbar's desire to be the religious leader of Indian
Muslims as well. In Diwan-i-Aam at Fatehpur Sikri, we can see that the
emperor's throne was placed in the western direction which gave him religious
supremacy as well. Secular nature of many of his buildings and liberal borrowing
from local architectural styles also reflect his tolerant attitude.
 The monuments clearly show the state of the empire in those days. For instance
the majestic fusion and smooth construction of Fatehpur Sikri shows the
stability and the strength of the empire. By Shahjahan's time stagnation in
power and strength of empire had occurred which is reflected in the lack of
variety in the construction. The freshness and cultural fusion of the buildings
gave way to artificial grandeur. The innovative and assimilative character of
Akbar's time was replaced by a traditional character in Shahjahan's monuments.
It appears that this was an attempt to hide the growing problems of the empire.
 By Aurangzeb's time the architecture declined due to his personal indifference

as well as economic condition of the state. Whatever monuments are there
show traditional style only and lack of creativity. Instead the monuments of the
regional principalities began to grow in their attraction. This shows the decline
of the empire.
Jami Masjid Kashmir – Its architecture is similar to a Buddhist Pagoda with Persian style and
it also includes turrets in its architecture.
BRITISH ARCHITECTURE
Renowned architects of the likes of Lutyens, Edward Frere etc. laid layout plans for some modern Indian
cities and designed exquisite buildings during this period. Notable architectures of that period are – The
Madras Government House, Bombay Town Meeting Hall, Victoria Memorial, Viceroy Palace (which is
now Rashtrapati Bhawan) etc.
Both European and Indian elements were used and there was no uniform style in British architecture.
Herbert Baker and Edward Lutyens were the prime architects of New Delhi. In Lutyen’s Delhi, a fusion of
Mughal, Buddhist and Hindu architecture was used. Rashtrapati Bhavan is example of such fusion. It is
built of sandstone and has design features like canopies from Rajput tradition. Its dome was copied from
the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, and the red sandstone and carved screens or jalis were borrowed from
Mughal architecture.
In Delhi and other places, the British made many big big public buildings. The large structure of the India
Gate, the Viceroy House which is now the Rashtrapati Bhavan, Parliament House and the North and
South Blocks in Delhi, Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, Gateway of India in Mumbai etc were all made to
impress the Indian subjects of the British rule. They were meant to show the supremacy, the majestic
power as well as the regality of the British.
New Delhi was constructed as a 10-square-mile city on Raisina Hill, south of the existing city. Two
architects, Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker, were called on to design New Delhi and its buildings. The
government complex in New Delhi consisted of a two-mile avenue, Kingsway (now Rajpath), that led to
the Viceroy’s Palace (now Rashtrapati Bhavan), with the Secretariat buildings on either sides of the
avenue. The features of these government buildings were borrowed from different periods of India’s
imperial history, but the overall look was Classical Greece (fifth century BCE). For instance, the central
dome of the Viceroy’s Palace was copied from the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, and the red sandstone and
carved screens or jalis were borrowed from Mughal architecture. But the new buildings had to assert
British importance: that is why the architect made sure that the Viceroy’s Palace was higher than Shah
Jahan’s Jama Masjid.
New Delhi took nearly 20 years to build. The idea was to build a city that was a stark contrast to
Shahjahanabad. There were to be no crowded mohallas, no mazes of narrow bylanes. In New Delhi,
there were to be broad, straight streets lined with sprawling mansions set in the middle of large
compounds. The architects wanted New Delhi to represent a sense of law and order, in contrast to the
chaos of Old Delhi. The new city also had to be a clean and healthy space. The British saw overcrowded
spaces as unhygienic and unhealthy, the source of disease. This meant that New Delhi had to have
better water supply, sewage disposal and drainage facilities than the Old City. It had to be green, with
trees and parks ensuring fresh air and adequate supply of oxygen.
For public buildings three broad architectural styles were used. Two of these were direct imports from
fashions prevalent in England.
I. Neo-Classical/Greco-Roman – The first was called neo-classical or the new classical. Its
characteristics included construction of geometrical
structures fronted with lofty pillars. It was derived from a
style that was originally typical of buildings in ancient Rome.
The Town Hall in Bombay was built in this style in 1833. Some
Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the
colonnades or pillared buildings. Parliament House and
Connaught Place in Delhi are other good examples. Another group of commercial buildings,
built during the cotton boom of the 1860s, was the Elphinstone Circle.
II. Neo-Gothic or Victorian Architecture – Another style that was extensively used was the
neo-Gothic (Goths were barbaric tribals in
Europe, later a style of architecture was
named after them which developed in
France in 12th century for making of
churches. Gothic, was distinguished by high
pointed arches, the use of stained glass,
often painted with scenes drawn from the Bible, and flying buttresses), characterised by
high-pitched roofs, pointed arches and detailed decoration. An impressive group of
buildings facing the seafront including the Secretariat, University of Bombay, Writer’s
Building in Calcutta and High Court were all built in this style. The most spectacular example
of the neo-Gothic style is the Victoria Terminus (now called Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus), the
station and headquarters of the Indian Railways. It looks more like a cathedral than a railway
station. It contains carved stone friezes, stained glass windows and flying walls. However, in
a bid to fuse oriental elements, Victorian architecture in India lost its orginal vitality and was
not as impressive as original Gothic architecture.
III. Indo-Sarcenic or Mughal-Gothic – A new hybrid style called Indo-Saracenic was also
developed during this period. ‘Indo’ was shorthand for Hindu and ‘Saracen’ was a term
Europeans used to designate Muslim.
The inspiration for this style was medieval buildings in
India with their domes, chhatris, jalis, arches. By
integrating Indian and European styles in public
architecture the British wanted to prove that they were
legitimate rulers of India. Modern architectural science
and material like iron, steel and concrete was used to
give strength to the structures. Construction was grand
in size. Walls were thinner, archs were pointed and
windows were large. The Gateway of India, built in the
traditional Gujarati style to welcome King George V is
the most famous example of this style. The industrialist
Jamsetji Tata built the Taj Mahal Hotel in a similar
style. Similarly, for the Victoria Memorial, Kolkatta
designed by Willian Emerson an attempt was made to revive the grandeur of the Taj, but
failed to yield similar effect. The Victoria Memorial was made up of white makrana Marble
from Rajasthan. Emerson was asked to design the building in the Italian Renaissance style,
but he was against the use European style and instead used ‘Indo-Saracenic style’, blending
Mughal elements in the architecture. However, it also carried the elements of Victorian
architecture which is evident in the sculptures, drains etc.
IV. Baroque – Many a buildings like General Post Office in Kolkatta, 'Baroque' is evident in scale
and movement.
OTHER REGIONAL ARCHITECTURAL STYLES and MONUMENTS

WOODEN SCULPTURES
The southern state of Karnataka is famous for its rosewood and sandalwood sculptures. The
most popular subject is the elephant. Figures of Hindu gods and goddesses, Christ, Buddha, and
of birds and other animals are also crafted from wood by talented artisans. The cities of Mysore
and Bangalore are famous for their rosewood sculptures.
In Kerala, sheesham (rosewood) statues are sculpted in Trivandrum and Trichur. Ernakulam and
Cochin are important centers of wood sculpture crafting.
HILL ARCHITECTURE
Hill sections in North India – Himachal and Kashmir – initially developed under strong influence
of Gandhara style in 5th century CE and later mixed with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions as well
as Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently travelled to these areas. As a result both
Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills. The hills also had
their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture. One of the most
important temples is Pandrethan, built during the eighth and ninth centuries. The architecture
of this temple is in keeping with the age-old Kashmiri tradition of wooden buildings. Due to the
snowy conditions in Kashmir, the roof is peaked and slants slowly outward.
SOMNATH TEMPLE
It is in Gujarat and is the first among the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines of the god Shiva. Jyotirlingas
are the places where Shiva appeared as a column of light. The temple has a long history and it is
the Hindu temple which was destroyed many a times by invaders and was again re-built. It was
built for the first time in around 6th century. It had been destroyed by Arab Muslims, Mahmud of
Ghazni, Allauddin Khilji, Aurangzeb and so on. It was also famous for its riches and was
plundered many a time. At different times, the temple was rebuilt by rulers like Parmaras,
Solankis etc. Its current shape was built by government of Independent India in 1951. The
present temple is built in the Chalukya style of temple architecture.
18th-19th CENTURY BENGAL ARCHITECTURE
The temples began to copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of
the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture. In
the comparatively more complex four-roofed structure, four triangular roofs placed on the four
walls move up to converge on a curved line or a point. Temples were usually built on a square
platform. The interior was relatively plain, but the outer walls of many temples were decorated
with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets. In some temples, particularly in Vishnupur
in the Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations reached a high degree of excellence.
MUSICAL STONE PILLARS in INDIAN TEMPLE
Indian temples are very famous for their musical stone pillars. These beautiful pillars emit
musical notes when tapped, which makes these temple pillars unique and exceptional. These
gracefully carved and highly decorated stone pillars are considered to be audio marvels. They
are found in the courtyards within the temple campus and there is generally a single pillar is
separated into columns or smaller, slender pillars.
These musical pillars are four types: Sruthisthamba (used during Puja along with ‘shangu and
Yeakalum’), Ganasthamb, Layasthamba and Pradharasana sthamba. These pillars are mainly
found in South Indian temples. Historians believe that the original pillars were prepared during
the Vijayanagar era and Hampi, the ancient capital of the Vijayanagar dynasty, was the place
where earliest musical stone pillars were made. The Sthapathis or sculptors of this era were
exemplary craftsmen. They were well versed in the science of building acoustics. They
thoroughly search for stones with different resonance and worked with these stones in order to
create fascinating musical stone pillars. They experimented with these rare stones and therefore
they had to carve upon them with great agility and skill to produce such unique marvels. Apart
from their music producing quality, these stone pillars are also praised for their beautiful
carvings and sculptures.
PROMOTION and PRESERVATION of ARCHITECTURE

WORLD HERITAGE SITES
In 1972, UNESCO adopted a resolution for the creation a Convention on protection of the world
natural and cultural heritages. Criteria for selection of of sites is that ‘they should be of
outstanding universal value’ and ‘satisfy at least one of ten criterion laid by the UNESCO’.
There are 4 criteria for natural heritage sites and 6 for cultural sites.
Criteria for cultural heritage include – it should be a masterpiece of human creative values;
unique or exceptional testimony of an existing or extinct civilization; is an example of an
architecture, building etc which illustrates a significant stage in human history; is n example of
living tradition of universal significance and so on.
Criteria for natural heritage include – natural phenomenon of exceptional natural beauty and
aesthetic importance; represents major stages of Earth’s history; important habitats for in-situ
conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of
outstanding universal values.
Such sites are also protected by all governments irrespective of war and conflict.
ART FORMS – PAINTINGS

Earliest evidences of painting in India are found in Bhimbhetka caves. Painting on pottery of Harappa
and Vedic civilization is also an example of creative expression. Real beginning was, however, made
during the times of Gupta during which, painting art made extra-ordinary progress.
Since early times, the art and technique of painting were Fresco is a technique of mural painting
carefully studied and put down in the Chitrasutra of the executed upon freshly laid lime plaster.
Vishnudharmottara Purana. This was an oral tradition, which This implies that the Fresco is done on
was recorded on paper around the 5th century AD. It is the wet plaster and that is why it is more
oldest known treatise on painting in the world. durable work than Mural. Murals are
painted on already dried surfaces.
In Guptas age, Kamasutra mentions painting as one of the
fine arts and also carries 6 principles of painting called ‘Shadanga of Paintings’ which are – roop bheda
(knowledge of appearance), praman (correct perception, measure and structure), lavanyogam (infusion
of grace), sadrisyam (similarity), varnikabhanga (manner of using brush and colour) etc. Ajanta caves are
finest examples of Gupta paintings. Other examples are Bagh caves, Badami Caves, Sittanvasal etc.
MURAL PAINTINGS and CAVE PAINTINGS

All paintings done on walls are not necessarily called mural paintings. This term is usually reserved for
classical styles used for temples, churches and palaces.
Cave paintings in India are found at many places dating back to prehistoric times as found in Bhimbetka
caves, which were discovered in 1950s only, which were called as Petroglyphs. Generally ochre red,
yellow earth or soot black was used as coloring medium. Rocks were first scratched and in the space
formed colours were filled. Figures were generally stick like figures of animals, hunters etc. Other
examples include – Jogimara caves in Jharkhand etc.
Mural tradition started in 2nd century BCE and matured by the times of Ajanta paintings. All the early
paintings were murals. The early murals of India were painted by guilds of painters. The themes were
Buddhist, Jain and Hindu. Later, significant achievements were made at Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanvasal,
ArmamalaiCave, Ravanchaya, KailasnathTemple at Ellora, Brihadeshwar Temple paintings and
paintings in Lepakshi and Virupaksh (a form of Shiva) temples of Vijaynagar rulers etc.
I. Bhimbetka –The word Bhimbetka is said to derive from Bhimbaithka, meaning ‘sitting place of
Bhima’. The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological World Heritage site located in Raisen
District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetka shelters are the earliest rock cut
caves in India and belong to various periods including – Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Chacolithic.
Largest numbers of them belong to Mesolithic period. Some analyses suggest that at least some
of these shelters were inhabited by man for in excess of 100,000 years. Some of the Stone Age
rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are approximately 30,000 years old.
400 painted rock shelters in five clusters. Largely in white and red (though other colors were
also used), the paintings are essentially a record of the varied animal life of the surrounding
forest and of various facets – economic and

social- of peoples’ lives. Images include extinct
fauna, mythical creatures; people dancing
with hands joined; domesticated animals,
carts and chariots; designs and patterns,
inscriptions and also some symbols of the
Historic period and along with pictorial
narratives of events such as large processions
of men on caparisoned horses and elephants,
and battle scenes. Though animals were painted in a naturalistic style, humans were depicted
only in a stylistic manner. The artists here made their paintings on the walls and ceilings of the
rock shelters. Some of the paintings are reported from the shelters where people lived. But
some others were made in places which do not seem to have been living spaces at all. Perhaps
these places had some religious importance.
II. Jogimara Paintings are the best example of the Pre-Buddha paintings is the Jogimara cave,
which is situated at Amarnath near the origin of Narmada, in Sarguja in Madhya Pradesh. The
paintings of these caves have been dated from 300BC to as back as 1000BC. The roof of the cave
has some seven paintings which include the human figures, fish and elephants. There are two
layers of paintings in it. The Original paintings are of expert artists but the upper layer has been
done by incompetent artists. In true sense, the Jogimara Caves seem to be the first human
endeavours as expert paintings.
III. Ajanta paintings largely depict events from Buddha’s
life in form of Jataka tales and they belong to 200 The Padmapani, the Bearer of the Lotus.
BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. Paintings here are It is the most popular Bodhisattva in
Buddhism. This gentle figure is one of the
drawn in continuity without using separate frame
masterpieces of Indian art in Cave 1,
and they are essentially two dimensional.
Ajanta.
Expressions in these are expressed through hand
gestures. Even animal and birds are shown with The Vajrapani, the Bearer of the
emotions. It also reflects social life of that time and Thunderbolt. The glorious figure portrays
females are shown in different hair-styles. They are the majesty of the Spirit in Cave 1,
Ajanta.
predominantly frescos. ‘Dying Princess’ is one of the
most critically acclaimed paintings for its emotions. Early paintings were made by Gupta rulers.
Ajanta caves can be classified into two phases namely the Hinayana phase (Uniconic) and the
Mahayana phase (Iconic). Both phases of the excavation and the creation of art were patronized
by Hindu kings, the Satavahanas in the early period and the Vakatakas in the latter period.
Ajanta paintings are known as fountainhead of all painting traditions in Asia.
IV. Ellora cave paintings and sculptures unlike Ajanta paintings have influence of three religions –
Jaina, Buddhism and Hinduism. While Buddhist themes are from Jatakas, Hindu themes are from
epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata and other mythological stories. All of these are now in a
damaged condition, almost unrecognizable.
V. Pitalkhora – The caves of Pitalkhora are located near

Ellora in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. Pitalkhora
Caves belonged to once upon largest temple complexes
of Buddhists in India. Today it is known as largest group
of Hinayana Buddhism monuments in India.
VI. Bagh caves are also similar to Ajanta caves, but themes
are more secular in nature and apart from Buddhist
themes, day today life has also been shown.
VII. Bhaja & Kanheri Caves – The Buddhist caves of Bhaja
and Kanheri in Maharashtra. Bhaja Caves located at the
Valley of Indrayani River, near Lonavala in Maharashtra
has 22 rock-cut caves that were created approximately
2,200 years ago, circa 200 BC. These are one of the
oldest surviving examples of rock cut architecture in
India. These caves are known for their ornate facades.
There is an impressive chaitya though the most of the
caves in Bhaja are viharas. Apart from the sculptural wonders, Bhaja Caves contain the paintings
of Buddha. Due to the nearness to Karla caves, the Bhaja Caves are sometimes known as Bhaja-
Karla caves.
VIII. Paintings at Badami are among the earliest surviving in Hindu temples belonging to 6th century
CE and patronized by Chalukya kings who succeded Vakataka kings, just as the paintings at
Ajanta and Sittannavasal are the earliest Buddhist and Jain murals. They are an extension of the
tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to Badami in South India. The most surviving murals
include the paintings of Vishnu, Shiva and Parvathi as well as some other characters. Apart from
these, murals of Chalyukya kings are also shown.
IX. Ravan Chaya Rock Shelter paintings in Keonjhar district of Odisha date back to 7th century AD
and are secular in nature.
X. Pallava paintings – The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya kings in parts of South India,
were also patrons of arts and they helped in spreading mural tradition
further down south in 7th century CE. Mahendravarma I who ruled in
the seventh century was responsible for building temples at
Panamalai, Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram. The inscription at
Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with numerous titles
such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among
artists), Chaityakari (temple builder), which show his interest in art
activities.
XI. Pandya Paintings – They include paintings at Sitanvasal and
Tirumalaipuram. Paintings at Sitanvasal are Jaina paintings in Tamil
Nadu in Puddukkottai town near Trichy. The paintings are located in
rock cut temples and were made in 8th-9th century CE.
XII. Armamalai Cave paintings – Located in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu, Armamalai Cave is known
for a Jain temple with ancient paintings, Petroglyphs and rock art. These paintings are similar to
murals in Sittanavasal cave which is located 250 km south of Armamalai Cave. Natural caves
were turned into Jain shrines around 8th century CE.
XIII. Chola paintings – Brihadeshwara temple also houses paintings of Hindu deities that were made
during Chola period i.e. 9th to 13th century. Chola art also reached its zenith when Chola reached
pinnacle of power in 11th century. The paintings show narrations and aspects related to Lord
Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja
and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc. Bridheshwara paintings shows the perfection that
mural tradition has reached in South India. During the Nayak period, the Chola paintings were
painted over. The Chola frescos lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in
them. They probably synchronised with the completion of
the temple by Rajaraja Chola.
XIV. Vijaynagara paintings – With the decline of power of the
Chola dynasty in the 13th century, the Vijayanagara Dynasty
captured and brought under its control the region from
Hampi to Trichy with Hampi serving as its capital.
Vijaynagara rulers also promoted mural paintings and the
paintings in the temples like Lepakshi temple depicting
Hindu gods – mainly Shiva – as well as secular themes like
royal scenes are example of their art. Other famous painting
art includes wall-paintings such as Dasavathara (ten Avatars
of Vishnu) in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple at
Hampi, the Shivapurana paintings (tales of Shiva) at the
Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi. The paintings at
Tiruparakunram, near Trichy, done in the 14th century represent the early phase of the
Vijayanagara style. In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa
narrating events from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
incarnations of Vishnu and so on. Some of the primary colors are totally absent and these
paintings mark the decline of mural paintings.
XV. Nayaka paintings – Nayaka paintings of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen in Thiruparakunram,
Sreerangam and Tiruvarur. The Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana and also scenes from Krishna-leela. Nayaka paintings were more or less an extension
of Vijaynagara style. Their 60 panel mural of Ramayana in a temple near Arcot is famous one.
Male figures are shown slim-waisted but with less heavy abdomen as compared to those in
Vijayanagara.
XVI. Kerala Murals – They were drawn in 16th to 8th century, partly inspired by the Nayakas and
Vijaynagara style, but maintaining their own distinct style influenced from the Kathakali
tradition using vibrant and luminous colours, representing human in three dimensional forms.
Their themes are also derived from local traditions – which are influenced by Ramayana and
Mahabharata – but have their own interpretation. More than sixty sites have been found with
mural paintings which include three palaces—Dutch palace in Kochi, Krishnapuram palace in
Kayamkulam and Padmanabhapuram palace.
As we can see, murals of South India were mostly related to Hindu deities, unlike those of other parts
which had origin in Buddhist art. Even today mural painting on interior and exterior walls of houses in
villages or havelis is prevalent in different parts of the country. These paintings are usually made by
women either at the time of ceremonies or festivals or as a routine to clean and decorate the walls.
Some of the traditional forms of murals are Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Shekhawati
paintings in Rajasthan, Mithila painting in northern Bihar’s Mithila region, Warli paintings in
Maharashtra and so on.
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
Unlike murals, miniatures developed later on. They, unlike murals, were on small scale. They were not
only small in scale, but were also more detailed in their execution. Often fine brushes are used which
include even a single hair as brush. They started to develop in 9th century in western and eastern India.
Most of the later miniatures are two dimensional in their form and side view is taken in these and often
eyes are bulging, waists are slim and nose is pointed.
I. Pala school of Bengal was one of the pioneers in

miniature paintings since 9th-11th century and
Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantpuri etc were important
centers. They were later highly influenced by
Vajryayan Buddhism as well. Colors were symbolic
and with subdued lines. However, these were not
true miniature and were largely a compact form of
murals. They resemble the Ajanta style, but on a
miniature scale. In this category, Buddhist, Jain and
Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. These were made on the request of the
merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries. They were generally made on
palm or paper manuscripts which were also carried to other countries by the students who
studied in these monasteries. The 10th century illustrated Buddhist text, Prajnaparamita, is the
earliest known example of painting where a canvas of micro, or miniature size made its debut.
Nature is marked by its absence and only a few trees like banana and coconut are found. After
Pala kingdom and the universities were ravaged by Muslim invaders, the artists also fled to
other places like Nepal and in the course of time, this school also influenced art schools in Tibet
and Nepal as well.
II. ApbhramsaSchool of miniature developed in west parallel to Pala and Sena School in Eastern
India in 10th century. Earlier, they were made on palm, but later on paper. Their uniqueness lied
in angular faces of the objects, pointed noses, protruded eyesetc. Their themes were taken from
Jainism, Gita Govinda and secular love. Their features included fish shaped eyes, double chin,
side view, use of bright colors etc. Animals and birds are represented as toys. This school later
also influenced Rajasthan miniatures as well.
III. In Western India, during the early sultanate period, significant contribution to the art of painting
was made by the Jain communities. Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were presented to
temple libraries. These manuscripts depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankars.
IV. Golden period for miniature paintings was the 16th century when various schools of paintings
were provided patronage by the Mughals, rulers of Deccan and Malwa, and Hindu chieftains of
Rajasthan. This led to the development of important schools of paintings such as Mughal,
Rajput and Deccan schools.
V. Mughal Paintings were next to make a mark. They had a considerable Persian influence, but
later developed their own style. Unlike Persian miniature, Mughal miniatures were more lifelike.
Realism is, thus, a unique feature of Mughal paintings and they depicted natural life as well,
though subjects were largely from court life. They found expressions in books like –
Hamzanama, Razmanama, Akbarnama etc. Under Jahangir, portrain paintings gained
prominence. Jahangir is known to have focused on specialization and study of nature.
VI. Decline of Mughal empire lead to emergence of Pahari and Rajasthani School of paintings.
VII. There were also other schools of miniature paintings like – Mysore miniature, Deccan miniature
which developed parallel to Mughal miniature.
Some of the painters also tried to paint the classical ragas, thereby giving form and color to such
abstract conceptions as music in form of ragmala paintings. Seasons or baramasa paintings were
similarly given artistic forms. Nowhere else in the world except perhaps in China, artists have tried to
paint music or seasons.
MUGHAL PAINTINGS
Humayun had spent more than twelve years in Persia as a refugee. He brought painters with him to
India when he became the ruler of Delhi once again in 1555. Famous among them were Mir Sayid Ali
and Abdus Samad who nurtured the tradition of painting manuscript and they were brought from Persia
by Babur. The period also witnessed the flowering of portrait and miniature paintings. Thus, the
Mughals brought miniature painting, an offshoot of manuscript painting to India from Persia which had
further offshoots in Rajasthani/Rajput and Himachali/Pahari miniatures. Mughal painting developed and
flourished during the reigns of Akbar,
Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Tuti-nama seems to be the first work of the Mughal School.
It is an illustrated compilation of 52 stories in 250 miniature
Mughal paintings were a unique blend of paintings. The work was commissioned by Akbar. The
Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. Because themes and stories are derived from the 12th century
the Mughal kings wanted visual records of Sanskrit anthology titled Sukasaptati or ‘Seventy Tales of
their deeds as hunters and conquerors, their Parrot’ in which a parrot tells the stories in the consecutive
artists accompanied them on military 52 nights to teaches some moral stories to his owner. The
work was completed in a span of five years under Mir
expeditions or missions of state, or recorded
Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad.
their prowess as animal slayers, or depicted
them in the great dynastic ceremonies of Hamza-nama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza has nearly 1200
marriages. For the first time painters’ names paintings. A more refined and developed work is the
were recorded in inscriptions during Mughal Hamza-nama, which contains the illustrations on cloth,
paintings tradition. originally consisting of 1400 leaves in seventeen volumes.
These paintings were based upon a Persian Hamzanama or
Dastan-e-Amir Hamza. Amir Hamza was the uncle of the
prophet of Islam. Akbar liked stories of Hamza so much
that he commissioned the court workshop to create an
illustrated manuscript on this fable, and that took 14 years
to complete.
Akbar established different departments for paintings and even workshops or karkhanas were
developed. He promoted art as a medium of amusement and used to often reward the artists and
invited many local artists also to the workshops which led to fusion of Persian and Indian style. During
his time, it transformed from a popular art to a court art and though he was a secular person, he didn’t
promote religious art. Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits which was absent earlier. Focus
of his paintings was miniatures and less on portraits. Jamshed, Basawant, Daswantha and Kesu Das were
major artists during this period.
Mughal miniatures reached at their zenith during reign of Jahangir. Jehangir was a nature lover and
hence, paintings during his time were made of flora and fauna, but he also emphasized on portraits.
Paintings generally had decorative margins. He himself was an accomplished artist and was a great
discerning art critique. He promoted miniatures done by multiple specialist artists at a time for different
themes – human figures, animal figures, nature etc by different artists. Some of the paintings include –
paintings of zebra, turkey also. He was the first Mughal ruler to set up art galleries. He also worked
towards freeing Mughal paintings from Persian influence. Mansur was most famous miniature painters
of all times. He specialized in depicting plants and animals. He is best known for two paintings one of
which was a Siberian crane and another was of a Bengal Florican. He is also remembered for a famous
painting on Dodo, the now extinct Bird. Jehangir also patronized Hindu painters as well, most famous of
them was Bishan Das. Jehangir called him ‘unrivalled master portrait maker’.
During Shajahan, quality of paintings declined as too much bright colors were used and there was also
European influence. Dara Shikoh, son of Aurangzeb, was however interested in paintings, but was killed
by Aurangzeb in succession battle. Aurangzeb discouraged them totally and court painters moved to
other courts to seek patronage and Rajasthani and Pahari schools emerged.
Major features of Mughal paintings are –
They were greatly influenced by Persian paintings and hence put great emphasis on realistic
portraiture of scenes
 Early paintings were offshoot of manuscript paintings.
 Use of muted colours with accuracy in line drawing. Common colours were – red, blue, yellow
and black and their derivatives.
 They have ‘archic’ lines – i.e. curved arch shaped lines which is evident in shape of eyes, hairs
etc.
 Mughal painting took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Persian
miniatures. Animals and plants were also more realistically shown.
 There were no religious themes and themes were either taken from royal courts or nature
including hunting scenes unlike Rajput paintings which had religious as well themes from
general life.
 Often paintings were made by multiple artists who specialized in each field.
MUGHAL and RAJPUT MINIATURE PAINTING DIFFERENCE
As Mughal patronage during reign of Aurangzeb declined, many of the painters of the Mughal court
shifted to other regions, primarily to the Rajput kingdom. Rajput painting evolved contemporaneously
with, and in the same geographic area as, the Mughal style.
I. Rajasthani and Pahari are offshoots of Mughal miniature

II. Mughal miniature is secular (mainly portraits or scenes from darbar), while Rajasthani and
Pahari have religious touch.
III. Theme of Mughal style was usually dictated by the Mughal kings and had scenes from hunting
campaigns and their darbars and rule. On the other hand Rajasthani/Rajput paintings mostly
included more religious themes as from life of Radha Krishna, Gita Govinda and Rajput Lifestyle.
IV. A stark difference between the Rajput and the Mughal miniature paintings is in the use of
colors. While the Mughal school features muted colors, giving it a shadow and depth, the
Rajasthan School uses bold primary colors which give the painting an abstract look.
V. Mughal style is evolved from Persian Miniature painting style, so had marked influence of
Persian style which was mixed with local styles. Rajsthani School has a considerable local
influence on the other hand.
VI. Mughal art was largely a royal art, while Rajput style was practiced by folks as well. While
Mughal School has focused on the splendor of the emperor and his court, Pahadi and Rajput
School expresses the emotions, nature, religious sentiments etc. Thus, Pahadi School could
focus on life outside the royal sphere as well.
RAJASTHANI/RAJPUT PAINTINGS
While some consider Rajasthani and Rajput synonymous, others consider Rajput paintings as
combination of Rajasthani and Pahari as Rajputs lived in both Rajasthan and Pahari areas as well as
some other areas like Malwa of central India. Maru-Gurjar painting is one term which collectively
denotes all the paintings in Rajasthan including paintings dating back to Mughal and Sultanat period.
It evolved and flourished during the 17th - 18th century in the royal courts of Rajputana in Rajasthan,
India, flowing from the style of
Mughal painting and loacal influence.
The Rajasthani Paintings are broadly

of two type viz. Courtly and Literary.
The paintings of courtly type include
the portraits of the rulers holding
different states of Rajputana.
Two major factors contributed

greatly to the development of
Rajasthani Paintings. First, the
commercial community of Rajputana
was economically prosperous.
Second, the revival of 'Vaishnavism'
and the growth of Bhakti cult provided a direction to the development of a distinct school.
Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features. Rajput paintings depict
a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna’s life, beautiful
landscapes, and humans. Various identifiable styles developed in different Rajput art schools particularly
at Amber (near present-day Jaipur), Bikaner, Marwar (Jodhpur), Mewar (Udaipur) etc.
The four principal schools under the Rajasthani paintings are as follows:
I. Mewar School: It included Udaipur, Nathdwara, Devgarh and Shahpura sub-styles;

II. Marwar School: It included Kishangarh, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali and Ghanerao styles
III. Hadoti School: It included Kota, Bundi and Jhalawar styles
IV. Dhundar School: It included Amber, Jaipur, Shekhawati and Uniara styles
MEWAR STYLE OF PAINTING
This is one of the most important schools of Indian

miniature painting of the 1600s and 1700s and it has a
marked Apbhransa influence. Rana Khumbha and Rana
Sanga were some of the early patrons. The real
beginning of a polished style of Mewar painting started
in 1571 AD, by that time, it fully replaced the
'Apabhransa'. One immediate reason of development of
this school was that a large number of artists migrated
from Mandu to Mewar after Baj Bahadur, the ruler of
Mandu was defeated by Mughals in 1570. Thus, we can
conclude that the new Mewar style originated as an
offshoot to the Central Indian painting.
Male and female figures have long noses, oval shaped

faces, elongated fish-like eyes. This is the influence of
the Apbhramsa style. The female figures have been drawn relatively smaller than the male. In
one of sub-styles viz Nathdwara style, the main theme is Krishna and his leelas. Pichhwai
paintings are a type of the wall paintings of Nathdwara style.
Mughal influence is deliberately avoided in this style unlike other Rajput Miniatures. Ragmala
paintings (paintings that put Indian ragas into pictorial form) and paintings from life of Krishna
are hallmark of this style. They were in a sense fusion of paintings and music or visual arts and
performing arts. They have considerable influence of Gujarati style.
Its various subschools include – Nathdwara, Devgarh,

Udaipur and Sawar styles of painting.
PICHWAIS or NATHDWARA PAINTINGS
Rajasthan is also known for Pichwais, which are paintings made on cloth. Pichwais are more
refined and detailed than Phads. They are created and used as backdrops in the Shrinathji (an
incarnation of lord Krishna) temple at Nathdwara and in other Krishna temples.
It is a very ancient form of art passed on from generation to generation and it has a very
devotional theme towards Lord Krishna.
Pichwais are painted, printed with handblocks, woven, embroidered or decorated in appliqué.
The purpose of Pichhwais, other than its artistic appeal, is to narrate tales of Krishna to the
illiterate.
MARWAR
Marwar Painting is a part of Rajasthani Painting or Rajput style painting. After the Mewar
School, the grandeur of the Marwar School of painting is well expressed in the Jodhpur style, the
Bikaner style and the world-famed Kishangarh style. Mughal influence gradually receded. Most
important Jodhpur paintings are equestrian paintings.
KISHANGARH SCHOOL OF PAINTINGS
Kishangarh Painting emerged as a distinctive style in the middle of 18th century under the
patronage of Maharaja Sawant Singh who was a devotee of Radha-Krishna.
They were essentially Hindu paintings unlike secular Mughal paintings.
Portrayal of Radha and Krishna in elongated faces is a

common subject of Kishangarh paintings.
The chief characteristics of the Kishengarh paintings were

the elongation of human faces, lavish use of green and
depiction of panoramic landscapes. In no other Rajsthani
School, woman is so beautifully painted. One
characteristic feature is hair-lock over ears and special
focus on beautification of eyes.
The elongated neck, the long stylized eyes with drooping

eyelids, the thin lips and pointed chin of Radha standing
in a graceful pose with her head covered with a muslin
odhni, is undoubtedly the most striking creation of the
Kishangarh School which is also called ‘Bani Thani’ painting.
There is also ample use of gold alongwith primary colors.
This style continued into the 19th century and a series of paintings of the Gita Govinda were
produced in 1820.
Most famous painter of this school is Nihalchand.
HADOTI SCHOOL
This painting style was developed by the Hada Rajput rulers in the Bundi and Kota regions. The
miniature paintings of these two centers typically portray beautiful women with round faces,
large eyes, long neck and pointed nose. The haunting activities of the erstwhile ruler and
emperor's are depicted in these paintings.
BUNDI SCHOOL OF PAINTING
The school had its birth in Chunar region of Rajasthan It mainly developed during time of Rao
Surjan Singh and its location was such that artists from all side came here. The Bundi School also
had a close association with the Mughal style.
Bundi paintings emphasized on hunting, court scenes, festivals, processions, life of nobles,
lovers, animals, birds and scenes from Lord Krishna's life. Baramasa and Rag-Ragini are other
prominent themes.
Both primary and secondary colours are used and human faces are a bit rounder than
Kishangarh style.
Women in most of these paintings are shown wearing red and yellow cloths. Figures are
generally long and slender, thin lips, sharp nose, slim
wrists, hina colored fingures etc are distinguishing features
of this style. There is a great preference for softer colours,
but later gold and red were also used especially to depict
embroidery in cloths.
Colour of sky is painted in different colours and often a

ribbon of red colour is visible in the sky. Flying birds are
also show
Chitrashala, made during Maharaja Umed Singh is the best

example of this style which is a series of paintings built at
Bundi palace.
KOTA SCHOOL OF PAINTING
Kota was separated from Bundi by Mughal decree and

hence had considerable Mughal influence. It was a blend
of Muslim and Hindu style of painting. Opaque water
colors were usually employed and the themes are usually related to religion, politics and
literature. Elephants were a recurring theme in these paintings. In the 18th century, Kota became
popular for its superb hunting scenes, Ragamalas, and portraits.
DHUNDAR SCHOOL of PAINTING
In ancient times, the regions in and around Jaipur were known as Dhundar. Most parts of Alwar,
Jaipur, and Shekhawati are still called Dhundar Pradesh.
AMBER SCHOOL of PAINTING
Currently Amber falls under Jaipur. Amber in Rajasthan was one of the first kingdoms to become
the Vassal of Akbar but noticeably its painting style remained conventional like that of Malwa.
The rulers at Amber had maintained cordial relations with the Mughal emperors, and this
association left its impact on the artistic activities at Amber. Because of their kinship with the
Mughals, mutual cultural exchange was natural. Hence the impact of ornamented dresses
belonging to the periods of Akbar and Jahangir is visible. But, the Amber style possesses its own
characteristics, in which the structure of bodies of both male and female has been much
influenced by Rajasthani folk art. Amber style have themes like raag-ragini, Krishna-Lila, nayika-
bhed, elephant riding, horse riding and camel riding and so on.
JAIPUR SCHOOL OF PAINTING
It was at Amber, the former capital city of Rajasthan, that the Jaipur School of paintings
originated. Jaipur paintings are plentiful and embrace a variety of subjects, but they neither
possess the subtler qualities as evidenced in the Bundi, Kota, Kishangarh or Bikaner Schools nor
bear the bolder qualities of Mewar and Marwar Schools of Rajasthani paintings. The Jaipur style
was not confined to the royal court but flourished and developed at the adjoining centers
belonging to feudal lords related to the Jaipur family. The Jaipur style of paintings excelled in
life-size portraits, depiction of myths, ragas etc. Jaipur style generally used a large size canvas,
ornate backgrounds and bright borders. Men and women appear in proportion and male figures
have clean and attractive faces.
SHEKHAWATI PAINTINGS
Shekhawati, which means the ‘Garden of Shekha’, derives its name from Rao Shekha, its former
ruler. It is situated in the Delhi-Bikaner-Jaipur triangle and is a semi desert region in north
Rajasthan. Shekhawati is mainly famous for its
amazing and wonderful mansions (havelis), which
are richly painted and decorated. Hence,
Shekhawati paintings are reflected in both murals
and miniatures. The themes of murals depict
gods, kings, flowers and scenes from daily life.
Shekhawati is perhaps the only place in India
where the walls have always been used as a
canvas. Even modern subjects are also painted
like – trains, bicycles, airplanes etc – are also
painted on the walls of havelis. Drawings of
elephants and horses and guards were made in bold relief in the brackets of havelis.
PAHARI PAINTINGS
Pahari painting is an umbrella term used for a form of Indian painting, originating from Himalayan Hill
kingdoms of North India, during 17th-19th century. Nadir Shah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in
1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to the hills to escape the uncertainties of the plains.
Here they found ready patrons which led to the founding of the Kangra school of painting. Notably
Basohli, Mankot, Nurpur, Chamba, Kangra, Jasrota, Guler, Mandi, and Garhwal, and was done mostly in
miniature forms. It developed and flourished stretching from Jammu to Almora and Garhwal, in the sub-
Himalayan India, through Himachal Pradesh. Ranging from bold intense Basohli Painting originating from
Basohli in Jammu and Kashmir to the delicate and lyrical Kangra reached its pinnacle with paintings of
Radha and Krishna, inspired by Jayadev's Gita Govinda.
They have been greatly influenced by the Rajput schools due to royal linkages of Rajput kingdom with
kings in these areas having matrimonial alliance with Rajput rulers. They are also influenced by Mughal
School as many erstwhile Mughal painters shifted to these areas. Like Rajasthani School, Pahari School
also grew as painters from erstwhile Mughal courts looked for alternative patronages. Love and
devotion is the main theme of these paintings.
Pahadi School tries to portray common life style and clothing style through Krishna who is depicted as
wearing pahadi dresses and among pahadi women wearing traditional dresses symbolizing a cultural
renaissance through paintings.
BASHOLI PAINTINGS
Basohli in Jammu and Kashmir is widely considered the first school of Pahari paintings, and it
evolved into the much prolific Kangra paintings school by mid-eighteenth century. It is believed
that it is also influenced by Mewar Rajput style as they had marital relations with the rulers of
Basholi. Raja Kripal Pal is the first important patron of this style in 17th century.
Popular themes are taken from a work called Rasmanjari which describes emotional state of
lovers and other themes are taken from Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana etc. Radha Krishna is
the most recurrent theme. Devi series is a famous series of this school and Devidas is one of the
famous painters.
Paintings are vigorously drawn and emotions are core feature of paintings.
Treatment of nature is simplified to throw the characters in strong relief. Yellow, green and
brown are the predominant colors used.
GULER PAINTINGS
Guler painting is the early phase of Kangra School of Pahari Paintings and it follows from Basholi
School. About the middle of the eighteenth century some Hindu artists trained in Mughal style
sought the patronage of the Rajas of Guler in the Kangra Valley.
Guler has the longest tradition in the art of painting and is also known as birthplace of Kangra
paintings and later the two schools merged.
Themes were Radha and Krishna and scenes from Gita Govinda of Jayadeva. Though influenced
by Mughals, they mainly depicted scenes from Rajput Kingdoms and Hindu Mythologies.
Nainsukh is most famous painter of this school.
KANGRA PAINTING
The Kangra Miniatures of the Pahari School made a

mark in the 18th century. Influenced by the
Mughals, the Kangra School retained its
distinctiveness and can be said a fusion of Pahari
and Mughal school. It is said to be developed from
Basholi School and Guler School.
The source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite

traditions. Soft colours including cool blues and
greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes distinguished Kangra painting.
Colours of these paintings were taken from nature and no artificial paints were used. The colors
were extracted from minerals, vegetables and possessed enamel-like luster. Further, paper was
also prepared by hand by the artist himself.
Another unique feature of these paintings is the use of natural poison which protects the
paintings from decaying.
Verdant greenery of the landscape, brooks, springs were the recurrent images on the
miniatures. Texts of the Gita Govinda, Radha Krishna etc were themes to the painters.
‘Shrangar’ or love was important theme of Kangra paintings and ‘Nayak-nayika’ series is the
most famous one.
Kangra School reached its zenith during reign of Sansar Chand and is considered as last great
style of Indian miniature paintings. Nainsukh and Fattu were the most famous painters of this
school.
When Europeans arrived they introduced artificial colours and use of paper and cloth as well.
DECCANI SCHOOL of PAINTING
The turbulent medieval times saw an exodus of artists

to the South. These artists were patronized by the
regal houses over there and gradually, three distinct
schools of art developed viz. Deccani, Mysore and
Tanjore. The miniature painting style, which
flourished initially in the Bahmani court and later in
the courts of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda, is
popularly known as the Deccan school of Painting.
The Deccani painting initially absorbed influences of

the northern tradition of the pre-Mughal painting of
Malwa (especially on dressing styles), and of the
southern tradition of the Vijayanagar School of painting (this school was rather known for murals and
frescoes and not the miniatures and it also influenced the Mysore and Tanjore Schools) apart from
prominent Persian influence. Thus, the paintings show a good fusion with Hindu style as well. Its origin
was in Bijapur, but it later spread to the other places like Golcunda where it flourished. These paintings
show openness as against the traditionalism which crept into mughal paintings during Shahjahan. The
most famous painting is that of a yogini (or princess) from Bijapur. Adil Shah I and Ibrahim Adil Shah of
Bijapur were great patrons of art including paintings. Their paintings are clearly influenced by western
romantic school.
Deccani school developed independent of the Mughal style in the beginning, but later, as the mughal
artists started migrating to down south after Aurangzeb, the schools of deccan show the influence of
Mughal style.
The patrons of the Golconda paintings were the Qutb Shahi rulers. These paintings show the dancing
girls entertaining the royal class. The Qutb Shahi rulers had employed many Persian artists and so there
is a profound impact of Iranian art on the
Golconda miniature paintings. Raja Ravi Verma as a national painter – Raja Ravi Varma
can be called India’s first modern artist, first Indian artist to
master perspective and the use of the oil medium; probably
first to use human models to illustrate Hindu gods and
MODERN ART SCHOOLS in goddesses on a wide scale and first Indian artist to become
INDIA widely famous. His works were accessible to the common
man because of his venture of printing and distributing the
Modern art schools were established in Oleographs. The mass printing of the Ramayana and
India after 1857 in Calcutta, madras and Mahabharata images of Raja Ravi Varma helped the art to
Bombay. Indian students started handling reach every nook and corner of the country thus helped to
forge a national identity in modern India.
new art material like oil colours on canvas,
water colour on paper. They also became
familiar with art practices like drawing and
paintings from models in studios.
Earliest style to be developed was Company

School of Paintings which was a result of
patronage by the British gentry class and administration in wake of loss of patronage from Mughals and
local rulers. They were curious in Indian way of life and wanted to send it back to their homes in
England. They also set up schools in presidencies and a hybrid art – Indo-European – developed. Many
new elements like landscaping, water and oil colours, canvas etc were introduced. Company Kalam or
Company School was not a pan-Indian phenomenon and was localized to early port towns and
presidencies and a few other towns only. Sewak Ram, Iswari Prasad and Ghulam Ali Khan were
important prominent painters.
European artists brought with them the idea of realism. This was a belief that artists had to observe
carefully and depict faithfully what the eye saw. What the artist produced was expected to look real and
lifelike.
Another tradition of art that became immensely popular in colonial India was portrait painting. Unlike
the existing Indian tradition of painting portraits in miniature, colonial portraits were life-size images
that looked life like and real. The size of the paintings itself projected the importance of the patrons who
commissioned these portraits. This new style of portraiture also served as an ideal means of displaying
the lavish lifestyles, wealth and status that the empire generated.
There was a third category of imperial art, called “history painting”. This tradition sought to dramatise
and recreate various episodes of British imperial history, and enjoyed great prestige and popularity
during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. These paintings once again celebrated the
British: their power, their victories, their supremacy.
While first few generations of Indian artists started mastering European art materials and techniques,
some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the urban educated middle class with increasing
awareness about evil nature of the British rule. By the last decades of 19th century nationalism started
inspiring Indian art as well to discover rich cultural heritage of India. The work done by Europeans like
William Jones, Max Muller etc brought to light India’s literary and philosophical heritage. Some
important archeological discoveries like Harappa and Ajanta also helped in searching a true Indian
national art. Young artists like Nandlal Bose and others visited the newly discovered cave paintings of
Ajanta and studied the murals.
Ravi Verma was another big name. He was a prince from Travancore and he painted the anecdotes from
the Indian epics and Sanskritic literature. He learned the art of oils and canvas from Theoder Jenson, a
European artist, and applied it in Indian context. He used European realism to depict Indian subjects.
Shakuntala, Saraswati etc are some of famous paintings. He tried to create a style that was both modern
and national. He mastered the Western art of oil painting and realistic life study, but painted themes
from Indian mythology. Responding to the huge popular appeal of such paintings, Ravi Varma decided to
set up a picture production team and printing press on the outskirts of Bombay. Here colour prints of his
religious paintings were mass produced. Even the
poor could now buy these cheap prints.
Bengal School of Painting or Avant Garde or Neo Art

School was another famous art initiative led by E B
Havell, A K Coomarswamy and Abnindranath Tagore who was nephew of

Rabindranath Tagore. Other noted members associated with it were
Gaganendranath Tagore, A K Haldar, Jamini Roy and so on. It was a reaction
to the Western art which was becoming popular those days. . They also
rejected the art of Ravi Varma as imitative and westernised, and declared
that such a style was unsuitable for depicting the nation’s ancient myths and
legends. They felt that a genuine Indian style of painting had to draw
inspiration from non-Western art traditions, and try to capture the spiritual
essence of the East. So they broke away from the convention of oil painting
and the realistic style, and turned for inspiration to medieval Indian traditions
of miniature painting and the ancient art of mural painting in the Ajanta
caves. They were also influenced by the art of Japanese artists who visited
India at that time to develop an Asian/Oriental art movement. Abanindranath
and Nandalal did not simply follow an earlier style. They modified it and made it their own. It was called
neo-art school because new mediums and styles were used. Canvas, water colours etc were used. Now
shading techniques were also used. Use of canvas facilitated bigger paintings and landscaping became
popular. It also revived Indian tradition and local subjects from myths and folks. In the last decade of
19th century, Havell had joined the art school in Calcutta as it principal. Havell drew the attention of
Abnindranath Tagore to the rich heritage of classical Indian art and the medieval Mughal miniatures.
Abnindranath also studied ancient Indian texts on art and also benefitted from experience of
Coomarswamy who was from Sri Lanka, but had wrote many books on Indian art. These three, their
works and followers came to be known as Bengal School. Their themes were indigenous taken mostly
from Puranas, classical literature, guided by the Indian canons of painting and tradition, they painted
small size paintings on water colours mostly with a limited palette. Abnindra was influenced by the
Japanese technique of water colour wash paintings which created delicate tones and mystifying areas of
light and dark. He portrayed Bharat Mata (1905) as a four-armed Hindu goddess wearing saffroncolored
robes, holding a book, a mala, sheaves of rice, and a white cloth symbolizing Shiksha, Diksha, Anna and
Vastra. The image of Bharatmata was an icon to create nationalist feeling in Indians during the freedom
struggle. Another famous painting of his is Shajahan looking at the Tajmahal. Arabian Nights is another
famous work of him.
Gagnendranth Tagore was also one of the founders of Indian Society of Oriental Arts in Calcutta in 1907,
along with this brother Abnindranath Tagore. He was highly influenced by Japanse styles and French
styles. Inspired by Cubism, he developed his own cubism style. Unlike Abnindranath and Nandlal Bose,
he was not interested in revivalism and instead focused on contemporary art like Cubism.
Bengal school had a great following at Shantiniketan where Rabindranath Tagore had setup Kala Bhavan
where three artists dominated – Nandlal Bose, Binod Behari Mukharjee and Ramkinker Baij. Nandlal
Bose was a painter and a great nationalis and a disciple of Abnindranath Tagore. He derived his
inspiration from Ajanta cave paintings and folk arts. He also made genuine effort to connect folk artisans
and artists. To mark the 1930 occasion of Mahatma Gandhi's arrest for protesting the British tax on salt,
Bose created a black on white linocut print of Gandhi walking with a staff. It became the iconic image for
the non-violence movement. Nandalal Bose also originally painted the Indian flag, slightly different from
its present form, and it was inspired by the freedom struggle. He became principal of the Kala Bhavan at
Tagore's International University Santiniketan in 1922. He is also credited with making up of a large
poster for Haripura session of Congress. He was also asked by Jawaharlal Nehru to sketch the emblems
for the Government of India’s awards, including the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Shri. He is also known
to have taken up the task of beautifying the original manuscript of the Constitution of India. Similarly,
Binod Behari Mukharjee was also influenced by oriental traditions. Ramkinker Baij was a painter as well
as an accompalished sculptor and is best known for his magnum opus ‘Santhal Family’ sculpture. He
became another disciple of Nand Lal Bose, and then became one of the pioneers of modern Indian
sculpture. He joined the Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan as a fine arts student. The artistic
creations of Ramkinkar Baij have been inspired by the lifestyles of rural dalit or Adivasi communities. He
also made famous statues of ‘Yaksha and Yakshi’ in front of RBI building.
Out of the Bengal School, folk traditions of mainly Bengal and Orissa emerged. Jamini Roy painted
images with minimum lines and bright colour scheme on a plain base and has taken themes from folk
and tribal life. He initially drew in Western style, but later found folk style more authentic especially
paintings of Kalighat, patua art etc. He drew in reaction of Bengali School and Western style. He
completely used native materials and folk themes.
There were other artists also who took deep interest in European art as well. Amrita Shergil and George
Keyt were among them. Amrita Shergil died in a young age, bbut had profound contribution to the
Indian art. She had one of her parents from Hugary and had her education in Europe. She started as an
impressionist and switched to post-impressionism of Gauguin – a profound post-impressionist. She
made many paintings of folk life of Punjabi peasants and also did paintings on South India. Her palette
was rich in bright colours. Figures in her paintings used to had a quaint, emaciated physiognomy like
that of Gauguin’s women. The first important painting was ‘Young Girls’. She was greatly impressed and
influenced by the Mughal and Pahari schools of painting and the cave paintings at Ajanta also. In 1937,
she produced famous South Indian trilogy of paintings – ‘Bride's Toilet’, ‘Brahmacharis’ and ‘The South
Indian Villagers’. By this time, her style had transformed and her paintings expressed the life of Indian
people through her canvas. The Government of India has declared her works as National Art Treasures,
and most of them are housed in the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi.
Rabindranath Tagore also dabbled into paintings during his 60s. Tough Kala Bhawan in Shantiniketan
which was a major center of Bengali School, ran under his patronage, he was not influenced by it and
had his own style – he was neither a revivalist, nor a modernist. His paintings were strongly
individualistic with his own moods instilled in them. He later on, also established a studio called Bichitra.
Progressive Artists Group of Bombay was formed by artists like S H Raza, F N Souza in 1948. Souza was
a rebel painter and his paintings were done in Expressionist colours and style and were infused with
contemporary human situation. He was the first Indian artist to receive recognition in the west. He
attended Sir J.J. School of Art but due to his involvement in the Quit India Movement, he was suspended
in the year 1945. Souza was the founder of the Bombay Progressive Artists’ Group. S H Raza’s painting
style is known as – The Razabindu – For him, the 'bindu' has been a vast subject with its variations
throughout his life. Raza's works make price history. Abstraction is the dominant element in Raza's
Bindu series at the turn of the 1980s. Hailed as one of the country's most expensive artists, he set a
milestone last year when his work, 'Saurashtra', sold for Rs 16.42 crore in an auction at Christie's. Tyeb
Mehta is one of the progressive Indian artists along S H Raza and F N Souza. His popular themes are –
diognal series, falling series etc. His famous painting titled the “Falling Figure and Bird” displays a human
figure in a state of deliberation while falling.
After independence, two government institutions were set up – National Gallery of Modern Art and Lalit
Kala Akademi. Apart from organizing exhibitions, Lalit Kala Akademi also organizes Triennale – a once in
3 years festival organised abroad to promote modern Indian art.
OTHER SCHOOLS and STYLES of PAINTING

APBHRANSHA STYLE
It is a broad name that is given to the miniature style of painting that developed during 12th and
16th century in Western and Central India. Its subjects were initially Jaina religious figures, but
later it emerged as a Vaishnavite form of painting. They were generally done on palm leaves
earlier, but later paper was also used a medium. Figures were shown for the most part from a
frontal view, with the head in profile. The facial type, with its pointed nose, was related to that
seen in wall paintings at Ellora (mid-8th century) and was remarkably close to medieval
sculpture. Another feature was the projecting ‘further eye’, which extends beyond the outline of
the face in profile. It later also influenced Mewar style of Rajput miniatures and various other
schools as well.
CHERIYAL SCROLL PAINTING
This school of painting originated from Cheriyal, a place situated in Warangal district of Andhra
Pradesh. It is a modernized and stylized version of Nakashi art. A rich scheme of colours is used
to depict the scrolls of narrative format from mythology and folklore.
COMPANY SCHOOL of PAINTING or KAMPANI KALAM
The first region in India to saw the emergence of such style was the Madras Presidency. They
wanted to capture the images to send or take back home and thus they gradually became the
new patrons of the Indian art. These new patrons wanted that the artists depict Indian life and
scenes but in a medium of their own liking. Thus, a synthetic style was born in which the Indian
artists imitated the English style of paintings. The most important early production centre was
Calcutta. Here the main patrons of the art were Lord Impey (Chief justice of the High Court) and
LordWellesley (Governor General). Delhi company style painting is also special as the artists
here used the Ivory as base for paintings, while at other places mostly paper was used. The
company style of paintings was not a Pan-India phenomenon. This style developed in some cities
only. Later, the style was subject to the competition with other styles and photography. The
worst blow to the Company Style Paintings was given by the advent of Photography in early
1840s.
DECORATIVE PAINTING
Decorative painting on walls of homes even in rural areas is a common sight. Rangoli or
decorative designs on floor are made for auspicious occasions and pujas whose stylized designs
have been passed on from one generation to the other. The designs are called rangoli in the
North, alpana in Bengal, aipan in Uttaranchal, rangavalli in Karnataka, Kollam in Tamilnadu and
mandana in Madhya Pradesh. Usually rice powder is used for these paintings but coloured
powder or flower petals are also used to make them more colourful. Other examples of the
decorative art are – Mithila painting or Madhubani paintings, Warli paintings etc.
GUJARAT STYLE
It was a pre-cursor to Rajput style, main subjects were from Vaishnavite tradition. Natural
elements like land, horizon, rivers were given special attention. Rag-mala series is a famous one
in this style.
KALAMKARI
Kalamkari is a type of hand-painted or block-printed cotton textile, produced in parts of India

especially in Andhra Pradesh. The literal meaning of
Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). The kalam
made out of a bamboo sliver wound at one section with
wool and then dyed with natural colours. Black ink is used
to make outlines, and jaggery, rusted iron filings and water
are used for making colours to fill in details. Natural
materials are used to create a work of art by extracting
colours from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron,
tin, copper, alum etc.
These paintings are made on cloth. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with
painted cloth panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage of
Vijaynagar rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Hindu
religious mythology. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was
widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs in the 17th with the depiction of trees, fruits,
flowers and ornamental birds.
There are two distinctive styles of kalamkari art in India -
I. Srikalahasti style - The Srikalahasti style of Kalamkari, wherein the ‘kalam’ or pen is
used for free hand drawing of the subject and filling in the colours, is entirely hand
worked.
II. Machalipatnam style - Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the Masulipatnam

kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs.
This style flowered around temples and their patronage and so had an almost religious identity -
scrolls, temple hangings, chariot banners and the like, depicted deities and scenes taken from
the great Hindu epics – Ramayana, Mahabarata etc.
KALIGHATA PAINTING
Kalighat painting originated in the 19th century colonial Bengal, in the vicinity of Kali Temple,
Kalighat, Kolkata, and from being items of souvenir taken by the visitors to the Kali temple, the
paintings over a period of time developed as a distinct school
of Indian painting.
Patua/cloth painters from rural Bengal came and settled in

Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early
nineteenth century. Among the deities that the Kalighat
artists painted, the goddess Kali was a favorite. However, the
painters effectively portray a wide range of subjects
commenting on the social life of Bengal. Kalighat paintings
are often referred to as the first works of art that came from
Bengal.
It is characterized by generously curving figures of both men and women and an earthy satirical
style. Kalighat pata pictures are highly stylised, do not use perspective. Traditionally, the figures
in scroll paintings looked flat, not rounded. Now Kalighat painters began to use shading to give
them a rounded form, to make the images look three-dimensional. Yet the images were not
realistic and lifelike. Kalighat paintings depict social life under British rule. Often the artists
mocked at the changes they saw around, ridiculing the new tastes of those who spoke in English
and adopted Western habits, dressed like sahibs, smoked cigarettes, or sat on chairs. They made
fun of the westernised baboo, criticised the corrupt priests, and warned against women moving
out of their homes.
MADHUBANI PAINTING
Madhubani painting or Mithila painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila
region of Bihar state, India and the adjoining parts of Terai in Nepal. Madhubani painting has
been done traditionally by the women of villages around the present town of Madhubani (the
literal meaning of which is forests of honey) and other areas of Mithila. The painting was
traditionally done on freshly plastered mud wall of huts, but now it is also done on cloth, hand-
made paper and canvas.
Madhubani paintings also use two dimensional imagery, and the colors
used are derived from plants. Ochre and lampblack are also used for
reddish brown and black respectively.
Madhubani paintings mostly depict nature and Hindu religious motifs,

and the themes generally revolve around Hindu deities like Krishna, Ram, Shiva, Durga, Lakshmi,
and Saraswati.
MALWA PAINTINGS
Malwa School (In present day Madhya Pradesh) was one of the most conservative Rajput
Painting Schools in the 17th century. Rasikpriya, dated 1634, and Ramayana dated 1650 are the
earliest examples from this school. Use of flat planes of bright colors is one of the main features
of these works of art. Subjects were mainly taken from Vaishnav themes.
Malwa paintings emphasized on strong colors like deep blues, reds and browns and bold lines.
Remote Mughal influence was also evident in the paintings. Rasabeli and Bhagavata Purana are
some of the other notable illustrated works from this school.
MYSORE PAINTING
The distinct school of Mysore painting emerged from this legacy around the time of the reign of
the Vijayanagar Kings 1336-1565 CE. When Vijayanagara Kingdom declined, painters migrated
to Mysore and other kingdom and a distinct school emerged under patronage of Wodeyars of
Mysore.
Mysore paintings are known for

their elegance, muted colours,
and attention to detail. The
themes for most of these
paintings are Hindu gods and
goddesses and scenes from
Hindu mythology.More than
mere decorative pieces, the
paintings are designed to inspire
feelings of devotion and humility
in the viewer.
Mysore Paintings are

characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures and the
discreet use of bright vegetable colours and lustrous gold leaf.
Gesso work was the hallmark of all traditional paintings of Karnataka. Gesso refers to the paste
mixture of white lead powder, gambose and glue which is used as an embossing material and
covered with gold foil. The gesso work in Mysore paintings is low in relief and intricate as
compared to the thick gold relief work of the Tanjore School.
PAITKAR PAINTINGS
Paitkar paintings or scroll paintings of Jharkhand constitute one

of the most popular tribal crafts of the state of Jharkhand. The
Paitkar paintings at Jharkhand are one of the most ancient
schools of triabal painting in the entire country of India.
PATTACHITRA
Pattachitra refers to the folk painting of the state of Odisha made primarily on cloth in the
eastern region of India. 'Patta' in Sanskrit means 'Vastra' or 'clothing' and 'chitra' means
paintings.
The tradition of Pattachitra is

closely linked with the
worship of Lord Jagannath.
The theme of this Odishan
painting centres round the
Vaishnava cult. The subject
matter of Patta Chitra is
mostly mythological, religious
stories and folk lore. Themes
are chiefly on Lord Jagannath and Radha-Krishna, and other mythological characters.
The painters use vegetable and mineral colours without going for factory made poster colours.
Red and Ochre are predominant colors that are used in this.
PATUA ART
The Patua is a community found in West Bengal. Some Patuas are Hindus, while others are
Muslims and Buddhists. Patua art is from Bengal and like Patachitra of Orissa, this is also
traditionally made on cloth or paper scroll. Themes of these paintings are ‘Mangal Kavyas’ aur
auspicious songs.
PHAD PAINTINGS
Rajasthan the land of colors is known for Phad

painting, which is done on cloth. This type of
painting is mainly found in the Bhilwara
district. The main theme of these paintings is
the depiction of local deities and their stories,
and legends of erstwhile local rulers. Phad is a
type of scroll painting and can be upto 30 feet. These paintings are created while using bright
and subtle colors.
The outlines of the paintings are first drawn in block and later filled with vegetable colors. The
unique features of phad paintings are the bold lines and a two dimensional treatment of figures
with the entire composition arranged in sections. Generally, stories are told through Phads and
every inch of space is used for filling characters in it.
Customarily, these are carried by Bhopa – folk religious singers – who carry them along like a
mobile temple.
PITHORA PAINTINGS
Pithora Paintings are the paintings done on wall by the tribals - Rathwas, Bhilals, and Naykas - in
the areas of Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh. They
signify the advent of an
auspicious occasion (like
weddings, childbirth,
festivals) in the family or
community.
Pithora Painting can be

called a ritual rather that
an art form for it is ‘performed’ to thank God or for a wish or a boon to be granted.
RAGMALA PAINTINGS
Ragamala Paintings are a series of illustrative paintings from medieval India based on Ragamala
or the 'Garland of Ragas', depicting various Indian
musical modes, Ragas. They stand as a classical
example of the amalgamation of art, poetry and
classical music in medieval India.
Ragamala paintings were created in most schools of

India painting, starting in the 16th and 17th centuries
and are today named accordingly, as Pahari Ragamala,
Rajasthan or Rajput Ragamala, Deccan Ragamala, and
Mughal Ragamala.
In these painting each raga is personified by a colour,

mood, a verse describing a story of a hero and heroine
(nayaka and nayika).
Specific Hindu deities are attached with the raga like Bhairava or Bhairavi to Shiva, Sri to Devi
etc. The paintings depict not just the Ragas, but also their wives, (raginis), their numerous sons
(ragaputra) and daughters (ragaputri).
RANGOLI
Rangoli is a folk art from India. Rangoli are decorative designs made on the floors of living rooms
and courtyards during Hindu festivals. They are meant to be sacred welcoming areas for the
Hindu deities.
Rangoli is common to the whole of Indian and is known by different names in different parts of
the country –Alpana in Bengal, Aripana in Bihar, Madana in Rajasthan,
Rangoli in Gujarat and Maharashtra, Chowkpurana in Uttar Pradesh
and Kolam in South India.
SAURA PAINTINGS
This is an art form of the tribals in Rayagada and Koraput districts of

Odisha. It is done on the inside walls of the homes to mark some
auspicious occasion like birth, marriage, harvest etc. Painting is done
by simple colors like Soot and Grounded rice.
SITANVASAL PAINTING
It is near Trichy. It is site of an ancient Jain Monastry

famous for its murals that were probably produced
during 9th century during Pandyan period.
TANJORE PAINTING
The two schools of miniature paintings of south India viz. the Mysore Paintings and Tanjore
Paintings are offshoots of the earlier Vijayanagar School of Painting.
Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of
Thanjavur/Tanjore in Tamil Nadu, India. The art form dates back to about 1500-1600 AD, dating
back to Chola rulers, but the Nayakas of Tanjavur gave final shape to Tanjore paintings.
Essentially serving as devotional icons, the themes of most of

these paintings are Hindu gods and goddesses, and saints as
well. Tanjore paintings are in fact panel paintings done on solid
wood planks. Relief work gives a 3 Dimensional look to the
painting.
The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages.
 The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The
base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base.
 Then chalk powder is mixed with water-soluble adhesive and applied on the base.
 After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done
with semi-precious stones.
 On top of this, the gold foils are pasted to make the paintings last for generations.
 Finally, dyes are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings.
High-quality gold foil is used to ensure that the paintings last generations. They generally
appreciate in value and are considered collectibles.
The figures in Tanjore paintings are static. The figures are housed in the center of the board,
inside beautifully decorated arches or curtains.
MYSORE and TANJORE PAINTINGS
Mysore paintings generally depict the Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu
mythology. This style is also known for the heavy Gesso Work.
MYSORE TANJORE
Patorns were Wodeyars of Mysore Patorns were Nayakas of Tanjore
In Mysore paintings, the work is low in relief In Tanjore school, the Gesso work is little
and intricate thicker
Mysore has no gem settings and glass Tanjore Has gem settings and glass
embellishments embellishments
In Mysore, base is paper on Cloth In Tanjore it is wood Cloth with wood as base.
Both were offshoots of Vijaynagar school of painting, as painters of declining Vijaynagar school
migrated to these areas
THANKA PAINTING
The imagery of these paintings revolves around the life of Buddha

and themes pertaining to the mystic sect of Buddhism i.e. Tantric
Buddhism or Vajrayana Sect. These paintings are painted on silk or
cotton using various bright colors of different hues. These are a novel
quality work of art hand painted by trained Tibetan and Nepali artists. They are predominantly
used for wall hangings.
In India Ladakh is a region where thangka paintings are done with great elan, while it also
practiced in Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh. These paintings have a strong Tibetan influence and
have ritual connotations.
VIJAYANAGARA PAINTINGS
The Vijaynagar School was basically known for frescoes

& murals of the various mythological themes of Hindu
deities on the temple walls and ceilings, and was itself
inspired by Ajanta.
Vijayanagar art includes wall-paintings of the

Dashavatara (The Ten Avatars of Vishnu) and the
Girijakalyana (marriage of Parvati) at the Virupaksha (a
form of Shiva) Temple at Hampi.
The paintings of the Vijayanagar represent the great revival of Hindu religion and art in South
India. During the Vijayanagar era, the wall paintings made a comeback.
The best representation of these paintings can be seen in the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi.
The Vijayanagar paintings have also covered the ceiling of the great Virupaksha temple at Hampi
and the themes of them are generally religious.
As soon as the Vijaynagar Empire fell, the painters started migrating to Thanjavur, Mysore etc
and led to birth of Mysore School of painting and Tanjore School of painting.
WARLI PAINTING
Warli paintings are made by the people of Warli tribe

inhabiting in the Thane district of Modern Maharashtra.
Warli paintings are strikingly different from other forms of
Indian Paintings.
The theme of these paintings also does not move around

mythological stories or any glorification of similar kind. These
paintings are made in austere brown background with white
as only color. The only exception is red and yellow spots that are auspiciously put to decorate
the painting.
Figures are made in a geometric pattern like squares, triangles, and circles. Dots and crooked
lines are the units of these compositions. These paintings describe the day today activities of
Warlis in light swinging and swirling movements and are made on auspicious occasions. Planting
saplings, carrying grain, dancing, travelling to market and other routine activities of their daily
lives are depicted. Symbols of the sun, moon and stars along with plants, animals, insects and
birds show their belief in the integration of all forms of life.
On ritual and ceremonial occasions Warli home walls are plastered with dung. Rice paste is used
with red ochre powder to tell stories and to invoke the blessings of their goddess of fertility,
Palaghata. Warli paintings are made by village artists, usually women.
ART FORMS – DANCES

Dance, music and drama are three art forms which come under the category of ‘performing arts’. These
have been associated with both religious activities and entertainment activities by the commoner and
the nobility alike.
Dance was a part of the representation of dramatic theatre in ancient India, primarily in the Dravidian
society. According to Bharat Muni, dance was created along with Drama as pastime for gods.
Archaeological evidence unfolds the fact that the dance heritage in India is indeed thousands of years
old. Many group-dancing sequences are illustrated in delicate rock paintings of Bhimbetka Caves of
Madhya Pradesh. A dancing girl figurine was found in Mohenjodaro. Dance was traditionally a religious
activity, Shiva as Natraj doing cosmic dance is the most famous examples. Most of the Indian temples
have images and sculptures of dancing figures. All classical dances are also Vaishnavite except
Bharatnatyam. The dance form which was once restricted to temples in the form of Devadasi dance then
gradually broke the pits and barriers of the temple walls and reached the courts of the kings and nobles.
What developed then as an expression of artistic presentation of rasa and nritya was termed as Indian
classical dance. Based on the style, dash, intricacies Indian dance can be broadly classified into four types
like, Classical Indian dance, Indian Folk dance, Tribal dance and the modern Indian dance.
All Indian dance forms are structured around the rasas and mudras. There are 108 fundamental mudras.
Sage Bharata/Bharatmuni, the earliest Indian musicologist said to have lived in the 1st or 2nd century
BCE, enunciated Nav Rasa or nine moods in his Natyashastra (actually, Bharata mentioned only 8 rasas,
it was Abhinavgupta an 11th century writer who wrote Abhinavbharati – a supreme commentary on
Natyashastra – which mentions 9 rasas) –
I. Hasya — laughter
II. Bhayanak — evil
III. Rudra — chivalrous
IV. Karun — pathos
V. Vir — courage
VI. Adbhut — astonishing
VII. Vibhatsa — terrifying glory
VIII. Shaanti — peace
IX. Shringaar — aesthetics or love
These are considered as basic for all musical, dance or dramatic works in India.
Bharata has discussed dance and its various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements,
hasta mudras and the footsteps have all been brought together under three broad categories namely, as
nritta (pada sanchalan), nritya (anga sanchalan) and natya (abhinay).
Dancing is again divided into two kinds known as Tandava and Lasya. The Tandava dance is
characterized by intense excitement, the heroic mood and the touch of wrath. It also expresses cosmic
activity, the divine conquest of evil or the attainment of bliss. It is performed by both sexes. Lasya is the
dance of aesthetic delight that reveals beauty, grace, love and all tender aspects of existence. The Raas
Leela of Lord Krishna with the Gopis of Vrindavan is of the Lasya kind.
Practically every region of our country has developed its own rich tradition of folk dances. For example,
the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of
Sikkim. Similarly we also have some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttrakhand,
Kalari paittu of Kerala, Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones.
CLASSICAL DANCES
Indian classical dance is a relatively new umbrella term for various codified art forms rooted in Natya,
the sacred Hindu musical theatre styles, whose theory can be traced back to the ‘Natya Shastra’ of
Bharata Muni (200 BCE). So, classical dance has a history of more than 2000 years.
The term ‘classical’ or ‘Shastriya’ was introduced by Sangeet Natak Akademi to denote the Natya
Shastra-based performing art styles.
A very important feature of Indian classical dances is the use of the mudra or hand gestures by the
artists as a short-hand sign language to narrate a story and to demonstrate certain concepts such as
objects, weather, nature and emotion. Many classical dances include facial expressions as an integral
part of the dance form.
Despite regional variations, the basic principles of Natyashastra tradition hav been followed by all
schools of classical dances. Dance continued to be divided into Natya and Nritta on the one hand and
into Tandava and Lasya on the other.
The Indian classical dance form is said to be influenced by the Devadasi system which previled in
temples of India. Various Indian kingdoms also provide proof about brilliant temple dancers. There were
dancing halls where young female dancers were given intensive training.
Religious element always played a vital role in dancing. In ancient India, Shaivite tradition of dance
originated on the belief and worship of Lord Shiva, the lord of dance. ‘Lasya’ and ‘Tandava’ were the
very genesis of Lord Shiva’s dancing style.
Bharata discusses and analyses the fundamental units of movement. The Chari has been described by
him as the most important single unit of movement in the Nritta element. The movement with one foot
is generally termed as Chari; the movement with both feet is called Karanas.
Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical status on eight Indian dance styles. Bharatanatyam
(Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi (Odisha) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur) Kathak,
Mohiniyattam (Kerala) and Sattriya (Assam) are those defined by Akademi.
I. KATHAK
The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished
their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of
dance in the 15th and 16th centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement. Like many other
classical dances, it also revolves around Vaishnav themes. Radha-Rrishna and their Ras Leela is
one of the central themes. Contemporary form owes much to the Ras-Leela dances of Braj.
Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it
acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style. It
absorbed certain features of Persian dance and Central Asian dance which were imported during
the Mughal era.
Its main features are –
 It is secular as well as religious. Religious

themes are Vaishnavite
 It is performed with fast footwork and legs
remain straight and knees are not bent.
 Another feature is fast spins and jumps.
 Artists also make ample use of eyebrows and
bhavas.
 Kathak conceives of space only in straight
lines. There is only a front-back treatment of
space.
 Ankle bells are also an essential part of
adornment.
 Both, Indian and Persian costumes are used.
 Both the dhrupad and the khayal accompanied
the dance. The distinctions between Lasya and
Tandava and between Nritta and Abhinaya
were kept intact in Kathak.
 Its main elements include – Opening with ‘Vandana’, Thaat, Jugalbandi which is a
competitive play between dancer and tabla player.
 This dance also has considerable freedom to the dancers and as a result many Gharanas
evolved. Gharanas are integral to this dance form and this is only classical dance form to
have Gharanas. Gharanas mainly owe to their patrons and their original gurus. Lucknow,
Benras and Jaipur are three important Gharanas.
The Lucknow Gharana of Kathak dance came into existence mainly in the court of Nawab Wajid
Ali Shah the ruler of Awadh in the early 19th century and has marke Islamic influence and is
hence secular in themes. It was in this period that the Lucknow gharana of Kathak attained
maturity and perfection. This was due to the pioneering efforts of Thakur Prasad Maharaj, the
court dancer and guru of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Presently, Pandit Briju Maharaj is considered
the chief representative of this gharana and he founded Kathak Academy in Delhi. The Jaipur
Gharana developed in the courts of the Kachchwaha kings of Jaipur in Rajasthan and pioneer of
this Gharana was – Bhanuji. It has marked Vaishanvite influence. Importance is placed on the
more technical aspects of dance, such as complex and powerful footwork, multiple spins, and
complicated compositions in different talas.
II. KATHAKALI
Kathakali originated in the state of Kerala and literally means story play derived from the
Malayalam words ‘katha’ which means story and ‘kali’, which means play. Kathakali is one of the
oldest theatre forms in the world.
The art of Kathakali incorporates the characteristic

features of many of the dances and dramas of South
India. It evolved out of the earlier dance forms like the
Koodiyattom, Mudiyettu, Theyyattom, Sastrakali,
Krishnanattom and Ramanattom of Kerala.
It is believed to be a blend of five elements of fine art i.e.

Nritya, Nritta, Natya, Geeta and Vaadya.
Its major features are –
 Dance starts with continuous sound of drums.

 It is a form of dance as well as drama, in fact one
cannot make distinction between dance and
drama portions of the dance. Its many elements are taken from Koddiyattam.
 Its themes are taken from Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas etc.
 Kathakali is a male art and the dancing is masculine. Female characters are also played
by males.
 Kathakali is traditionally enacted outdoors and goes on all night.
 Kathakali is a group presentation, in which dancers take various roles in performances
traditionally based on themes from Hindu mythology, especially the two epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
 Its unique features are – elaborate costume, make up is very detailed and intricate. It
involves a painting on the face of the actors with different colours which have different
implication and are used to portray evil or good with colour variations. Green is used for
noble characters, red for evil, black also for uncivilized ones. Women and saints are
portrayed with lustrous yellowish faces.
 The technique of Kathakali includes a highly developed language of gesture, through
which the artist can convey whole sentences and stories. The body movements and
footwork are very rigorous.
 It is best suited to an open air theatre performance against green scenery of Kerala.
It is distinct from other dance forms in following respects –
 It is not a solo dance like Bharatnatayam.

 It is not a court dance like Kathak.
 It is also not lyrical like Manipuri.

 One cannot make distinction between dance and drama portions of the dance.
 Kathakali is a male art and the dancing is masculine. Men dressed in women’s costume
portray female characters.
Kathakali remained in the shadows till the great poet V Krishna Menon initiated Kerala
Kalamandalam. Kathakali thereafter has acquired worldwide recognition. Major exponents are
M V Nair, Kalamandalam Gopi and Kalamandalam Ramakutty Nair.
III. KUCHIPUDI
Kuchipudi, originally called Kuchelapuri or Kuchelapuram after a village in Krishna district is the
classical dance form from Andhra Pradesh, where it grew largely as a product of Bhakti
(devotion) movement beginning in the 7th century
AD.
It shares many common elements with

Bharatanatyam.
It is known for its graceful movements and its strong

narrative or dramatic character. Kuchipudi dance can
be best understood as located between the classical
dance styles of Odissi and Bharatnatyam.
Main features of Kuchipudi are –
 It begins by an invoking to Lord Ganesha.

 The technique of Kuchipudi is called Kanyakole and it makes use of fast rhythmic
footwork and sculpturesque body movements.
 Use of speech in the dance distinguishes it from other dance forms.
 The music used in Kuchipudi is classical Carnatic and the violin, mridangam and clarinet
are the common instruments used as an accompaniment.
 Director or Sutradhar plays an important role in this dance form. Sutradhara announces
the theme of the play and introduces the characters thereafter.
 Initially it was a prerogative of men who had tried to keep it outside the influence of
Devdasi system. The tradition has remained so unbroken that even today in some of the
coastal areas of Andhra, Kuchipudi is still performed by all-male troupes. However, in
modern times, women have dominated the art.
 Another unique feature of Kuchipudi is the Tarangam, in which the performer dances on
the edges of a brass plate, executing complicated rhythmic patterns with dexterity,
while sometimes also balancing a pot of water on the head.
Its current form largely owe to Siddhendra Yogi – a 17th century Vaishnavite poet. It remained an
obscure temple dance before it was brought into prominence by Balasaraswathi and Ragini Devi.
Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy, Swapansundari, Satya Narayan Shastri, Laxmi Narayan Shastri and
Sonal Mansingh are famous exponents.
IV. MANIPURI
It is known as the ‘youngest and oldest’ dance of India. Though its origin is ancient, its current
form is quite new and is the youngest of all classical dances. It has two traditions – Lai Haroba
and Khamba Thoibi. In the older one, couples dance to a local theme. They danced to an
abstract design which symbolized the tangled snake. No specific deity of any religion was
invoked. In the 17th Century it came under influence of Vaishnav Hinduism and its themes are
predominantly taken from Puranas and Gita Govinda.
Main features of Manipuri dance are –
 It is a pure female dance and faces of

females are generally covered with a
thin veil. And wear a long skirt.
 Manipuri was a temple dance form and
is religious in nature and depicts Hindu
deities Radha and Krishna.
 Manipuri drum – punga – is soul of this
dance. Musical instruments like pena,
khartal, bansuri and small cymbals are
also used.
 Colorful decoration, slow and lilting
music, gracious slow movements and gentle footwork make it distinctive.
 Its aim is to make rounded movements – attempt to connect body through curves with
a pose in the shape of 8 – thereby avoiding jerks, sharp edges and straight lines. This
movement gives this dance a soft appearance.
 It doesn’t pay much attention on facial movements, but pay emphasis on hands and
knee position.
 Spreading of legs is not possible in this dance form, but the foot movements plays a very
important role in this dance. The dancer puts his or her feet down with the front part
touching the ground first. The ankle and knee joints are also used.
It was Raja Bhag Chandra of Manipur who revived it in 18th century and later on Rabindranath
Tagore also promoted this form by introducing it in Shantiniketan. The Jhaveri sisters – Nayana,
Suverna, Darshana and Ranjana Jhaveri are well known Manipuri dancers.
V. MOHINIATTAM
Mohiniyattam is a traditional South Indian dance from Kerala, developed by the Tamil
nattuvanar (dance master) Vadivelu. Mohiniattam though born out of the fusion of Kathakali
and Bharatnatyam, has developed its own identity. In the word Mohiniattam, ‘Mohini’ means a
maiden who charms the onlooker and ‘attam’ means dance. The name Mohiniyattam may have
been coined after Lord Vishnu, who took the role of enchantress mohini to entice a devil
Bhasmashur.
 Theme of the dance is love and devotion

to God, with usually Vishnu or Krishna
being the hero.
 It is considered a very graceful dance
meant to be performed as a solo recital
by women. The dance was developed
from the Devadasi system in Kerala
temples.
 It is a solo dance form unlike Kathakali.
 It mainly focuses upon feminine moods
and hence Lasya element dominates.
 It takes elements from Bharatnatyama
and Kathakali – grace from Bharatnatyam and vigour from Kathakali.
 The distinctive style of Mohiniattam is the complete absence of heavy stamping and
rhythmical tension, where the footwork is gentle, soft and sliding which resembles the
soft waving of palm leaves on Kerala beaches.
 There are approximately 40 basic movements which are used in this dance which are
collectively known as ‘atavakul’.
 One of the distinctive features of Mohiniattam is the simplicity of the costumes. There is
a typical costume for Mohiniattam, which is a mixture of white and gold.
The practical aspect of the style was revived in the 19th century by Swathi Thirunal, the
enlightened ruler of Travancore, in Southern Kerala who promoted its study. He composed
many of the musical arrangements and vocal accompaniments, which are hymns in praise of
Lord Vishnu, and provide the musical backdrop for the Mohiniattam dancers’ performance.
Jayaprabha Menon, Hema Malini, Sunnda Nair, Kalamandalam Sugandhi etc are some of famous
exponents of this dance form.
VI. ODISSI
Odissi has been revived in the past fifty years and can be considered as the oldest classical
Indian dance on the basis of archival evidence and reliefs of Udaigiri caves of 1st century BCE
near Bhubneshwara. It is referred as Odra Magadhi in Natya Shastra.
Odissi has a close association with the temples and its striking feature is its intimate relationship
with temple sculpture. The essence of Odissi dance lies in its sculpturesque quality. Its beautiful
poses resemble the sculptures of the famous temples, which once nourished this art.
Currently, three sub-genre of Odissi are there – Mahari, Gotipura and Nartaki belonging to
devadasi, males and royal courts respectively.
Main features of Odissi are –
 It has a vast range of sculptural body movements which gives one the illusion of the
sculptures coming to life. Various poses called – bhanga – are struck during dance which
gives a look like a sculpture. Bhanga, Abhanga, Tribhanga and Atibhanga are some of
such poses.
 It is also a Vaishnavite dance and the Odissi
dancer personifies the lord Jagganath
philosophy. Apart from depicting the lord,
the dance includes verses from Gita
Govinda. It is a temple dance. Major theme
is the love and separation of Radha and
Lord Krishna. The Devadasis were
responsible for the popularity of this dance.
 It has 4-5 elements which include –
Mangalcharan and Bhoomi pooja at the
beginning and Moksha at the end.
 It has similar foot movements as
Bharatnatyam.
 Hip deflection is the characteristic feature of this dance.
 This dance form lays emphasis on sensitive facial expression. It has vigorous movements
that make the dancer emotional, tired and exhausted.
 Odissi dance uses silver jewellery. The dancer wears a choker, a longer necklace,
armlets, bracelets, a belt, anklets etc. She wears on her ankles bells strung together on a
single cord.
 An Odissi dancer has elaborate hair-do in a knot adorned with the ‘Tahiya’ which
represents a temple tower.
 Odissi music is a unique blend of North and South Indian classical music but has its own
distinct qualities.
Some of the famous Odissi dancers areMadhavi Mudgal, Rekha Tandon, Sreyashi Dey,
Kelucharan Mahapatra, Sanjukta Panigrahi etc.
VII. BHARATNATYAM
It is a classical dance form from the state of Tamil Nadu, nowadays practiced predominantly by
girls. Bharatnatyam originated in Tamil Nadu which is also referred to as artistic yoga and Natya
yoga. The name Bharatnatyam is derived from the word ‘Bharata’ and, thus, associated with
Natyashastra. It s also said that it comes from the words Bhava (expression), Raga (Music), Tala
(rhythm) and Natya (classic Indian musical theatre).
It was nurtured in the temples and courts of southern India since ancient times. The art was
handed down as a living tradition from generation to generation under the Devadasi system
under which women were dedicated to temples to serve the deity as dancers and musicians
forming part of the elaborate rituals. Its inspirations come from the sculptures of the ancient
temple of Chidambaram and Tanjore.
It is evident from chronicles that the Chola and the Pallava kings were great patrons of the arts.
Rajaraja Chola maintained dancers in the temples in his kingdom.
 Bharatnatyam is a solo dance performed primarily by females.

 It is a devotional dance and it is the only classical dance which is primarily Shaivite, the
rest are Vaishnavite. Shiva as lord Natraja is
the prime inspiration behind this dance and it
draws heavily from Chola temples of Tanjore.
 Its prime focus is on abhinay part.
 Bharatnatyam usually begins with a
composition called ‘Alarippu’ and is
concluded with ‘Tilhana’ and ‘Shloka’.
 Bhartanatyam is considered to be a ‘fire
dance’. The movement of a Bharatnatyam
dancer resembles that of the movements of a
dancing flame.
 It is always performed with knees of the
dancer bent and the artists visualize that
their body is made up of triangles.
 The chief musical instruments used in
Bharatnatyam are the Mridanga and a pair of Cymbals. The cymbals provide the timing
and the Mridangam provides fractional measures of the broad beats. The dancer follows
both. A tambura is also used to provide the scale for the refrain.
E Krishna Iyer was the one who raised the status of Bhartanatyam and popularized it. The
current form is developed by Poniah Pillai of Tanjore. Rukmini Devi Arundale was influential in
reviving it and bringing it to the attention of the West as well and established Kalakshetra in
Chennai. Mrinalni Sarabhai, T Balasraswati, Mallika Sarabhai, Padma Subhramaniam, Geeta
Chandran etc are some of the noted dancers.
BHARATNATYAM KUCHIPUDI
Ancient in origin Relatively Young
Shaivite theme Vaishnavite theme
Tamil Nadu Andhra
Primarily a women’s dance Performed by both
Panchtatva – Fire element Panchtatva – Earth Element
Precise and Rhythmic Steps Rounded Steps
Lot of focus to the ‘aramandi’ (half–sit in Dancers don’t sit low on ground
ground) and trianglulr shapes
Speech not used Use of speech as distinguishing element
VIII. SATTRIYA
Sattriya is one among eight principal classical Indian dance traditions and have origins in Assam.
Its origin lies in five hundred years old theatre tradition nourished in the Vaishnava Monasteries
of Assam called sattras. Its current form is attributed to Assamese Vaishnav saint Srimanta
Sankardeva, in 15th century Assam. Sankardeva created Sattriya Nritya as an accompaniment to

the Ankiya Naat (a form of Assamese one-act plays devised by him), which were usually
performed in the sattras. It has been extracted from a massive organisation of theatrical
activities which constitutes the Ankiya Bhaona form.
 The core of Sattriya Nritya has

usually been mythological
Vaishnava stories.
 Sattriya Nritya is performed
with musical composition called
borgeets (composed by
Sankardeva among others)
which are usually based on
classical ragas.
 For traditional performance, the instruments that are used are khole (drums), taals
(cymbals) and the flute.
 It has also included many elements of the local dance traditions like – Bihu etc.
 Conventionally, this dance form was performed only by male monks (also known as
Bhokots) in monasteries as part of their daily rituals or to mark special festivals.
 In the modern days, Sattriya is performed on stage by women and men, who are not
members of sattras, on themes not merely mythological.
Some of the major proponents of this dance are – P P Bohra, Maniram Dutta etc.
FOLK DANCES
ARAIYAR SEVAI DANCE, TAMIL NADU
 Aaiyar Sevai are Vaishnavite temple servants.
 The performers of this dance form Tamil Nadu use ‘Divya Prabandha’ or religious hymns
composed by Alvar saints and hence this is a Vaishnavite dance.
 The Araiyars (some Tamil Vaishnaites) claim themselves to be the descendents of Nathamuni,
the first preceptor (acharya) of Sri Vaishnavism.
 This is a hereditary institution where the training is given from father to son and it is usually the
eldest son who is trained specially. One needs to undergo a rigorous training for twelve to
eighteen years.
BHAVAI/BHAWAI DANCE, GUJRAT AND RAJASTHAN
 Bhavai is staged open-air in front of temples as a community ritual honouring the goddess
Amba.
 The Bhavai Dance is believed to be dance of emotions.
 The Bhavai drama is a continuous performance lasting the whole night and staged in open
grounds before the audiences, as a source of entertainment.
 The male and female performers balance a number of earthen pots while dancing.
 Before the actors begin, they gather near a large earthen lamp and a drawing of a trishula or
trident symbolizing the goddess. They sing garbi i.e. religious songs in her praise, and invoke
blessings for the success of the performance.
 Navratri festival is celebrated with Bhavai performances.
BHOOTHA ARADHANE or BHUTA KOLA, KARNATAKA
 Bhootha Aradhane or Bhuta Kola is a ritualistic folk dance in Karnataka. It has originated from
the coastal parts of Karnataka and Kerala as a way of Tulu (a local language and area) worship.
 This form of dance is rarely seen. Bhootha means ghost. The references to these creatures’
dates back to myths. In mythology Lord Shiva’s attendants are referred to as Bhuta Ganas.
 The main idea behind this folk dance is to appease the devil and protect the environment.
 A procession with idols of ‘bhoothas’ is taken out.
 Drums and firecrackers accompany the procession.
 At the end of the procession the idol is kept on a pedestal and the dancer begins his
performance. He dances with swords and bells whirling round like a bhootha. He acts as if he is
possessed and pretends like a prophet.
BIDESIA, BIHAR
 Bidesia dance is a popular form of dance drama from Bihar

 Originated in the 20th century folk theatre and is prevalent in the Bhojpuri-speaking region of
Bihar
 Bhikhari Thakur is the creator of this dance form.
 Bidesia is actually a type of play which deals with the contradictory topics like tradition and
modernity, the urban and the rural and the rich and the poor.
 Biraha songs – depicting pain of women left behind – are also part of this
 Males play the role of females in Bidesia dance
BIHU, ASSAM
 It denotes a set of three different cultural festivals of Assam and celebrated by the Assamese
diaspora around the world. Bihu is also used to imply Bihu dance and Bihu folk songsThe word
Bihu is derived from the language of the local Dimasa people who have been agrarian since time
immemorial.
BUIYA and NUIYA, ARUNACHAL PRADESH
 Digaru Mishmis perform two types of dances, named as Buiya and Nuiya.
 The Buiya dance of Arunachal Pradesh has two types of movements and it is performed for
entertainment
 Nuiya is a ritual-dance performed by a priest. This dance is also performed after a feast that is
arranged by a family to entertain the fellow villagers.
 Buiya is performed with objective of keeping health and prosperity of the dancers and their
households.
 Both men and women perform the dance, in the passage that runs along, one side of the house
from the front to the rear.
CHAITI GHODA NATA, ODISHA
 Chaiti Ghoda Nata is a simple form prevalent among the fishermen of coastal Odisha.
 This function held for a whole month beginning from the full moon in Chaitra i.e. from March to
April to the full moon in Baisakh i.e. from April to May.
 It is said that Lord Rama had presented a horse to the boatman who had helped Him to cross
the river Saraju during the period of his Vanavas. Hence they worship horse.
 The dance is deeply ingrained in the Shakti cult. An integral portion of this dance drama is
enacted by the character of a horse. Therefore it is called Ghoda Dance.
 According to another myth, the time is during celebrations of the annual festival of Baseli/Vasuli
worship which is a horse-headed deity, the dummy-horse dance becomes a necessary part of
invoking her.
CHARI DANCE, RAJASTHAN
 It is a dance form of the villagers and executes the happiness of them when they go to search
water and find it.
 The women go many miles just to collect water to fulfill their daily needs. While going they
express their joy through the Chari dance.
 Dancers while balancing brass pots on their heads perform various steps & dance to gain perfect
patterns of movements with their hands.
CHARKULA DANCE, UTTAR PRADESH
 This is the most spectacular dance performance, which is widely performed in the Braj region of
Uttar Pradesh, by the Brahman Community of the villages in Mathura district.
 This dance form symbolises the birth of Radha.
 Usually performed 3 days after Holi when Radha was born
 Charkula is a circular pyramid with many lamps on it hich dancers keep on their heads
CHAWALIA DANCE, UTTARAKHAND
 Chawliya Dance is a form of folk dance of the performed by the males and the females of the
Tehri-Garhwal region.
 It is a sort of ‘sword’ dance which is danced with the accompaniment of the ‘Dholak’, ‘Kansi’ and
flutes.
 The male dancers brandish their swords and dance with light steps. With time the rhythm of
their movement becomes faster and they whirl around speedily. The womenfolk also dance with
quick footsteps.
 The dance form portrays the idea of defending the women and property from outsiders.
CHERAW DANCE or BAMBOO DANCE, MANIPUR, MIZORAM
 Cheraw or Bamboo dance is a tribal dance performed by the Lushais, a primitive community
found in Manipur.
 This dance form is exclusively performed by
girls, who are dressed in traditional costumes.
 A combination of horizontal and vertical
stripes adorns their skirt.
 Performers dance on the parallel sticks of
bamboos held by their companions.
 Two bases support the bamboos that are
placed horizontally, one at each end.
 The movements created while clapping them produce a sharp sound, which actually forms the
rhythm of the dance. It also indicates the timing for the dancing steps as well.
CHCHAU DANCE, BENGAL & ODISHA
 During the 18th and 19th centuries, many of the princely rulers of Odisha region took a keen
interest in the development of this art. Chhau,
essentially a dish of Purulia of West Bengal and
Odisha, is a juxtaposition of dance and martial arts
which is performed to celebrate the oncoming of
spring.
 It originated as a martial art and contains vigourous
movements and leaps are generally performed at
spring festivals to honour Shiva and Parvati deities.
 It depicts, among other themes, fight between good
and evil inspired from epics like Mahabharata.
 Some Chhau dances use large stylized masks. The depiction of birds and animals is a distinctive
feature.
CHHOLIA DANCE, UTTARAKHAND
 It is an ancient rajput traditional dance

 It belongs to Kumaun region
 Performed as a part of marriage procession
 Dancers flash swords and shields gving impression of a warrior group ready to attack
DAHI KALA or DAHI HANDI, MADHYA PRADESH
 The ‘Dahi Handi’ (curd pot) or the ‘Dahi Kala’ is a much celebrated dance of Madhya Pradesh
celebrated in memory of Lord Krishna’s famous prank of stealing curd along with his group of
friends.
 This dance festival is observed on the following day of Gokulashtami.
 On this auspicious day every individual house in the village hangs a pitcher full of curd on the
outside wall of their houses which is broken by boys of village and consumed.
DAMALI, KASHMIR
 It is a vigourous temple dance

 Performed by the men only
DANDARIA DANCE, ANDHRA
 The Gonds from the hilly region of northern Hyderabad district in Andhra Pradesh perform a
stick dance, known as the Dandaria dance.
 In this dance, a group of male dancers, dressed in colourful special costumes, visit the nearby
villages as a part of course of dance, where they are heartily welcomed by the host party. Then
both these parties dance together in anti-clockwise direction, along with drums, trumpets and
striking of sticks in their hands.
DANDIYA DANCE, GUJRAT
 The most popular Dandiya dance is also known as the ‘stick’ dance. This dance form is always
performed in a group in a circular movement to a measure steps.
 The sticks used in this form are believed to be the sword of Goddess Durga.
 It is different from Garba, in which sticks are not used. Further, movements in Dandiya are more
complex.
DASKATHIA, ODISHA
 The word ‘Dasa’ means a devotee & ‘Katha’ refers to wooden pieces arranged in tune for the
prayer of the devotee.
 It is performed by 2 members – one singer and other accompanist
 Perormers perform with a pair of sticks
 Mythologial stories are also recited at top of voice
DHAMAL, HARYANA
 The Dhamal dance is famous in the Gurgaon area, which is inhabited by Ahirs.
 This dance is performed only by men.
 It is said that the people perform this dance whenever their crop is ready for the purpose of the
harvest.
 Men perform this dance outdoors only on moonlit nights of Phalgun month.
 They sing and dance with the sound of the Dhamal beats.
DHEPA DHULIA DANCE, ODISHA
 Dhepadhol is a cylindrical shaped drum of 1.5 meter

in length and it has a tapered left end.
 Another unique feature of Dhepa Dhuliya dance of
Odisha are the vibrant & colourful shirts of the men
& the prominence of red, green and blue colours in
the gowns of women.
FUGDI & DHALO, GOA
 These are the folk dances performed by women.
 This is regarded as the most common folk dance forms of Goa.

 These dances are performed in many Hindu religious festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi, Dhalo and
in other social and religious occasions.
 The women sing and dance while enacting varied formations.
 Fugdi has two major variations; it is danced in a circle or by rows of dancers. Broadly, villages
have a dance in a circle but forest settlements have it in rows.
 The dancers blow air through the mouth at maximum pace. This sounds as ‘FOO’ hence the
name Foogdi or Fugdi is kept.
GARBA DANCE, GUJRAT
 The Garba dance of Gujrat is famous in all parts of India.

 This dance is performed by the womenfolk of Gujarat.
 This dance form has connection with Shakti-Puja and its origin is believed to be in the worship of
goddess Jagdamba.
 Garba is actually an earthen pot with holes in which lamp is lit and around which women dance.
 At the time of Navaratri this dance is performed throughout nine nights. This dance is
performed also in the occasions such as Sharad Purnima, Vasant Panchami and Holi.
GARBI, GUJRAT
 It is similar to Garba
 Performed by menfolk
GAUDIYA NRITYA, WEST BENGAL
 Gaudiya Nritya is a Bengali school of Indian classical dance.

 Originating in Gaur, West Bengal, the ancient capital of the region, it is an all-pervasive form
which eventually gave rise to present-day Odissi, Manipuri and Kuchipudi and contributed to the
development of many classical dance forms.
 Like all classical dances this also traces its roots to Natya Shastra of Bharat Muni but is not
conferred Classical Dance Status.
GAUR MARIA DANCE, CHATTISGARH
 Gaur Maria dance of Madhya Pradesh the spectacular dance performance symbolizes the
hunting spirit of the tribe, since the word ‘Gaur’ means a ferocious bison.
 The announcement or invitation for a dance is given by making sound with a bamboo trumpet
or a horn.
 The Marias imitates a number of bison movements in the dance performance; most of them
perform like frisky bulls, hurling wisps of grass into air, charging and tossing horns.
GHODE MODNI DANCE, GOA
Ghode Modni dance literally involves horse-like movements in its performances.

It is a spectacular warrior-dance performed for the remembrance of the victory of the Ranes,
the Maratha rulers of the Satari taluka in Goa, over the Portuguese.
GHOOMAR DANCE, HARYANA and RAJASTHAN
 A dance called Ghoomar is popular in the western parts of the Haryana.

 Circular movements of the dancers mark this dance as different one. The girls from the border
region of the state generally perform Ghoomar.
 The dancers, who take a circular mode and move about clapping and singing, perform this
dance.
 The girls sing while they dance in a swirling movement and as the tempo of the music increases
the girls form pairs and swirl faster and faster. This dance is performed on occasion of festivals
such as Holi, Gangaur Puja and Teej.
GOFF/GOPH DANCE, GOA, GUJRAT
 Generally, Goff dance is performed during the Shigmo
festival in Phalgun month.
 Each dancer holds a colourful cord that is hanging at a
center point of the place of dance performance.
 The dancers start dancing intricately forming a beautiful,
colourful, intricate braid at the end of the first
movement and in second step they unfold the braid.
 The songs that are sung during the dance performance
are mostly devoted to Lord Krishna.
HIKIT, KASHMIR
 It is a dance of maidens
JAT-JATIN, BIHAR
 Jat-Jatin is the most popular folk dance of North Bihar, namely in Mithila and Koshi region
 It is performed as a couple dance
 It celebrates rainy season
 This dance presents many socially concerned topics like poverty, love, sorrow, arguments etc.
 The original theme of this dance originated from the love story of Jat and Jatin.
JHUMUR, HARYANA
 The dance named after an ornament called as ‘Jhumar’ worn by young married women and
hence performed only by women.
 Jhumur quintessentially vibrant with eastern flavor is performed by young girls depicting love
lore who adorn their ankles with bells which make a tinny noise.
 Dressed in colourful costumes, the ladies dance in happiness by singing and clapping with the
beats of ‘dholak’ and ‘thali’.
 At the same time, they are gracefully moving in a circle. This dances somewhat similar to the
well-known Punjabi Giddha and is thus named Haryanvi Giddha.
KACHHI GHODI DANCE, RAJASTHAN
 It is believed that the Kachhi Ghodi dance is originated from the bandit regions of Shekhawati.
 Generally, the dance is performed for the entertainment of the bridegroom’s party.
 Dancers are ready with elaborate costumes that resemble them as if they are riding on a dummy
horse.
 It is a vigorous type of dance. It also uses mock fights and the brandishing of swords, nimble
sidestepping and pirouetting to the music of drums.
 During the performance, a ballad singer sings & exploits of the bandit Robin Hoods of Rajasthan.
KADUVA KALI, KERALA
 This dance is also known as Pulikali. Dancers get ready dressed up as tigers along with
appropriate costumes and make-up.
 They dance vigorously along with the loud beating of instruments like Udukku, Thakal.
KAJARI DANCE, BIHAR, UTTAR PRADESH
 Kajri dances are performed in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar just before the advent of the monsoons.
 These dances are performed with the accompaniment of the charming ‘Jhula’ lyrics or swing
songs.
 Themes are of love and joy.
KALBELIYA DANCE, RAJASTHAN
 The Kalbeliyas, is a snake-charmer community from

Rajasthan, which performs the Kalbeliya dance.
 They rely heavily on this dance performance for
their living. Sensuous movements of serpants are
depicted in this dance. Traditional instruments like
– been, pungi, dholak etc are used in this.
 It is included in UNESCO cultural heritage as well.
KARAYILA, HIMACHAL
 The most interesting and equally popular folk drama of Himachal Pradesh is Karayila.
 This drama includes an entertaining series of small playlets, skits, variety shows and parodies.
 This form of shows present sharp and pungent satires about the bureaucracy and social issues
very boldly.
KHAMBA THAIBI, MANIPUR
 It is either performed independently or as a part of Lai Haoraoba.

 It is a duet dance
 It depicts how a poor lad from Khamba tribe fell in love with princess Thaibi
KHAMPTIS DANCE, ARUNACHAL PRADESH
 Khamptis are Buddhists; hence many of their dance-dramas unfold some stories or depict
mythical events bearing ethical lessons.
 These activities are generally performed during the religious festivals
KHAYAL DANCE, RAJASTHAN
 Khayal Dance has acquired a prominent place in Rajasthan.

 The themes for the dance are derived from the great Hindu epics i.e. the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata.
 These dances are performed by the Bhawai caste.
 They enact these dance-dramas and have numerous ballets; some of which are humorous and
depict the comic characters of ‘baniyas’, barbers and moneylenders with bitterest satires.
 Women do not participate in Bhawai dances.
 Among the various items the following have been in vogue like the ‘Bohara-Bohari’, ‘Surdas’,
‘Lodi-Badi’, ‘Dokari’, ‘Shankari’, ‘Bikaji’, etc.
KHORIA DANCE, HARYANA
 The Khoria dance of Haryana is also performed on occasion of marriage.

 This is usually performed during the long wait for the bridegroom to bring his new bride home.
 During this theme of dance, the women mime the entire wedding ceremony, in the
performance.
 By this dance, the women also pray for the safe return of the marriage family along with the
newly wedded couple.
 The women stay awake the entire night for the dance for protecting their houses, as the men
folk are all away to the bride’s house.
KODDIYATAM, KERALA
 Koodiyattam or Kutiyattam is a form of Sanskrit

theatre traditionally performed in the state of
Kerala, India. Performed in the Sanskrit language in
Hindu temples, it is believed to be 2,000 years old.
 It is the only surviving specimen of the ancient
Sanskrit theatre.
KOLI, MAHARASHTRA, GOA
 Koli Folk Dance is a folk dance of Maharashtra

which got its name from fisher folk of the state called ‘Kolis’.
 Koli is performed in this state by women and men, who divide themselves in two groups. They
depict the boat rowing movement in the Koli dance.
 The Koli dancers also present the wave movements and the net casting movement as if catching
fish.
KOLLATTAM, TAMIL NADU
 Kol means a small stick, and Attam means play, hence, a play or dance performed with sticks can
be its simplest meaning.
 A festival connected with Kolaattam has both a cultural and a religious significance.
 Only women perform this dance.
KUDAKOOTHHU or KARAGAM, TAMLNADU
 In this dance the dancer has to balance a pot of water on the head.
 Villagers used to perform this dance in order to please the Goddess of Rain and the Goddess of
River, known as Mari Amman and Gangai Amman respectively. It originated in Thanjavur.
LAI HAROBA, MANIPUR
 The Lai Haroba is a folk dance of Manipur that depicts the creator and is also considered the
precursor of Manipuri.
 This traditional dance is performed to appease the gods. Since its inception they were
performed in the temples.
 This is usually performed by the girls who are lead by the ‘Maibis’ the priests.
 Hand gestures are key, faces remain blank.
 Before the advent of the Vaishnavism among the Manipuris, the Lai Haroba had a prominent
place among them. It was an important custom to perform the dance during the worship of
their guardian deities.
 The Lai Haroba dance technique was later manifested into the Khamba and Thoibi dance
pattern.
LAVNI, MAHARASHTRA
 The word ‘Lavani’ originated from ‘Lavanya’, which means beauty.

 Previously, this folk dance dealt with various subjects like religion, politics, society, romance,
etc.
 Lavani dance served as a morale booster and entertainment to the exhausted soldiers in the
eighteenth and the nineteenth century battle of the Marathas. This is performed by women
only.
LOOR, HARYANA
 Girls perform the Loor dance, during the month of ‘Phalguna’ (pring).
 This dance is named so because the word ‘Loor’, which means girls in the Bangar area of
Haryana.
 It is specially performed during the Holi festival. This dance marks the arrival of pleasant spring
season and with it the sowing of the Rabi crops in the farms.
 The songs are generally in the form of questions and answers format.
 Generally, most actors in Maanch are from artisan classes like Goldsmiths, Tailors, Carpenters,
Gardeners, and Coppersmiths
 Only men can participate
MAIBI DANCE, MANIPUR
 The Maibis are the priestesses considered as spiritual mediums by the local people.
 They summon the spirits of the Gods in an earthen pot and later tie nine and seven threads for
God and Goddesses, after which the dance begins.
 The beginning of the dance, describes the entire process of the creation of the construction of
houses, temples and the various occupations of the people adopted to sustain them with time.
In short, it is a kind of re-living of the way of life lived the past.
MARUNI, SIKKIM
 This Nepali dance is mainly associated with the ‘Tihar - Festival of Light’.
 But because of its popularity it is performed even on occasions like marriages.
 Tihar is celebrated to mark the return of the Hindu god Rama from exile.
 During this festival Maruni dancers richly dressed in colourful costumes and resplendent with
ornaments. They also use nose rings called ‘dungris’ and with all these they used to go on a
house to house visit.
 The dancers are usually also accompanied by a clown called ‘Dhatu waray’.
MAYIL ATTAM, TAMIL NADU
 Mayilattam is a traditional south Indian dance that is performed by female dancers.

 The performer wears costumes from head to toe that resembles that of a peacock with beak,
that can be opened and closed using a thread and performs specific dances.
 The performer dances on a tall piece of wood that is attached at the end of his feet.
 Mayilattam requires extensive training and practise.
 While performing the performers are dressed up as Lord Subramanyam travelling on a peacock.
NAGMANDALA, KARNATAKA
 Nagamandala is a form of snake worship that is predominant in the coastal districts of Dakshina
Kannada and Udupi.
 Nagamandala portrays the divine unification of male and female snakes.
 This is a long ritual where the performers are resplendently dressed. Traditionally it takes two
people to perform this act one acting as male snake and other acting as female snake.
 The ritual takes place at night and ends at dawn.
 Today Nagamandala is a more popular as an art form than a ritual.
PAIKA DANCE, BIHAR
 The Paika Dance is a famous dance in Bihar

 The basic objective of the dance performance was the development of physical excitement and
courageous activities of the dancing warriors
 This dance is performed with shield and sword
 Popular in Mayurbhanj region
PONUNG, ARUNACHAL PRADESH
 This dance is a folk dance of the Adis or Adi tribe, performed during the festival that is
celebrated before the harvesting.
 The purpose of this festival is seeking a good harvest and welfare of the village community.
 Ponung is an exclusive women dance, which, is performed by the young married women and
girls.
 The dance performance is led by a Miri, who is a man adept in mythical songs about the origin of
paddy and other crops.
 Miri stands in center holding and swaying a sword like musical instrument.
RAUT NACHA, CHATTISGARH
 Raut Nacha is a dance form performed by Raut/Yadava.

 Exclusive dance form of the cowherd community showcases the enactment of the legendary
combat in which the king Kansa was defeated by the Yadav clan led by Lord Krishna.
 This dance performed after Diwali is a week long affair that indulges in the celebration of the
bygone legendary victory.
SAANG DANCE/DRAMA, HARYANA
 Saang dance is a popular dance form of Haryana, reflecting its culture in true sense.
 A group comprising of people in even numbers such as ten or twelve persons performs it.
 The dance mainly reflects religious stories and folk tales that are performed in open places and
it lasts for 5 hours.
 Some of the male participants dress up as women to perform the part of the female in the
dance. The meaning of ‘Saang’ or ‘Swang’ is disguise or ‘to impersonate’.
 It is believed that this dance form first originated and then evolved in its present form by Kishan
Lal Bhaat in 1750 AD.
TEEYAN, PUNJAB
 Teeyan festival in Punjab is celebrated in the month of Shravan during the rainy season.
 The dance usually takes place, when the women gather along the bank of any river or pond
under big shady trees.
 Swings are thrown over the branches, where the singing, swinging and dancing of the women
folk starts.
 On this day, when the married daughters come to their parent’s house their brothers fix the
swings for them.
 As they swing they share their anxieties with each other reflecting through lyrics of songs.
Dressed in their best and wearing ornaments, girls gather during these festivals like the fairies.
ART FORMS – THEATRE/DRAMA

The earliest form of the theatre of India was the Sanskrit theatre. As a diverse, multi-cultural nation, the
theatre of India cannot be reduced to a single, homogenous trend. Indian drama usually has a happy
ending unlike Western drama and hence, role of Vidushka or jester is important.
Bhasa was one of the earliest dramatists. Other early exponents of theatre in India included Bharat
Muni, Bhasa, Kalidas, Bhavabhuti, Vishakhadutta, Shudrak etc.The major source of evidence for Sanskrit
theatre is Natyasastra of Bharata Muni.While referring to drama, Bharata has mentioned nat (male
artists), and nati (female artist),music, dance, musical instruments, dialogues, themes and stage. Thus,
we find that dramaachieved a great level of perfection during the age of Bharata. For Bharata, drama is
aperfect means of communication. He also started the concept of an enclosed area fordrama. There is
mention of a community called‘shailoosh’ which had professional dramacompanies. As Sanskrit was the
language that dominated in ancient period, early works of drama were in Sanskrit.
During the age of the Buddha and Mahavira, drama was a means of communicating theprinciples of
their respective religions. Short skits and long plays were enacted to preachand educate the masses.
Major doyens of classical drama are –
I. Asvaghosha is believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist (and first Buddhist dramatist as
well), and is considered the greatest Indian poet prior to Kalidasa. He lived during reign of
Kanishka. He took a leading part in the Fourth Buddhist Council at Srinagar which was presided
by Vasumitra. Ashvaghosha was a renowned Mahayana Sanskrit scholar and wrote an epic life of
the Buddha called Budhhacharita. He also wrote the Saundaranandakavya, a poem with the
theme of conversion of Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation. The first
half of the work describes Nanda’s life, and the second half of the work describes Buddhist
doctrines and ascetic practices.
II. Shudraka, a Gupta period Sanskrit scholar,in 200 CEwrote Mrichkatika that deals with the love
affair of a Charudatta, a poor Brahmin who is the protagonist. The hero Charudatta, is a noble
but impoverished Brahmin and heroine is Nagaravadhu Vasantsena. The villain is a courtier
called Samsthanka, who uses all his tricks but unable to get Vasantsena. He finally tries to kill
her, but she escapes and is saved by a Buddhist monk. Charudatta is prosecuted for the murder
because the Vasantsena had put her jewellery in the clay cart of his little son, who was playing
with it. He is convicted by the foolish king Palaka and his execution is ordered. But before he is
executed, Vasantsena appears all of a sudden and tells the reality about the misdeeds of
Samsthanka. At the same time, the King Palaka is removed from the throne by a Prince in coupe
de etat andSamanthaka is arrested and put in jail. Thereafter, she becomes second wife of
Charudatta and live happily ever after. Other works of Shudraka include – Vinavasavadatta,
Padmaprabhritaka etc.
III. Bhasa is one of the earliest and most celebrated Indian playwrights in Sanskrit of Gupta period
probably from 100 CE and he wrote 13 plays. He wrote many plays on Mahabharata and
Ramayana. The most respected of Bhasa's plays is Svapnavasavadatta or ‘The Vision of
Vasavadatta’ which tells of King Udayana, a ruler who is pressured by his minister of state to
marry the daughter of a powerful ruler in order to strengthen his reign and protect his kingdom.
The King, however, is too devoted to his wife to consider such a marriage. But the Queen
Vasavdatta, ready to sacrifice herself to save the kingdom, stages her death in a palace fire, then
secretly returns to wait upon the new queen and be near her husband. Other works of Bhasa
include – Panch-ratra, Madhyama-vyayoga, Urubhanga, Karna-bhara and BalCharita.
Urubhanga is based on the Mahabharata, and it focuses on the story of the character
Duryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima. Duryodhana isn't exempted from his original
evil deeds, but he is shown as a character with heroic qualities in this drama. While tragedy is
rare among Sanskrit dramas, Bhasa’s presentation of Duryodhana’s side of the tale adds certain
tragic elements to the play.
IV. Kalidasa belonged to the 4th century CE during Chandragupta Vikramaditya rule and is arguably
considered to be ancient India's greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays
written by Kalidasa are the Malvikagnimitram (Malvika and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya
(pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijanshakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala).
Meghaduta, Ritusambara, Kumar Sambhavam and Raghuvamsha are his poems.
Malavikagnimitram is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero. Malvika is a maid
servant whom Agnimitra falls in love. This was known to his chief queen, who imprisons her.
Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal birth and she was accepted as queen of
Agnimitra. Malavikagnimitram gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of
Agnimitra. The play is also known to provide information about Andhra. Abhijanshakuntalam is
a Sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala,
daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka. Raghuvamsa is a Sanskrit epic poem
that is a narration of genealogy of Lord Rama's Raghu Vamsa beginning with King Dileep up to
Agnivarna. Kumarasambhava is an epic poem birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati after a
lot of Tapasya to win Shiva who had already won Kamdeva (God of Love). Kartikeya later killed
Tarakasur demon who was blessed that he would not be killed by any other than son os Shiva
and Parvati. Ritusamhara is a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which refers to 6 Indian seaosns and
mentions the feelings, emotions and experiences of lovers in 6 seasons. Ritusamhara is
considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa. Meghaduta which means a messenger of clouds
is a poem. The theme of Meghaduta is a Yaksha, who is subject of Lord Kubera (King of Wealth).
His wife is waiting for him at Mount Kalidasa. Kubera at some place in central India exiled the
Yaksha and he wishes to send his message to his wife. For that, he convinces a cloud to take his
message and pass it on to his wife. The poem narrates about the beautiful sights and visual
perceptions he would come across while going northwards to take this message to his wife.
V. Bhavabhuti (7th century CE) is believed to have been the court poet of King Yashovarman of
Kannauj. His plays are considered equivalent to the works of Kalidasa. He is said to have written
the following three plays – Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita.The last
two are based on Ramayana.
VI. Harsha the 7th century Indian emperor is credited with having written three plays – the comedy
Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda. Literally meaning – Joy of
Serpants, Nagananda is one of the best Sanskrit dramas written by Harsha dealing with the
popular story of Jimutavahana's self-sacrifice to save the Nagas. Nagananda is the story of how
prince Jimutavahana gives up his own body to stop a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda.
Ratnavali is a Sanskrit drama about a beautiful princess named Ratnavali, and a great king
named Udayana. It is a comedy. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller and Bana Bhat, his court poet,
have given detailed accounts of Harsha’s reign. According to Hiuen Tang, King Harshvardhana
had an efficient government. He further tells us that families were not registered and there was
no forced labour.
VII. Baanbhatta was a court poet to Harshvardhana, his famous treatise are Harshcharita and
Kadambri. The Harshacharita (The Deeds of Harsha), is the biography of Indian Emperor Harsha.
As the life of kings became lavish in 5-6th century, the literature also became verbose and
complex. Harshcharita is complex in composition.
VIII. Visakhadatta was a 7th century Indian Sanskrit poet and playwright of Gupta period. His most
famous work is Mudrarakshasha and it is his only surviving play. It narrates the ascent of the
king Chandragupta Maurya to power in Northern India.In Mudrarakshasa Chandragupta has
been depicted as a weak insignificant young man and Chanakya being the real ruler.
IX. Mahendravikraman, the Pallava King wrote Mattavillasa.
X. Vidyapati who lived sometime during the 14th century was an important dramatist. He
introduced Hindi and other regional languages in the form of songs.
Apart from classical stream, folk theatre also developed which expressed in the language which masses
understood.
During colonial rule also theatre also played an important part and many plays were produced by
Bhartendu Harish Chandra, Deen Bandhu Mitra, Rabindranath Tagore etc. Post independence, artists
like Vijay Tendulkar, Habib Tanveer, Dharamveer Bharti, Girish Kanad etc played a role.
Street theatreemerged as an important medium to reach masses on various social issues. They were
even more important at times when penetration of media was limited. Badal Sircar, Safdar Hashmi and
his Jan Natya Manch with their popular plays like – Machine, Aurat, Hallabol, Scream on sexual
harassment of children etc.
STEPS by GOVERNMENT to PROMOTE THEATRE
Various awards have been constituted viz – Sangeet Natak Akademi Award, Theatre Awards,
Kalidas Samman etc.
Bharat Rang Mahotsav is an annual event organized to promote theatre which is organised by
Ministry of Culture and National School of Drama.
In terms of Institutional support, Department of Culture, Govt. of India, Ministry Of Human

Resources Development is the nodal body. Sangeet Natak Academy, New Delhi, is another
important body. Apart from these there are many Zonal Cultural Centres and there is National
School of Drama.
FOLK THEATRE
ANKIA NAT, ASSAM
 It is one act play with its roots in rural Assam.
 It is often accompanied by Sattriya music of Assam.
 Assamese interspersed with Sanskrit Shlokas is used in this.
 Painted masks are used in this play.
BHAND JASHNA, KASHMIR
 Bhand Jashna is a famous ‘festival of clowns’ of Kashmir, which also has a legacy of 300 to 400-
year-old genre of Kashmiri folk theatre.
 It is considered as a traditional folk theatre style having combination of play and dance in a
satirical style.
 Thus, it mostly depicts parodies on social situations, expressing many strong sentiments through
dance, music and clowning.
 This art is usually performed in village squares, at many social and cultural functions in front of a
large audience.
 Bhand Jashna is performed by a group of 10 to 15 artists in their traditional style accompanied
by musical instruments like the Surnai - a Kashmiri version of the Indian Shehnai, big Dhol,
Nagara, and Peshrao.
BHAND PATHER, KASHMIR
 It is the traditional theatre form of Kashmir.
 Usually it is a satire and induces laughter.
 It combines dance, acting and music
 Actors are members of farming community
BHAONA, ASSAM
 It is a representation of Ankia Nut of Assam.
BHAVAI, GUJARAT
 Partly ritualistic and partly entertainment, dedicated to goddess Amba

 Performed around Navaratras near Mount Abu
BURRAKATHA/HARIKATHA, ANDHRA
 Burra is a musical instrument – also called Tambura.
 It is dance cum theatrefrom Andhra and in this theme revolves around Shiva.
 It goes on for 2-3 days.
 It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo drama, dance, songs, poems and
jokes.
 The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or acontemporary social problem. It played
an effective role in conveying message to people and awakeningthem during Indian
Independence Movement.
DASHAVATAR
 It is a theatre form ofKonkan and Goa.
 It is based upon episodes from the various incarnation of lord Vishnu.
 Performers wear wooden masks and elaborate makeup

 Some people believe that this dance has evolved from ‘Yakshagana’.
JATRA
 It is a dance as well as drama
 Jatra has been popular in Bengal and its origin is traced to the
Bhakti movement in the 16th century, it is derived for Yatra –
meaning travel.
 Chaitanya school of Vaishnavism has a great impact on it
 It is essentially an on the move theatre.
KHAMBA THOBI, ASSAM
 Khamba and Thoibi is a drama which relates the love story of the
pair and the tragic end of their story.
KODIYATTAM or KUTIYATTAM
 Kutiyattam is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit
theatre.
 It hails from Kerala.
 Vidhushak or Jester plays an important role and it is he alone
who speaks the dialogues.
 It uses similar elaborated costumes as used in Kathakali.
 It is officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity.
KRISHATTAM
 It is a cycle of 8 plays depicting the cycle of Krishna from birth to death
 It is said to be one of the bases of Kathakali
MAANCH, MADHYA PRADESH
 Maanch means stage

 Maanch is a lyrical folk drama and a form of operatic ballet that is very popular in Malwa region
of Madhya Pradesh
 Maanch has its beginning in the 17th century
 Maanch is performed in open space with barest of theatrical equipments, where the stage has a
round shape and is never covered from any side; nor is a curtain used as a background. The
stage is prepared from wooden poles and is used to provide the platform at a height of five to
six feet or even more from the ground
MUDIYITTU
 It is a drama form of Kerala and it is themed on Goddess Kali.
 Mudiyettu is a ritual dance drama from Kerala based on the mythological tale of a battle
between the goddess Kali and the demon Darika.
 Performed by erstwhile priestly community in temples.
 Mudiyettu is ritualistic dance drama performed after the harvest of summer crops in Kerala.
 In 2010, was Mudiyettu included in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.
NAQQUAL
 It is a folk theatre with its roots in Bihar
NONDI NATAKAM, TAMILNADU
 The word ‘Nondi’means the one who limps and ‘natakam’ means play.
 This form originated during the late 17th or early 18th century in Tamil Nadu state itself.
 The play is a descriptive one and it is developed around two themes - devotion and forgiveness,
as experienced by a one-legged thief. As a course of dance, he narrates his tale- as a thief in love
with an unethical courtesan, the final redemption through devotion to God and the healing of his
physical afflictions
SWANG
 Swang is another folk theatre form popular in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Malwa region of
Madhya Pradesh, which is dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented and is considered
to have arisen in its present form in the late 18th- early 19th centuries.
TAMASHA
 It is a traditional Marathi folk art form.
 Often with singing and dancing, widely performed by local or travelling theatre groups within
the state of Maharashtra, India.
THERUKOOTHU, TAMIL NADU
 The traditional theatre is from Tamil Nadu. The term
literally means ‘Street Theatre ’. Themes are from Indian
epics like Mahabharata, Ramayana etc.
 This street play is generally organised in the villages of
Tamil Nadu during the festivals in the months of
‘Panguni’ i e, in March-April and Aadi i.e. July-August. It
is organised mainly during the summer months when
there is little agricultural work.
 The Therukoothu play generally commences in the late evening and concludes only during the
late hours of the nights.
 According to the traditional system, only the male members can be seen in a Therukoothu
troupe.
 The performers wear complex and heavy costumes and make up.
 They put on high towering head dress, sparkling shoulder plates and wide
colourful skirts.
 It is generally performed at a place where three or four streets meet, in
the open air.
THEYYAM
 The word Theyyam means – ‘Devam’ or God.
 It is a dance-drama form of Kerala.
 Its unique feature is elaborate masks that the artists wear.
 The Theyyam dance is generally performed in front of the village shrines
and Tharavadu or in joint families.
 It is performed in an open theatre without any stage or curtain.

YAKSHA GANA, KARNATAKA
 This belongs to Karnataka and has a rural origin.
 It is an admixture of dance and drama. Its heart lies in Gana meaning music. It is about 400 years
old.
 Themes are taken from Dasavtara of Vishnu
 The language is Kannada & the themes are based on Hindu Epics.
 The costumes are almost akin to the Kathakali ones & the style seems to have drawn inspiration
from Kathakali.
 It also has the Suthra Dhara (conductor) and the Vidushaka (the Jester).
PUPPET THEATRE
Puppetry has a long history in India. In 4th century BCE, Panini mentioned in his Ashtadhyayi about ‘Putla
nataka’. In Sinhasana Battisi also there is a mention of 32 puppets of throne of Vikramaditya.
There are four famous types of puppet theatre s –
I. STRING PUPPET
In these strings are attached to limbs and these are most articulate and most famous puppet
forms.
a. Kathputli – This form of string

puppet is from Rajasthan, they
are charaterised by large oval
eyes, trailing skirts and have
no legs. They are made from a
single piece of wood.Strings
are tied to their hands.
Typically whistling voice
accompanies them.
b. Kundhei – These are from
Odisha. They are made from wood, and don’t have legs. Lower part is covered with long
flowing skirts. Their costumes resemble those worn by traditional Jatra theatre artists.
They generally have more joints and are hence easy to manipulate.
c. Gombbeyatta – They are from Karnataka. They have joints at the hips, shoulders, knees
and elbows. They usually take themes from Yakshgana plays.They are highly stylized.
Complicated moves of these puppets are sometimes manipulated by more than one
person.
d. Bommalattam – These are from Tamilnadu. They are bigger and realistic. It combines
techniques of both the rod and string puppet. Puppets are made of wood and they are
tied to iron ring which puppeteer wears on his head. They are largest and the heaviest
of all the traditional puppets and can be upto 4.5 feet tall.
e. PudaNach – Assam
II. SHADOW PUPPET
They are cutout of leather which is made translucent

and they are pressed against a screen with strong
source of light behind it. Screen is used to make
colorful silhouettes.
a. TholuBomalatta – They are from Andhra and

Andhra has a rich tradition of shadow puppets
and they are the best leather puppets of India.
They are larger in size. They are usually colored and hence make colorful shadoes.
b. Tolpavkuthu – Kerala, depicts stories from epics
c. TogaluGomayatta – These are from Karnataka and relatively smaller in size than those
of Tamil Nadu. They generally deal with secular themes
d. Ravanchaya – They are from Odisha. They are jointless unlike Tholu Bomalata puppets
which have joints. They are also not colored like other
puppets like Tholu Bomalatta
III. ROD PUPPET
They are actually an extension of Glove puppets but are larger in

size and supported and manipulated from below by rods. They
are most famous in West Bengal and Odisha.
a. PatulNautch – They are traditional Bengali Rod Puppets.

They are as large as human sizes. They are usually
accompanied by music troupe also and are dressed in
similar ways as actors of Jatra plays.
b. Yampuri – This traditional rod puppet is from Bihar.
They are made of wood and unlike other rod puppets
elsewhere are made without joints. High skills are required to manipulate them as they
are jointless.
c. KathiKundhei – Odisha, they are smaller than the rod puppets of the Bengal and are
hybrid of Rod and String puppets. Puppeteer sits on ground and tells stories from
mythology.
IV. GLOVE PUPPET
a. Pavakathakali or Pavakoothu– The traditional
glove puppet in Kerala is known as Pavakathakali.
Faces of puppets are made from wood and are
elaborately painted in a similar fashion as those of
Kathakali artists. Themes are generally taken from
mythologies like Ramayana, Mahabharata etc.
b. SakhiKundehi – Odisha, they generally enact tales from life of Radha and Krishna.
PEOPLE from CONTEMPORARY DRAMA

ASIF KARIMBHOY – Wrote more than 30 plays. The Restaurant, Monsoon, Sonar Bangla etc are famous
among them.
BADAL SIRCAR – He represents the new theatrical movement in India. Evan Indrejit, That Other History,
There is No End etc are some of the famous plays.
GIRISH KARNARD – Yayati, Tuglak, Tale Dande are some of his memorable plays.
GURCHARAN DAS – He is a Punjabi dramatist and writer. Mira, Jakhoo Hill, Larins Sahib etc are some of
famous drama.
HABIB TANVIR – He hails from Madhya Pradesh and Mitti ki Gadi and Charan Das Chor are some of his
famous plays.
JAVED SIDDIQUI – He wrote Andhe Chuhe, Ek Safanama, Kacche Lamhe, Tumhari Amrita, Saalgirah
MOHAN RAKESH – Asadh ka Ek Din, Adhe Adhure, Lahron ke Rajhans
VIJAY TENDULKAR – Ghasi Ram Kotwal, Sakharam Binder, Shantata… Court Chalu Aahe etc
SAFDAR HASHMI – Mainly associated with street theatre . He was a founder member of Jan Natya
Manch and raised social awareness through his plays.Enemies, Mote Ram ka Satyagraha are some of the
famous plays.
ART FORMS – MUSIC

‘Nad’ or sound is considered as basis of all creation in Indian philosophy. The earliest tradition of Indian
music may be traced to Sama Veda which contained the slokas and hymns that were put to music and
seven notes are mentioned in it (but they were not called Sargam as we call them today). As per the
Indian mythology, Indian Music is of divine origin.Narada was the first sage to whom the laws of music
wererevealed. Veena is the oldest music instrument, which wasinvented by Narada.Aum is the sound
from which all swaras are derived.
Traditionally, music was passed from one generation to another in Guru Shishya parampara.
The earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts is Bharata’sNatyashashtra (compiled between
2nd century BCE and 2ndcentury CE) which has six chapters on music. It was based upon Gandhravaveda
which itself is an ‘Upveda’ of Samveda. Emotions are essential component of Indian music and these are
depicted through ‘Navarasa’ or nine rasas. Rasa is the fundamental concept in not only the performing
arts viz. dance, music and dramabut also the cinema and literature. He mentioned eight rasa, and later
one more rasa was added by Abhinavgupta in his Abhinavbharati.
Buddhist theology sawmusic as distraction, but nevertheless, music flourished in that era very well.
Later, Gupta period works like those of Kalidasa and Vatsayana also mention music related things.
According to Vatsayana, it is one of 64 arts. Samudragupta himself is shown playing Veena on coins.
After Guptas, Harsha himself was an accompalished singer.

Mythologically, Marg Sangeet can be
His plays – Nagananda, Ratnavali etc mention making of
considered as the predecessor of Classical
music.
music in India and finds mention in
Another major text is Matanga’sBrihaddesi compiled Ramayana etc and is said to be created by
Brahma himself. It was for the
between 8th and 9th century AD in Post Gupta period. In this
entertainment of god and was performed
work ragas were first named and discussed at great length.
by divine elements like Apsaras,
Brihaddesai of Matang for the first time mentioned the word
Gandharvas etc and was associated with
Sargam for the sargam for the first time. Brihaddeshi is a Gandharvashastras ormusicology.
great treatise only after Natyashashtra. Brihaddeshi is the
first text that speaks about raga and distinguishes the music Pathya Sangeet was another form of
genres into Marga Sangeet (Classical Music) and Desi Indian music in its early development
phase. Pathya means words. Pathya
Sangeet (Folk Music). Brihaddeshi was also the important
sangeet was neither for rituals nor for the
work on Indian music before the Islam came and influenced
entertainment of the Gods. It was a
the Indian music. Brihaddeshi was based upon the
special music whose aim was to inform
Natyashashtra itself and has clarified many things which were and instruct.
unclear in the Bharata’s text.
Later, Indian music developed under the influence of Islamic traditions and Sufis were at the fore of it.
Amir Khusro in 13th century emerged as the biggest influence on Indian music and he invented many
instruments and singing styles. He was also the first popular poet of Khadi Hindi boli. Qawwalis were
sung in Sufi khanqahs and this form is said to be started by Amir Khusro. Among the important works
composed by him are Laila Majnu and Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji.
Sarangadeva was next big influence on north Indian music in 13th century and he composed Sangeet
Ratnakara (it is divided into seven chapters called Saptaadhyayiwhich mentions 264 ragas) which is
considered as the fountainhead of modern Hindustani music and in fact, both Hindustani and Carnatic
music traditions are distinguished for the first time here on. It also mentions influence of Islam on Indian
music.
Bhakti movement also impacted music. Music was one of the important elements of Bhakti.
Contribution of Jayadeva’s (from Odisha) 11th century Geeta Govinda is also enormous and it not only
influenced musical traditions of Bhakti movement, but painting tradition also. Each song of it was set in
a raga and was composed on the theme of love of Radha and Krishna.Several classical ragas have been
named after saints e.g. – Mira ki Malhar, Surdasi Malhar. Bhajans, Kirtan, Haveli Sangeet (a devotional
music particularly of Pushtimarga sect and developed in Nathdwara area of Rajasthan) were developed
during this time. Kirtan are feature of Bengal and various compositions were made by Chandidas and
Chaitainya and also influenced from Gita-Govinda. Kirtans were transformed into song and dance
congregations by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15-16thcentury AD), drawing inspiration from Jayadeva's Geet
Govinda. Kirtans are of two types – Nama-Kirtana and Lila-Kirtana. The first involves constant uttering of
the name and singing of the glory of God, while the second describes the various anecdotes of the
Radha-Krishna love.Abbhang songs are from Maharashtra in praise of Vithoba and many such were
written by likes of Eknath, Jandeva/Janeshwara, Tukaram etc. Shabd was a style of bhakti singing
associated with Sikhs and their gurus. Similarly, Qawwali were religious songs of Muslim saints.
Ashtachapa poetry and music of 16th century was another big contribution which is named after 8
Acharyas of Pushtimarga or Shudha Advaita sect founded by Vallabhacharya. Musical part was
systematized by the son of Vallabhacharya into Ashtachapa. Surdas was also one of the diciples of
Vallabhacharya and Miyan Tansen also came under its influence. Tansen was a prolific singer and he
simplified 4000 ragas into 400 and also introduced new ragas like Miyan ki Malhar and Miyan ki Todi.
Chandidasa and Bhakata Narsi Mehta in 15th century and Meerabai in 16th century made big
contribution to the music as well who also gave rise to Bhajans as dominant of singing in Bhakti.
Shabads are the devotional songs which are associated with Sikhs.
During Mughal times, Tansen was one of the most famous musicians. Baijubawara was another musician
during Akbar’s time. Later Mughals were not great patrons of music except Muhmmad Shah Rangeele
in 18th century. Quawalli reached new heights during his time. Sadrang and his nephew Adrang were
two very famous musicians in his court who popularized Khayal and it almost replaced Drupad for the
first time.
In 19th century, Thumri as a romantic music genre became very popular in Hindustani music.
In early 20th century, important contribution to Hindustani music was made by Vishnu Digambar
Palushkar and Vishnu Narayana Bathkande. Pandit Vishnu Digambar Palushkar tried to remove music
from influence of Gharana and he established Gandharv Mahavidyalyain 1901 and famous Ramdhun –
Raghupati Raghav Raja Ram – is to his credit which was very dear to Gandhiji. He is known to have given
the first public concert in Saurashtra, because bythat time, music was sung only in temples and
palaces.His GandhravaMahavidyalaya was open to all and one of the first in India to run on public
support anddonations, rather than royal patronage.
Similarly, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhandeestablished Marris College of Music at Lucknow. He pioneered

the introduction of an organized musical system reflecting current performance practices. He wrote the
first modern treatise on Hindustani Classical Music. He is best noted for reclassification of the Indian
ragas. So far, the ragas were classified into raga (male), ragini (female), and putra (children). Bhatkhande
reclassified them into the currently used Thaat system and divided all existing gharanas into 10 thaats.
Later developments in music in India are attributed to like of Rabindranath Tagore and his Rabindra
Sangeet, Kazi Nzrul Islam, Subramaniam Bharti etc who wrote patriotic poems during freedom struggle.
Today, Sangeet Natak Academy, Indira Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh – university of music,
Gandharva Maha-Vidyalaya, Kathak Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in
their own ways.
Indian music has three basic components –
I. Swar– Swar means a note in the octave. There are 7 basic swaras called Sargam in Hindustani
music. Brihaddesai of Matang for the first time mentioned the word Sargam for the sargam for
the first time. Kudimiyamalai – an ancient inscription in a Shiva temple in Tamilnadu – also
mentions all seven notes and it is the only ancient inscription on musical notes.
II. Raga– the Raga, or musical mode, forms the basis of the entire musical event. The Raga is
essentially an aesthetic rendering of the seven musical notes/swara/tones and each Raga is said
to have a specific flavor and mood. A raga uses a series of five or more musical notes (Odav raga
– 5 notes/swaras; Shadav raga – 6 notes; Sampoorna raga – 7 notes)upon which a melody is
constructed. In the Hindustani Classical Music, all the Ragas have been divided into 10 thaats by
Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. In Carnatic Music, there are 72 parent Ragas (melakarta). Ragas
are time, specific, mood specific and season specific and there are 6 basic ragas in Hindustani
music based on Time Scale Theory –
RAGA TIME SEASON MOOD

Hindol Dawn Spring Romantic
Deepak Night Summer Compassion
Megha Afternoon Rainy Courage
Shri Evening Winter Gladness
Malhar Midnight Winter Romance
Bhairavi Morning Automn Devotion
Several classical ragas have been named after saints and persons as well e.g. – Mira ki Malhar,
Surdasi Malhar, Mian ki Malhar (associatd with Tansen) etc.
III. Tala – Tala is what binds music together and is the rhythmic part of the Indian music. It is
essentially a fixed time cycle for each rendition and repeats itself after completion of each cycle.
These are rhythmic cycles ranging from 3 to 108 beats. Tala is independent of the music it
accompanies and has its own divisions. Different talas are recognised like Dadra, Rupak, Jhaptal,
Ektal, Adha-Chautal and Teen-Tal. Teentaal is the most popular. There are over a 100 Talas, but
only 30 Talas are known and only about 10-12 talas are actually used. The most commonly
encountered one is the one with sixteen beats called the Teentaal. Carnatic music has a rigid
thala structure as compared to Hindustani music.
HINDUSTANI and CARNATIC MUSIC

Originally there was only one system of music but in medieval age, North India came under the influence
of Persian music leading to formation of two schools - Hindustani (north) and Karnataka (south).
HINDUSTANI MUSIC
Hindustani denotes the culture that was prevalent in Hindustan which was considered as all the
area East to Sindhu River i.e. Northern India. Like all music in India, this too traces its origin from
Natyashastra of Bharata.
It is a tradition that originated in Vedic ritual chants and has been evolving since the 12th century
CE, primarily in what is now North India and Pakistan, and to some extent in Bangladesh, Nepal
and Afghanistan. Major changes were introduced during Mughal period also. Khayal, Thumri and
Ghazal were also elaborated during this period.
The style is sometimes called North Indian Classical Music. Contemporary Hindustani classical
music may be traced back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate and to Amir Khusrau who
encouraged the practice of musical performance with particular instruments in 12th-13th
century. He is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced
new ragas.
Later Sarangdeva made important contribution in 13th century through his magnum opus
Sangeet Ratnavali. After the 16th century, the singing styles diversified into different gharanas
patronized in different princely courts. Its current form is as a result of work of Pandit Vishnu
Digambar Palushkar of early 20th century who rationalized the musical system into 10 simple
thaats.
It is traditional for performers who have reached a distinguished level of achievement to be

awarded titles of respect; Hindus are usually referred to as Pandit and Muslims as Ustad. An
aspect of Hindustani music going back to Sufi times is the tradition of religious neutrality.
Muslim ustads may sing compositions in praise of Hindu deities, and vice versa.
Hindustani Music is strictly based on ‘Time theory of Ragas’andthereare six ragas, which are also
based on mood and emotions. Karnatak system raga has been on other hand classified into
parent Ragas (Janak) and derivative Ragas (Janya).
Most Classical Music presentations start with a composition called ‘Alap’ in Hidustani or ‘Alapna’
in Carnatic music.
Different styles/compositions of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Dhamar, Thumri, Khayal and
Tappa etc. Dhrupad and Khayal are the two forms of classical singing that are still popular
today.Some of them are –
I. Drupad – Dhrupad is a vocal genre in Hindustani classical music, said to be the oldest
still in use in that musical tradition dating back to Vedic times and Devdasi system. Its
name is derived from the words ‘dhruva’ (fixed) and ‘pada’ (words). It is traditionally
performed by male singers. It is performed with a tanpura and a pakhawaj as
instrumental accompaniments. The lyrics, some of which were written in Sanskrit
centuries ago, are presently often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of Hindi that was
spoken in the Mathura area and involves veera and sringar rasa and revolves around
devotional themes. The rudra veena, an ancient string instrument, is used in
instrumental music in dhrupad.
It is serious and sober in composition and demands a lot of effort from vocal chords and
lungs.The nature of Dhrupad music is spiritual. It does not seek to entertain, but to
induce feelingsof peace and spirituality in the listener.It is primarily a form of worship, in
which offerings are made to the divine through sound orNada. Dhrupad was initially
sung only in the temples, the singer facing the Lord. From thisearly chanting, Dhrupad
evolved into a sophisticated classical form of music.
One significant characteristic of Dhrupad is the emphasis on maintaining purity of the

Raga.
Performance of Dhrupad is done in two parts viz. the Alap and Bandish. In the Alap,
thesinger uses syllables from Sanskrit Mantra which add texture to the notes. The raga
isslowly and methodically developed in a meditative mode.The speed of alap increases
with the use of an accelerating rhythmic pulse that builds to apoint, where the melodic
patterns literally dance in space. Bandish is a short poemaccompanied by the Pakhawaj.
The poem is sung using melodic and rhythmicimprovisations.
In medieval India, Dhrupad had mainly thrived under the patronage of Mughal and
Rajputkings. Raja Maan Singh Tomar of Gwaliar (whose disciple was Tansena or
Ramtanu Pandey) helped in popularize it. During Akbar’s time also Baiju Bawara,
Haridas, Tansen helped in development of this style. Later it declined with the shift of
interest in Khayal during later Mughal period and mosre specifically during the times of
Mohmad Shah Rangeele.
Today, major Dhrupad gharanas are – Dagar gharana, Darbhanga gharana etc. It is more
difficult, and is almost extinct with death of Dagar brothers.
II. Khayal–It means imagination and its origin is generally attributed to AmirKhusro and is
said to be adopted from medieval Persian music and based on dhrupad. But unlike
Dhrupad it is not somber, but delicate and romantic and has more freedom in structure
and form.In course of time, the dhrupad style of music was replaced by the romantic
khayal.
Khyal bases itself on a repertoire of short songs (two to eight lines); a khyal song is
called a Bandish.
The most important feature of a khayal is taans or the runningglides over notes and
boltaans which clearly distinguish it from dhrupad. The slow (Vilambit)and fast (Drut)
styles of khayal are the two recognised types today.The singer is accompanied generally
on Tabla and Harmonium or Sarangi.
In khyal, there is perhaps widest range of Gharanas and Gwalior Gharana is oldest and
most elaborate with Vishnu Digambar Palushkar as the most important doyen. Kirana
Gharana of Rajasthan is the second most important Gharana with exponents like
Gangubai Hangal, Pt Bhimsen Joshi.
DHRUPAD KHAYAL
Older in Origin Younger in origin
Primarily spiritual , purpose worship Primarily romantic, purpose -
entertainment
Short Bandish is used generally Long Bandish generally
Uses Sanskrit Syllables in Alap Alap may or may not be in Sanskrit
Singer is accompanied by Pakhawaj Tabla and Harmonium, Sarangi for
accompaniment
Two parts - Alap + Bandhish Three parts generally viz. Alap, Bada Khayal
and Chhota (Drut) Khayal
Meaning of the words generally not Comparatively recognizable.
recognizable
III. Thumri–Its characteristic is that it is a light composition which doesn’t adhere to rules
much. It is the third most popular genre apart from Khayal and Drupad. It is romantic in
nature and is perhaps based out of Bhakti literature and sentiments like separation and
devotion. In this text of song is very important. Thumri originated in the eastern part of
Uttar Pradesh.It developed under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah much and today there are two
prominent styles – Poorab and Punjab styles.It is a much freer form than khayal. It is
generally sung in female voice as it is very emotional in style. Girija Devi is one of the
most famous Thumri vocalist and she is from Benaras gharana.
Benaras Gharana (with orientation to Khayal), Lucknow Gharana (with orientation to
dance) and Patiala Gharana (with orientation to Tappa) are some of the major gharanas
which exist today.
IV. Dhamar – It describes the play of lord Krishna, especially the Holi festival. Singer has
more flexibility in it. Initially Dhrupad style was popular which used veena as the
instrument. Another music style which was popular among people in those days was
Dhamar style which focused on describing krishna along with the country girls, krishna
playing holi in Braj, celebration of festivals etc. Mughal court couldn't remain
uninfluenced by Holi and Tansen et al composed many Dhamars as well and thus this
folk music style found its way in the mughal courts.
V. Tarana – Tarana is a type of composition in Hindustani classical vocal music in which
certain words and syllables are used in a medium-paced or fast rendition. Usually there
are no meaningful words and syllables like – teem, tarana, dere, tere, tome, nadir etc
are used.
VI. Tappa– This is a distinct style having its origin in the Punjab. Its beauty lies in the quick
and intricate display of various permutations and combinations of notes.
VII. Dadra – It is also a light classical form like Thumri, but with a faster tempo than thumri.
However, their topics are more mundane than thumri and it is mostly in Urdu or
Brajbhasha.
CARNATIC MUSIC or KARNATAK MUSIC
Carnatic music is a system of music commonly associated with the southern part of the Indian
subcontinent, with its area roughly confined to four modern states of India: Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. It peaked under Vijaynagar Empire Tanjavur in 16th-17th
century.
Purandara Dasa, a 15th century musician, who is known as the father (Pitamaha) of Carnatic
Music, formulated the system that is commonly used for the teaching of Carnatic music. On the
other hand Venkat Mukhi Swami or Venkatmahi is credited with providing the theoretical basis
to the current form of carnatic music by providing the ‘Melakarta’ system of 72 Ragas.
Carnatic music today owes its form to the three great musiciansTyagaraja, Muthuswami
Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri, are regarded as the Trinity of Carnatic music because of the quality
of Syama Sastri's compositions, the varieties of compositions of Muthuswami Dikshitar and
Tyagaraja's prolific output in composing kritis. Tyagaraja composed thousands of devotional
compositions, most of them in praise of Lord Rama — most of which remain very popular even
today.
Like Hindustani Music,Carnatic music also rests on two main elements –ragam, the modes or
melodic formula, and talam, the rhythmic cycles. In total, there are four elements of carnatic
music –Sruti, Swara, Raga, Tala.
In contrast to Hindustani music, the main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most
compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to
be performed in gayaki (singing) style.
Compostions of Carnatic music can be classified as –
I. Kirti – It means creation. It is most popular Carnatic composition. Major part of the
repertoire comes from contribution of Shyama Shastri, Muthuswami Dikshitar and
Tyagraja trinity.
II. Varnam – It is usually performed at the beginning of concert, like Alpana in Hindustani
music.
III. Padam – They are romantic compositions and are more lyrical than Kirtis and have their
origin in Bhakti movement.
IV. Tillana – In Carnatic music, this is counterpart of Tarana and like Tarana, this is also a
fast tempo composition with mostly meaningless syllables.
HINDUSTANI MUSIC CARNATIC MUSIC
Hindustani is mainly the northern Indian style Carnatic Southern Indian style
In Hindustani, composition is known as ‘thaat’ In Carnatic, composition is known as ‘melas’
There are 6 principle ragas, but number of Carnatic Style has many more Ragas than the
Ragas is more and system is more elaborate. Hindustani style. Carnatic music is characterized by
the presence of 72-melakarta raga scheme. Each of
the 72 principal ragas is divided into several
subordinate ragas
Instrumental support is important in this style The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal
music or on singing with less instrumental support
The Hindustani music exhibits the Persian and The Carnatic music evolved separately without the
Mughal influence as in the North, these Persian and Mughal influence as well as the
invaders and their influences left a mark on European (Greek) influence
Hindustani Music
One distinct style of Hindustani is called Khyal Such unstructured rendering of a Raaga is not
found in carnatic music as it goes strictly by rules
Gharanas are important part of Hindustani There are no Gharanas in Carnatic music
Music and so there are various styles of
singing and performing
There is more freedom of expression and In Carnatic, it's all composition bound, though there
room for improvisation in Hindustani is scope for improvisation within the ambit of the
Kriti
The chief source for Hindustani music is the On the other hand Carnatic music flourished mainly
Sangeeta Ratnakara of Sarangadeva of 13th due to the efforts of Saint Purandaradasa and the
century and to the works of Pandit Vishnu Carnatic music trinity comprising of Saint Tyagaraja,
Digambar Palushkar of early 20thcentury Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri
Hindustani music extensively employs the use On the other hand Carnatic music extensively
of Tabla (a kind of drum or a percussion employs the use of musical instruments such as
instrument), Sarangi (a stringed instrument), Veena (a stringed instrument), Mridangam (a
Santoor, Sitar, Clarionet and the like. percussion instrument), Gottuvadyam, Mandolin,
Violin, Flute, Jalatarangam and the like.
Despite contrasting features between Hindustani and Carnatic music, one can find some similarities,
for example, the Carnatic alapana is similar to alap in Hindustani classical and Tilana in Carnatic
resembles Tarana of Hindustani. Both lay stress on tala or talam.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Musical instruments evolved over a time in India. Paintings at Bhibetka show that they were conversant
with some form of drums. Though no evidences of musical instruments have been found at Harappa,
there are numerour such mentions in Vedic times. Samudragupta is shown playing Veena on his coins.
Islamic influence also introduced new musical instruments like – Tabala, Sitar and Sarangi. Violin became
part of Carnatic music when Europeans arrived.
There are four types of instruments, or vadya that are used in Indian music.
I. Tantu or stringed
a. Veena is the oldest of such instruments
b. Sitar or seh-tar meaning ‘three-stringed’ is said to have been invented by AmirKhusro. The
main strings are plucked by a plectrum worn on the index finger.
c. Sarod is smaller than the sitar and has two resonating chambers. There are ten main playing
strings and fifteen sympathetic strings. The main strings are plucked with a
piece of coconut shell.
d. The sarangi is a fretless stringed instrument which is played by a bow. The
whole body is carved out of a single block of wood and the hollow is
covered by parchment. The sarangi can produce a wide variety of sound
and its playing technique is somewhat unusual.
e. Other stringed instruments which are used in India comprise the dilruba, tanpura, ektara
and the mayuri.
II. Susir or wind based Instruments

Nadswaram, ninkirns and pongi are wind instruments that are similar to
Shenai
III. Avanada or percussion
Pakhavaj, dholak, ghatam, kanjira are some of the percussion instruments
IV. Ghana comprising bells, cymbals and gongs
Manjiras are small brass cymbals generally used in temple prayers. Jhanj,
kartal and the jal-tarang which is a water xylophone are other Indian
instruments.
PEOPLE, INSTITUTIONS from MUSIC

AMIR KHUSRO
He was a poet and musician from court of Allauddin Khalji. He is also credited with enriching
Hindustani classical music by introducing Persian and Arabic elements in it.
Khusro was an Indian musician, scholar and poet and was the first to use Urdu as a medium of
language in poetry.He is credited with invention of Sitar, Tabla and inventing Khyal and Tarana
style of Hindustani music and Quawali style(the devotional music of the Sufis in the Indian
subcontinent).
A Sufi mystic and a spiritual disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, Amir Khusro was not only a
notable poet but also a prolific and seminal musician. He wrote poetry primarily in Persian, but
also in Hindavi (the language of masses).
He was known by ‘Tuti-e-Hind’ nickname.He also wrote ‘Nuh Siphin’ which highly praises India,
its culture and its landscape.
SPIC MACAY
It is a voluntary youth movement started in 1970s by Kiran Seth for promotion of Indian classical
music and culture through youth. It has more than 200 chapters across the globe.
ART FORMS – CRAFTS

The primary references of Indian crafts were found in the remnants of Indus Valley Civilization. The
Indus valley civilization had a rich craft tradition. It has also got a technical brilliance in the arena of
pottery-making, jewelry, threading, various sculptures like metal, stone and terracotta etc. Another
distinctive ancient craft by the people of Indus Valley was the craft on seals. Seals are one most
important aspect of the Indus art and craft discovered by the archaeologists. Among this the Pashupati
seal is the most famous. Terracotta toys with movable heads were also prevalent.
The rich heritage of Indus Valley Civilization was perfectly incorporated in the Vedic era, starting from
1500 BCE. There is no dearth of references in the Vedic literature where instances of artisans involved in
pottery making, weaving, wood crafting etc, are being duly mentioned. Vedic period gives evidence of
the use of gold, copper, bronze, tin, lead, silver and iron for the ancient Indian craft. The excavations
define that the people of that epoch were adept in creating ivory products, potteries, metal crafts made
out of gold, copper, iron, and precious stone.
Artistic production of crafts, too, proliferated during Mauryan Empire, a landmark in Indian history,
starting from 3rd century BCE. It is believed that during the time of Ashoka, 84,000 stupas were
constructed in India. The ‘Sanchi stupa’ is a part of it and has gained worldly fame for its beautiful stone
carving and relief work. The iron pillars of Vaishali and Delhi, created during the time of Emperor
Ashoka, are a spectacle of metallurgical works.
The foreign invaders, leaving aside their tradition of cultural and traditional glories, ennoble the history
of crafts of India. The time period was during 1st century BCE and 1st century CE. The impact of these
intrusions can be noticed in the Buddhist sculptures from Taxila, Begram, Bamiyan, Swat valley etc. A
high degree of Greek influence is immensely found, especially in the statue of Buddha, having curly hair
and wearing draperies. The same trend is maintained in the sculptures of the Kushan king Kanishka.
The golden age of Guptas (320-647 CE) is not only esteemed the classical period in Indian history and
that too of history of Indian crafts. The rock cut temples of Ellora and the Ajanta murals are perfect
examples of it. Another interesting feature is that it underwent evolution under the patronage of Gupta
kings, excelling in jewelry making, woodcarving, sculpture, stone carving and weaving.
The Medieval period of Indian history is significant in the context of development of crafts. It expanded
its aura to Southern region after capturing the market of the whole of northern territories of India .The
craftsmen under the Delhi Sultanate period prospered in the fields of pottery, weaving, wood carving,
metal working, jewelry etc. The contribution of the Cholas and the Vijaynagar Empire in the field of
bronze sculpture, silk weaving, jewelry, temple carving still remains invincible. One of the techniques
that the Cholas patronized was the lost wax process, used for Indian bronzes. The Chalukyas Empire had
splendid instances of the craft on hard rock. The fine example of stone carving from central India can be
seen in the form of the Khajuraho Temples, built by the Chandelas. Rich and ornate wood and stone
carving can be found in medieval temple of Jagannath at Puri in Odisha.
In the early 16th Century, Mughal art synthesized Turko-Mongolic, Persian, European, and Indian
traditions. These amalgamated styles further enriched the medieval Indian craft. Mughal era was the
golden period in the history of craft. The Mughals brought with them a rich heritage, which they had
adopted from Persian territories. They imparted new techniques like inlay work, glass engraving, carpet
weaving, brocades, enameling etc. The Mughal miniature paintings also disposed influence of the
traditions of many Indian schools of paintings like Rajasthani, the Kangra, Pahari etc. The famous
Peacock Throne of the Mughals is one of the premium examples of precious stone decorative work and
metal craft. Pietra Dura – inlay of stone with fine finish – is a fine example of Mughal art. Some of the
most appraised jewelry craft of Mughal epoch were Bidri ware and Minakari craft. The Bidri Ware is
valued for its fine craftsmanship. Its sleek and smooth dark colored metal work with intricate eye-
catching designs on its glossy surface is famous all over the world. Another craft which is the Meenakari
craft, is the continuation of the art of enamelling or fixing colour by melting in fire which had been
practiced in India ever since the ancient times.
In present day scenario, growth and development of crafts in India is no less significant. Each and every
Indian state has its own unique culture. For instance, Kashmir is known for its Pashmina wool shawls as
well as carpets, silverware, ivory works etc. Eastern states like Assam and West Bengal are far-famed for
their exquisite ‘Sholapith’ and ‘Shital Patti’ works. Others regions are acclaimed for crafts pieces,
namely, Karnataka for its rosewood carving, sandalwood crafts etc. The engraved and enameled
meenakari brassware found in Rajasthan, silk materials from Varanasi and Kanchipuram, colorful
embroidery, mirror work, quilting and fabric painting from Gujarat etc are some of the exclusive crafts
popularized not only in India and also abroad.
SCULPTURING – METAL, STONE and TERRACOTTA

In India, sculptures are generally divided into three categories – terracotta sculptures, stone sculptures
and metal sculptures.
METAL or BRONZE SCULPTURES
Earliest examples of sculpturing in India are found during the times of Harrapan valley. Famous
dancing girl in Tribhanga posture is an example that Indians during that time knew Cire-Perdu or
lost wax technique. There were also examples of terracotta sculptures in form of Shakti figures,
toys etc.
Another very old group of bronze statues have been discovered from Daimabad, Maharashtra
dating back to 1500 BCE.
Bronze images of Jaina deities have been discovered from Chausa, Bihar belonging to 2nd
Century BCE, here Adinath is depicted in long hair who is otherwise depicted in short hair.
During Kushanas rule, sculptures were made at Mathura and Gandhara.
Similarly, in UP and Bihar, standing Buddha images in Abhyamudra have been discovered
belonging to Gupta and post-Gupta
period and appears more youthful
than Kushan style Buddha. Buddha
image discovered at Sultanganj,
Bihar is an outstanding example of
Sarnath style which was developed
during Gupta period. Like the stone
sculpture, the Buddha is shown with
a transparent drapery unlike
Mathura and Gandhar sculptures
where drapery is shown with folds.
The figure appears youthful and
proportionate in comparison with
the Kushana style. 3rd century
Vakataka bronzeimages of Buddha
found from Phopnar,
Maharashtraare contemporary to
Gupta period and have influence of
Amravati style. Bronze statues of
Gupta and Vakataka were distinct as
they were portable and monks could carry them around for worshipping purpose. Jaina and
Hindu sculptures were also made during this time. Among Jainas, sculptures of their
Teerthankaras were famous, among Hindu sculptures, sculptures of Vishnu etc were made.
In Western India also the art seems to flourish from 6th to 9th centuries as bronze statues were
discovered in Akota near Vadodara, Gujarat which were mainly of Jaina deities like Mahavira,
Parshvanath and Adinath.
Kashmir and Himachal region had also developed bronze art and many statues of Buddha and
other Hindu deities have been found belonging to 8th-10th century. Variations of Vishnu are
prominent among the findings. A four headed Vishnu is a recurring theme.
During 9th century, in Bengal region also bronze sculpting was promoted by Pala rulers around
Nalanda. Pala made numerous statues which were exported to Nepal as well. Nalanda also
emerged as an important center of bronze sculpture art before, during and after Pala rule which
revived Gupta period majesty of bronze sculptures and its subjects were also from Buddhist
tradition. Many deities, especially of Vajrayana Buddhism were sculpted including female
goddesses like Tara.
Sculpturing also flourished in South around same time and during Pallavas it started to get
refined and reached its zenith during Chola. Taalmana system of sculpturing – which was a
complex system of sculpturing origining from Shilpa Shastra – was used in Chola sculptures.
Natraja and other shiva forms were recurring themes. A wide range of Shiva iconography was
evolved in the Tanjore region of Tamil Nadu. The Chola technique and art is still skillfully
practised in South India, particularly in Kumbakonam.
During the sixteenth century, known as the Vijayanagar Period in Andhra Pradesh, the sculptors
experimented with portrait sculpture in order to preserve knowledge of the royal patron for
posterity. At Tirupati, life-size standing portrait statues were cast in bronze, depicting
Krishnadevaraya with his two queens.
STONE SCULPTURES
Earliest examples of stone sculptures can be found in terms of rudimentary tool at Bhimbhetaka
caves, MP. Later, stone sculpting art grew with the growth of religious building architecture.
Many patrons also promoted secular sculptures.
Mauryas promoted both Hindu and Buddhist sculptures. Kushanas were known from promotion
of Mathura and Gandhara School of architecture. During Guptas also important centers
developed at Sarnath and Nalanda. Palas also promoted sculpture building.
At Ellora, in Maharashtra, there are Hindu, Buddhist and Jain rock-cut shrines. The Kailash
temple at Ellora of the ninth century is an entire temple that was carved out of the natural
hillside.
At Mahabalipuram, Pallavas made many sculptures on the shore in form of Rathams and other
works.
In Orissa the stone cutters of Puri work mainly in soapstone. Harder stone is used for temple
building.
Sandstone panels with geometric and floral design were made to decorate palaces and tombs
during the medieval period.
The Mughals in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries built some of the most beautiful
buildings in the world like the Taj Mahal in Agra.
TERRACOTTA SCULPTURES
In 2,500 BCE, Harappan Civilization has produced figures of animals, domesticated animals like
the bull and the ram, tiny images of house animals like a bird in a cage, cats, carts, sliding
monkey, seals, pots of different shape and size.
From Vedic time also, painted grey ware have been found.
Maurya and Sunga periods also produced clay figurines which are found from excavations at
Pataliputra, the ancient Mauryan capital, Kosambi etc.
From Kushan period also, in the northwestern region of India the Greco-Buddhist stupas were
often decorated with stucco designs and motifs.
In Gupta and post-Gupta periods (300-1000 CE) also life-size terracotta sculptures were used to
decorate temples and secular
buildings.
In 1600-1800, local rulers of

Bishnupur in West Bengal
built temples in a unique style
that were profusely
decorated with terracotta
plaques and stucco patterns.
Today, terracotta art is used at many places in India. In Tamil Nadu the dramatic larger-than-life
size image of Aiyanar, the local deity, is surrounded by a sea of attendants, horses and bulls.
During Durga Puja in West Bengal enormous figures of the goddess are created.
STONE CRAFT
A more contemporary approach in stone art is seen with the introduction of the soapstone art. It found
in various parts of India and the soapstone crafts of Agra, Varanasi are particularly famous one.
I. RAJASTHAN– The stone craft of Rajasthan involves usage of various stones like granites,
marbles, quartzite, slates and other metamorphic rocks. According to the history of Rajasthan,
the availability of high-quality stone had facilitated the craftsmen to create superb structures or
buildings with excellent stone carving since the medieval times. Rajasthan has been the abode
of outstanding creativity that is displayed in the stone carvings of beautiful forts, palaces, and
temples. The sculptures of the ancient and medieval temples of Bharatpur, Baroli, Ramgarh,
Nagda, Ajmer, Chittor, Mandore, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, and Udaipur are exemplary of the dexterity
of the Rajasthani craft persons. The comparative scarcity of wood and the easy abundance of
stone have led to concentration on the latter. Here, the silvats are stone – cutters who are
especially engaged in making grinding stone. Makrana in Nagaur district is the major source of
its marble. Jaisalmer city is a dream in stone, rising out of a desert and Jaipur holds the pride of
place for availability of marble articles. The stone craft of Rajasthan has a distinct quality to
exhibit in the ‘jali’ (latticework) carvings. The ancient regal buildings of Rajasthan flaunt the ‘jali’
work on the doors and windows.
II. UTTAR PRADESH –The stone crafts of Uttar Pradesh have flourished to a great extent due to the
fact that the Muslim rulers of India have patronised this craft to a great extent. The stone crafts
in Uttar Pradesh reached the zenith of excellence during the Mughal period when the Taj
Mahal was made. The famous among the stone crafts of Uttar Pradesh is the mosaic work of Taj
Mahal and Fatehpur Sikri. The base material of stone craft in Uttar Pradesh is marble, gorara
soapstone and occasionally cuddapah. The artisans are called Sadakars and Pachikars. The
Sadakars create cutting and carving by machines and the Pachikars create carvings with the
chisels. Varanasi is the place where the great examples of stone craft have been seen. Vrindavan
near Mathura are admired for the marble as well as alabaster products. Some objects are
embossed with semiprecious stones or synthetic gems.
III. MADHYA PRADESH –The rock cut temples of Vidisha, the stone sculptures of the temples of
Khajuraho, the monuments of Gwalior and Orchha are exemplary of the distinct artistry of the
stone carvers of Madhya Pradesh.The basic stone that has been used in most of the stone crafts
of Madhya Pradesh is soapstone. The artisans of Madhya Pradesh create two types of idols viz.
tatiya saaj which has two-dimensional relief work and the akshang which is three-dimensional
relief work. While Gwalior specializes in jalli (lattice) work, Tikamgarh and Jabalpur are famous
for decorative items including human figures and statues of animals.
IV. ODISHA– Carving is a major handicraft of Odisha. The progeny of these artisans who built the
magnificent temples of Parsurameswar, Mukteswar, Lingaraj, Puri and that wonder in stone, the
Sun God at Konark, besides the beautiful stupas and monasteries of Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and
Udayagiri have kept alive the sculptural traditions of their forefathers.
V. BIHAR– Ancient tradition in stone carving in Bihar is proved by the magnificent sculpture of the
Mauryan period. They had a technique of high polish which can still be seen in the Ashoka pillar
at Sarnath, the beautiful black stone with a touch of green in it that surprises one with its lustre.
VI. KARNATAKA– The temples at Belur and Halebid are the more exquisite specimens of Hoysala
architecture and are unrivalled for their beauty. The 57 ft. Jain statue of Gomatesvara at
Sravanabelgola, standing on the summit of a rocky hill which rises to 400 feet, is a remarkable
example of Indian stone sculpture.
VII. TAMILNADU– The main centers of stone crafts in Tamil Nadu are located around Mamallapuram
and Chingleput where the splendid granite stone carvings are hugely displayed. These are the
creative exuberance of the local Vishwakarma or Kammaalar communities. The stone crafts of
Tamil Nadu have been praised for the beautifully carved temples among which the Meenakshi
temple at Madurai, the mandapas, the pillars of stone, towering gopurams (gateway) etc are the
hallmarks of the stone craft of this place. The beautiful creations that depict 108 karanas of the
Natya Shastra are located at Chidambaram. Kanchipuram stands as the exclusive place for
displaying different super creations of the artisans during the Pallava and the Nayak period and
even the successive times. The Ekambareshwara Temple and the Varadaraaja Temple are also
exemplary of the style and creations of the craftsmen maintaining the technique described in
Shilpa Shastra.
WOOD ART
Wood art tradition in India is perhaps older than even stone art. The most common varieties used to
make Indian handicrafts are teak, sal, oak, mango, ebony and mahogany. Sandalwood, rosewood and
walnut are the fascinating varieties but expensive.
Wood art as an architectural pattern established the reputation for the carpenters in the Rajasthani
district of Sekhawati. Doors with carved beams, door-surrounded with little shutters in wood art were
introduced. This had set up a new trend of wood art in India which was later followed by the South
Indian architects. The villas of rich merchants of Chattinad, north east of Madurai (Tamil Nadu) were
embellished with capitals, carved columns, beams, brackets and lintels. The typical design of
architectural wood art in India involved the frequent usage of carved screens. The carved screens helped
to keep the interior airy. This also involved the embellishment of beams and pillars.
Later the plain wood art in India was given an artistic touch with chiselled work. Tarakashi, another form
of inlay, inherited from Mainpuri, was introduced as an archetypal form of wood art and is still in
practice in Uttar Pradesh. This technique involves the gluing of the "naqsha" on a plain dark surface
"sbisham", a little chisel is used to engrave the outline into the wood.
The main areas for woodcarving and woodcraft in the North-eastern states are the Wancho area of Tirap
district. The Wancho woodcarvings can be classified under three main categories. The first are those
connected with headhunting; the second with the decoration of the Morungs of men`s communal
houses and the third with the funerary images of different animals.
Mainpur in Uttar Pradesh is also known for its woodwork inlaid with brass wire on ebony or black
sheesham. The states of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Kerala have
conceptually urbanized distinctive styles of woodcarvings. Carved walnut woodwork is among the most
important crafts of Kashmir. The wood is hard and durable, it is close grain and even texture facilitating
fine and detailed work also presenting visually interesting effects with mere plain polished surfaces.
Double-grooved battens hold thin sheets of wood together. Udaipur in Rajasthan has a long tradition in
‘lacquer’ ware. Wood carving, one of Karnataka`s oldest crafts inflated the doors and ceilings of temples
and temple chariots. The most popular and praiseworthy example of it, however, is the sandalwood
carvings, a hereditary household craft, going back several generations.
GLASS ART
Various forms of glass art are –
I. Glass lamps and Chandeliers

II. Ceramic
III. Bead making –The process of bead making first came forth at almost three thousand years ago
since Indus Valle Civilization. Glass bead making in India is very popular in fact India being the
fountainhead of bead making. Even in the modern era, the rural areas of Gujarat, Bihar and
some part of the North India still carry the aura of this archaic art.
IV. Bangles – Firozabad in the modern era is illustrious for the mass production of bangles.
V. Toys – Saharanpur is famous for glass toys filled with coloured liquid called ‘Panchkora’. ‘Phials’,
jars, bottles, chimney lamps made of glass are of huge demand and are offered in wide range of
variety.
VI. Glass Painting– The glass painting in India is categorized in two distinct ways one of them is
traced as comparatively courtly while the other is folk painting. Glass painting as an expression
of glass craft got its first exposure in India in the late 18th century century. The flourishing trade
relations between British East India Company and China had introduced and cultivated this form
of art to India. Many churches of Goa and many imperial architecture has glass paintings on
them which is inspired from the glass paintings of European cathedrals. Glass painting excels in
superior quality glass, imported from Britain and Belgium engaging in the manufacturing of
showpieces of different sizes and shapes. There is Chinese influence also. The works of the
Chinese artists was hugely praised by the Indian rulers and were patronized by the
contemporary monarchs at Mysore and Satara at that time. The major centers of glass painting
are located in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Kutch, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Awadh
etc. The Thanjavur of Tamil Nadu is still carrying on the tradition of glass painting. The artisans
create Thanjavur sacred icon paintings till date. The glass paintings of Gujarat and South India
stand out for their popular and folk art traditions that are displayed in the glass paintings.
METAL WORK
Bidriware is a metal handicraft that originated in Bidar, Karnataka, in the 14th
century CE, during the rule of the Bahamani Sultans. Due to its striking inlay
artwork, Bidriware is an important export handicraft of India and is prized as a
symbol of wealth. The metal used is a blackened alloy of zinc and copper inlaid
with thin sheets of pure silver.
Meenakari is the art of coloring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colors
that are decorated in an intricate design. The Mughals invented the art of enamel or meenawork metal-
craft and it was popular with both the Mughals and the Hindu princes of Rajasthan where it was used for
creating precious objects and enriching jewellery. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari
Jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer and its luster brings out the colors of the enamels.
CRAFTS, TEXTILES and EMBROIDAY etc

APPLIQUE
It is a decorative work in which fabric is embellished with pieces of cloth, glass pieces, metal,
wood etc is stitched on to it. It is practiced in India in many states like – Odisha, Punjab, Gujarat,
Rajasthan etc. In Odisha, canopies of lord Jgannath’s rath during ratha-yatra are made from it.
BALUCHARI
The most well-known Bengal Silk sari is the Baluchari sari – a product of exquisite design and
fabulous weaving technique. Produced in the town of Baluchar in Murshidabad district of West
Bengal, Baluchari sarees are nation and world wide popular because of their artistic and unique
design. Baluchari saree is inspired from the Jamdani Sarees of Dhaka in Bangladesh.
BAGH EMBROIDARY
Famous in Punjab, it is silk embroidery on cotton. Simple and sparsely embroidered odini (head
scarfs) and shawls, made for everyday use, are called Phulkaris, whereas garments that cover
the entire body, made for special and ceremonial occasions, are known as Baghs.
The Bagh is an offshoot of Phulkari and always follows a geometric pattern, with green as the
basic colour. Green is probably predominant because Muslims have traditionally been doing
Bagh work.
BANBHANI or BANDHEJ
The term 'bandhani' refers to both the technique and to the finished
cloth. Etymologically, it means tying up. The work involves tying and
dyeing of the cloth, in that order, respectively.
In India, Rajasthan and Gujarat are famed for their production of very
fine and prolific bandhani. Tie and dye work, known as bandhej or
bandhni is popular all over Rajasthan in the form of colourful odhnis and saffas.
Lahariya, Mothda, Ekdali and Shikari are the most popular patterns amongst all the styles of
‘bandhni’ and every design display a unique look and nature.
BATIK
Batik is a process of decorating cloth by covering a part of it with a coat of wax and then dyeing
the cloth. The waxed areas keep their original color and when the wax
is removed the contrast between the dyed and undyed areas gives the
pattern.
Batik is a cloth that is traditionally made using a manual wax-resist

dyeing technique. In India, important centers are Jaipur, Barmar in
Rajasthan and it is also famous in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and other
states also.
BLOCK PRINTING
Block printing is a form of dying and coloring a fabric using wooden blocks.
Techniques of Block Printing in India –
I. Direct Printing: In this technique,

the cotton or silk cloth is first
bleached. Then the fabric is
dyed, unless a light background
is desired. Thereafter, the fabric
is printed using carved blocks
II. Resist Printing: In the resist technique, areas that are to be protected from the dye are
covered with a mixture of clay and resin.
Centers of Block Printing in India –
GUJARAT
In Gujarat, this form of hand printing has been practiced and perpetuated by the
Paithapur families. These prints are called Sodagiri (trader) prints.
RAJASTHAN
From Gujarat, the art of block printing spread to Rajasthan. Here colorful prints of birds,
animals, human figures, gods and goddesses are popular. Sanganer is famous for its
Calico printed bed covers, quilts and saris.
ANDHRA PRADESH
In Andhra Pradesh, the block printing method is applied in the creation of the exquisite
Kalamkari Painting. Kalamkari, as the name suggests, is artwork (kari) created with a pen
(kalam). It is a combination of hand painting and block printing. The two major centers
of Kalamkari art are Sri Kalahasti and Masulipatnam.
CHIKAN
Chikan is a traditional embroidery style from Lucknow, India. Literally

translated, the word means embroidery. Chikan began as a type of white-
on-white (or whitework) embroidery. Often the embroiderer creates
mesh-like sections in the design by using a needle to separate threads in
the ground fabric, and then working around the spaces.
GARA EMBROIDARY
Gara embroidery saris are originally Parsi family heirlooms, but now has became rare collector's
items because of their intricate work and exorbitant prices.
The gara was probably introduced in India by Parsi traders in the 19th
century who used to travel to China to trade. Today it is considered a
rare fashion item worth possessing.
JAMDANI
Jamdani is a hand loom woven fabric made of cotton, which

historically was referred to as muslin. The Jamdani weaving
tradition is of Bengali origin. It is one of the most time and labor
intensive forms of weaving hand loom weaving. Traditionally
woven around Dhaka and created on the loom brocade, jamdani
is fabulously rich in motifs. The word Jamdani is of Persian origin,
from 'Jam' meaning flower and 'Dani' meaning a vase or a
container.
Today it is used in other parts of country also and is mostly used in Saris.
JAMAWAR
Jamawar are the shawls that are made in Kashmir in India and are known for their intricate
designs.
They are called Jamawar because the Kings and the courtiers
used to buy it by the yard, called 'war' and make it into a
‘jama’, or a gown or robe, one can see examples of these in
the miniature paintings and portraits of old kings like
Emperor Akbar .
One shawl takes anywhere between a month and a year to be

made. It is made so finely that one cannot distinguish its front and backside.
KANI SOZNI EMBROIDRY
This type of embroidery is famous in Kashmir. Shawls are produced by two techniques – loom
woven or Kani Shawls and the needle woven or Sozni shawls.
KANTHA EMBROIDARY
It is considered as a specialty of West Bengal. ‘Kontha’ or ‘Kantha’ is a

Sanskrit word, which means ‘rags’. It is also called as the ‘recycling art’. This
cycle of embroidery style is simpler than many other styles.
KARCHOBI
Rajasthan is also known for deft needlework. Karchobi, a form of raised zari metallic thread
embroidery is popular in here. It is created by applying flat stitches on cotton padding. Karchobi
work can be seen on bridal and formal costumes. It is also done on velvet coverings, curtains,
tent hangings and the coverings of animal carts
and temple chariots.
KASUTI
It involves stitches and is famous in Karnataka.

Kasuti is a traditional form of embroidery
practiced in the state of Karnataka. Kasuti work
which is very intricate sometimes involves
putting up to thousands of stitches by hand and
is traditionally made on dresswear like
Kanchivaram sarees. The art form holds a Geographical Indications (GI) protection for Kasuti
embroidery. The name Kasuti is derived from the words Kai (meaning hand) and Suti (meaning
cotton), indicating an activity that is done using cotton and hands.
KATHI WORK
The nomadic (Rabari) tribes of Gujarat are known for their Kathi work, a type of embroidery,
which combines chain stitch work embellished with small mirrors. As
Kathi work is done on fabrics that are dyed in bright colours, the
garments and items made out are unique and display the folk flavour of
rural Gujarat. The womenfolk practice this craft.
KHARAK
Kharak, another well-known style of embroidery practiced in Rajasthan, derives its name from
the fruit of the desert, the date, and locally called kharak. Its
characteristic feature is its clusters of narrow bands or bars of satin
stitch. The embroiderer deftly counts warp and weft threads on
the ground cloth, producing the perfect geometric patterns in
which the bars are arranged.
KONDAMPALLI TOYS
Kondapalli toys are made in Andhra and are chiseled

out of locally available special light softwood.
LEHARIYA and MOTHRA
Lehariya is a style of tie and dye popular in Rajasthan in

which a pattern of
waves (lehar) is
created with stripes
by tying the cloth from both sides. In its mothra version,
intersecting stripes are formed, and in the case of an angular
mothra, a pattern called the mothra gandadar is formed. The
lehariya is highly popular in Rajasthan, both among men and
women.
MAHESHWARI SAREE
It has its origin in Maheswar town of Madhya Pradesh. It is famous for its thin fabric and elgant
designs. It is usually a blend of cotton and silk.
PAITHANI
Paithani is a variety of sari, named after the

Paithan town in Aurangabad Maharashtra
state where they are woven by hand. Made
from very fine silk, it is considered as one of
the richest saris in Maharashtra. Paithani is
characterised by borders of an oblique
square design, and a pallu with a peacock design.
PATOLA
Patola cloth is a double ikat (Ikat, or Ikkat, is a dyeing technique

used to pattern textiles that employs a resist dyeing process
similar to tie-dye.), style from Gujarat. Mainly employed in
producing silk saris.
PASHMINA
Pashmina refers to a type of fine cashmere wool and the textiles

made from it. Pashmina shawls are hand spun, woven and
embroidered in Kashmir, and made from fine cashmere fibre.
Pashmina and Cashmere are derived from mountain goats. One

distinct difference between Pashmina and Cashmere is the fiber
diameter. Pashmina fibers are finer and thinner than cashmere fiber, therefore, it is ideal for
making light weight apparel like fine scarves.
PHULKARI
Famous in Punjab and Haryana. Phulkari, an embroidery technique

from the Punjab in India and Pakistan literally means flower
working, which was at one time used as the word for embroidery,
but in time the word ‘Phulkari’ became restricted to embroidered
shawls and head scarfs.
SUJANI
Sujani is the traditional form of embroidery from Bihar. Embroidery is

done on a fabric that is enforced with fine muslin. The base fabric is
generally red or white. The outlines of the main motifs are highlighted
with thick chain stitch and the inner spaces are filled with different
coloured threads.
SUF BHARAT, PAKKO BHARAT, MOCHI BHARAT
The Suf Bharat embroidery style of Rajasthan bears a resemblance to the Phulkari of Punjab,
Baluchi embroidery of Iran and the needlework of Swat and Hazara in Pakistan. This embroidery
work can, thus, be identified as a style of embroidery common to the wider region of Southwest
Asia.
TANCHOI SAREES
The Tanchoi silks are among the traditional Surat saris. It is one of most popular variety of silk
saris from Gujarat.
The technique of weaving Tanchoi saris was brought to India form the country of China. This
variety of woven silk saris got its name from the three Choi brothers who brought the technique
to this country.
ZARDOSI
Zardosi is a very famous kind of embroidery done on fabrics with

the help of golden, silver and multicolored metal threads. It is an
ancient Persian art form dating back before the Mughal Empire.
Also called as Indian Zari. Wedding lehngas etc are made by using
this technique.
ART FORMS – MARTIAL ARTS of INDIA

KALARIPAYATTU– It is from Kerala and is considered to be one of the oldest existing martial arts of the
world. It dates back to more than 2000 year and many of the contemporary Chinese arts have been said
to be evolved out of it after a Buddhist monk took it to China. It mainly focuses on footwork and key to
its are 18 marma points in body which are considered vulnerable. It not only includes injuring opponent,
but healing techniques also.
SILAMBAM– It is a martial art from Tamilnadu and it involves fencing.
THODA – It is a martial art from Himachal Pradesh and is said to date back to time of Mahabharata.
GATKA – It is a weapon based martial art from Punjab.It was a martial art developed by Sikhs during
reign of Mughals. It continues to flourish and is still practiced today in fairs and festivals as a sport.
LITERATURE, SCIENCE, EDUCATION, INSTITUTES

CLASSICAL LANGUAGES– The status is awarded by government of India in consultation with Sahitya
Akademi which has set up following criterion –
I. Should be at least 1,500-2000 years old.

II. Should have unique collection of ancient literature considered as a heritage by speakers.
III. Literary tradition should be original and not borrowed.
So far following languages has been declared classical – Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannad, Telugu, Malayalam
and Odiya. Odiya is the only classical language of the Indo-European family, apart from Sanskrit.
HINDI and SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Asvaghosha, Kalidasa, Shudraka, Bhasa, Bhavabhuti, Harsha, Visakhadatta and Mahendravikraman etc
and their contributions have already been mentioned as a part of theatre tradition.
Panini, a 5th-6th century scholar, is known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for his formulation of the
rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and semantics in the grammar known as Ashtadhyayi.
Katyana wrote Vartika which is a commentary on Ashtadhyayi.
Patanjali wrote Mahabhasya which is one of seminal works on Grammer. The Mahbhashya (great
commentary) of Patanjali on the Ashtadhyaai of Panini is a major early exposition on Panini, along with
Varttika by Katyayana. He is also compiler of Yog Sutras. He is also doyen of Yoga philosophy o
Hinduism.
Chanakya (370–283 BCE) was a teacher to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and generally
considered to be the architect of his rise to power. Traditionally, Chanakya is also identified by the
names Kautilya and Vishnugupta Sharma, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise called
Arthashastra which was written by him while he was a teacher at Taxila.It is related to money and
politics and contains 6000 shlokas in 15 parts. Neetishastra (which is also known as Chanakya Niti) is also
attributed to Chanakya.
Harisena was a great poets and play writers of the Gupta period. He wrote poems praising the valor of
Samudra Gupta. It is inscribed on Allahabad pillar as well.
Gupta period was also a golden period of Indian literature or rather a golden period of Sanskrit
literature. Sanskrit literature from all the walks of life was produced during this time. Kalidasa emerged
as the biggest dramatist and story writer. Aryabhatta – a mathematician and astronomer – wrote Arya-
bhattiya and Surya Siddhanta. Varahmihir wrote Jyotishsastra and Pancha-siddhantika on astronomy.
Vagabhatta – a Physician – wrote Astangasangraha. Vishnusharma – wrote Panchatantra, a collection of
moral stories. Bhasa wrote one of the most celebrated plays Svapnavasavadatta. Vishakhadutta wrote
Mudra Rakshas and Devichandragupta (on Chandragupta-II and Dhruva Devi). Shudraka wrote
Mricchakatika. Dandin wrote Dasakumaracharita. Nalanda also emerged as the first large scale
university of the world during Gupta times.
Bhartrhari was a 5th century Sanskrit author who wrote Vakyapadiya , a treatise on Sanskrit Grammar
and Satakatraya which is also known as Nitishatak and has 100 verses on philosophy.
Bharvi, a 6th century Sanskrit poet in Pallava kings court, is best known for his Mahakavya (epic), the
Kiratarjuniya (Arjuna and the Mountain Man) is based upon an episode in Mahabharata. Kirat is Shiva
who speaks to Arjuna in for form of a mountain dwelling hunter.
Bhatti was a Sanskrit poet from 7th century who is best known for Bhattikavya which is also known as
Ravanavadha.
Dandin was a 7th century Sanskrit poet whose main work was Daskumarcharita which depicts the
adventures of 10 princes.
Magha was a 7th century Sanskrit poet at King Varmalata's court at Srimala, the-then capital of Gujarat.
His epic poem Shishupala Vadhais based on the Mahabharata episode where the defiant king Shishupala
is beheaded by Krishna's chakra. It is one of the 6 Sanskrit Mahakavyas. It was inspired by the works of
Kalidasa, Bharavi and Dandin.
Jayadeva was a 12th century Sanskrit poet from Odisha. He is most known for his composition, the epic
poem Gita Govinda, which depicts the divine love of Krishna – an avatar of Vishnu and his consort,
Radha, and it is considered an important text in the development of Bhakti movement of Hinduism. It is
also the finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous works on different aspects of
art and architecture, sculpture, iconography and related fields.
Kalhana was a 12th century Sanskrit poet in the kingdom of Kashmir. He used a variety of sources,
including inscriptions, accounts and histories. Rajtarangini is his most celebrated work. It is said to be
first major work of history in India. Kalhana was different from other raso writers in the sense that he
probably didn't have the patronage of any ruler. That is why his work could rise above the petty nature
of his contemporaries. Unlike the writers of prashastis , he was often critical about rulers and their
policies. He writes in the kavya style in order to make it interesting to the reader. Though he ensures
creativity in his writing yet he never loses sight of his main goal i.e. to write historical truths as seen by
him. Thus he maintained his objectivity in most matters. He was writing in a very turbulent period.
Harsha's reign had ended and there were lots of wars and struggles around. He wanted to write
impartially so as to present facts before people and make them learn from their mistakes. He mentions
his sources in detail. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness
accounts and earlier histories, to write his account. He mentions the 11 scholars who gave him the
family tree of Kashmir rulers. He mentions the legends, myths, folklore etc. wherever he had to rely on
it. But his strongest point is he relies on inscriptions in the temples, land grant inscriptions etc. and
mentions them clearly. His work is divided into 8 parts. First 3 cover history of more than 3000 years
which mainly rely on Puranas and legends. His real historiography begins from 4th part and in 4th – 6th
part, he covers the Karkota and Utpal rulers. For these parts he relies on inscriptions as well as Buddhist
texts. In 7th and 8th part he covers the Lohara dynasty. He writes that the feudal elements derive their
strength from the vast amount of land they hold. He criticizes kayasthas and bureaucrats and accuses
them of harboring treacherous intentions against the kings. He never paints anybody in full white or
black and impartially tells us about his strengths as well as weaknesses. It says Harsha introduced a
general dress in Kashmir of long coats. He gives us a whole lot of other information like geography,
family trees of important people, economic activities like coin moulding etc.
Somdeva was also a Sanskrit scholar from Kashmir, he wrote Katha Sarit Sagar.
Narayana wrote Hitopadesha which is a collection of Sanskrit fables in prose and verse written in the
12th century C E. It is an independent treatment of the Panchatantra. It is meant as an exposition on
statecraft (including the conduct of war and peace and the development of allies) but was produced in a
format easily digestible for young princes. The author of Hitopadesha, Narayana, says that the main
purpose of creating the Hitopadesha is to instruct young minds in a way that they learn the philosophy
of life and are able to grow into responsible adults.
Chand Bardai wrote Prithviraj Raso which is an epic poem on the life of king Prithviraj Chauhan in
Apbhramsa Hindi. It is supposed to be the first book in the Hindi language.
Raso Literature – It was called veer gatha phase earlier because the first literature found comprised
almost exclusively of the writings of the court poets glorifying the bravery of their ruling masters in
order to praise them. They often were full of exaggerations. Examples are Prithviraj Raso, Parmal Raso
(Alha and Udal), Beesaldev Raso (love affair of Ajmer ruler Beesaldev and Malwa princess Rajmati). In
addition to glorifying their bravery the poets also glorified their love affairs with beautiful princesses of
the age. Their aim was not to present historical facts but to glorify their masters. By glorifying wars and
feuds they played an important role in promoting regional rivalry and disturbed national unity. They
were also a reflection of cherished ideals in the society i.e. bravery and love. Fighting wars was
noble. The way they focus solely on the beauty of the princess while glorifying the love affairs of their
masters tells us that women were treated merely as an object of consumption. Women were expected
to perform jauhar and sati. They had no existence of their own. They are also a reflection of growth of
regional dialects. Many of these works use a mixed form of regional Rajasthani dialects - a style often
called pingle style.
During Mughal period also many Hindi literary works were done. Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas etc are
prominent among the books written during Akbar’s time. Among the noted Hindu poets of this period
were Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and Rahim.
TAMIL LITERATRE
SANGAM LITERATURE
Tamil as a language is known to exist since start of Christian era and hence the oldest of
Dravidian languages. Sangam literature is the oldest literature of this language.
Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature, mainly in form of poems, created
between the years 600 BCE to 300 CE around Madurai (which is a Tamil word for Mathura)
under Pandya rulers. It is called Sangam because it was composed at a collection of poets and
writers. Tamil Sangams were academies, where Tamil poets and authors are said to have
gathered periodically to publish their works.
It is believed that in all 3 Sangams took place. The poems belonging to the Sangam literature
were composed by Dravidian Tamil poets, both men and women, from various professions and
classes of society. They are secular in nature and of a very high quality. The Sangama literature is
a collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes
and heroines.
Sangam poems mention the muvendar. This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the
heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas of 2300 years ago. Each of the
three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two
were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital
of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received
gifts from the people.
Sangam Poems falls into two categories: the 'inner field' or aham and the 'outer field' or puram.
The 'inner field' topics refer to personal or human aspects, such as love relationships, and are
dealt with in a metaphorical and abstract manner.
The 'outer field' topics discuss all other aspects of human experience such as heroism, valour,
ethics, benevolence, philanthropy, social life, and customs.
Sangam literature mentions that Pandya rulers were wealthy and benefitted from trade with
Roman Empire and have sent embassies to Roman king Augustus. Brahmins were influential and
Vedic rituals were also performed by the King. Social inequalities were also very sharp during
Sangam age. Rich lived in structure of brick and mortar and poor in thatched huts.
The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been translated
into many languages are noteworthy. Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is divided into three parts. The
first part deals with the epics, the second part with polity and government and the third part
with love.
Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar and poetry.
It is considered as fountainhead of all literary conventions in Tamil.
There are two other Tamil classics viz – Shilpadikaram and Manimekalai. These two were composed
around the 3rd to 6th century AD. Shilpadikaram was written by Ilango. The nature of the book is non-
religious, narrative and has a moralistic undertone. The story involves the three Tamil kingdoms of the
ancient era, which were ruled by the Chola, Pandyan and Chera dynasties. It is considered as the
brightest gem of Tamil literature and deals with a love story between Kannagi – an ideal devoted wife –
and Kovalan. Kovalan is married to Kannagi, but fell in love with Madhavi and later Madvi deserts him,
but Kannagi accepted him. Later Kovalan was arrested on charges of theft by Pandyan king of Madurai
and was hanged for this. Kannagi avenged her husband by putting the whole Madurai on fire and later
commits suicide.
Manimekalai epic was written by a grain merchant Sattanar of Madurai. Its story is a sequel to
Silapadikaram, and tells the story of the conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and
Madhavi. Manimekalai is the name of the daughter of Kovalan. The Manimekhalai is the only surviving
Tamil Buddhist literary work of what once was an extensive literature. These epics throw light on the
socio-economic life of Tamils from second century to 6th century CE.
In post Sangam Period, (the 6th to 12th century CE), the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanars and
Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement which engulfed the entire Indian sub-continent. During this
period, Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were two Tamil literary classics.
Apart from these two great epics of tamil literature, there are three more works – Kuntalakeci by
Nagakuthanar or Nagasena is a Buddhist religious work of 5th CE. Civaka Cintamani was written by a
Jaina monk Tirutakka Thevar which is a Jainist religious work of 10th century. It narrates the romantic
exploits of Jeevaka and throws light on arts of music and dance of the era. It is a treatise of the fourfold
object of life and aim of literary work of virtue, wealth, pleasure and bliss. It is reputed to have been the
model for Kamba-Ramayanam. Valayapathi is also a Jain religious work of 9th century.
Kamban wrote Kamba-Ramayanam in Chola period but it was not merely a translation of the Valmiki
ramayna as the style, treatment of gender and even the narrative was varied according to the local
tradition. Thus he treats Ravan in a much more sympathetic way than Valmiki.
SULTANATE and MUGHAL LITERATURE

During Sultanate period, Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced in this
period was written in Persian. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote superb poetry in Persian.
During Sultanate period, poetry was a popular form. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hassan were great poets.
They also wrote qawwalis and created a new Indian style of poetry and is the originator of Hindustani
music. History writing was another popular trend. Books we written, specially dictionaries, with painted
illustrations. Amir Khusrau took the literature from elites to the commoners. He wrote numerous
popular puzzles in a form which is enjoyable to common people. This was perhaps because he was very
close to sufis and hence influenced by them and also contributed to their cause.
Both Babur and Humayun were lovers of literature and Babur himself worte Tuzek-e-Babri or
Baburnama which Humayun got translated into Arabic. Humayunama was written by Gulbadan Begum,
sister of Humayun.
Akbar also promoted literature – Akbarnama, Sursagar and Ramcharit Manas were writted during his
reign. Akbar was very fond of literary works and had a big library of works in many languages. He also
got many works translated into Persian. Akbar also got Mahabharata translated into Persian. Among the
noted Hindu poets of this period were Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and Rahim. Under Akbar we find many
muslim writers like Rahim, Ras-khan composing in Hindi while many Hindi works being translated into
Persian. A new upanishad called Allah-o-upanishad was even composed. We see that the writers who
tried to preach communalism could not find any popularity during his time. With respect to women, the
literature clearly shows them as an object of to be enjoyed as against their depiction as goddesses,
mothers etc. earlier. Thus we can see a clear decline of bhakti spirit in the literature of this age and
instead being replaced by consumption which was also the social undercurrent as the ruling class (who
were the audience of such literature) believed in consumption only. Thus this literature can also be
called as class literature. In opposition to this there was a minor strand of mass literature specially
coming from sufi saints of the age like Mira etc. which opposed worldly consumption. We can also see a
strand of literature emphasizing on morals in the form of dohas of Rahim etc.
Jehangir was also a scholar of high caliber and wrote his own life story. During time of Shajahan, Abdul
Hameed Lahori wrote Badshahnama.
18th century during Aurangzeb’s rule was important from literary point of view, though he discouraged
other forms of art. Many literary greats like Surdas, Tulsidas, Raskhan who wrote Prem Vatika, Bihari
who wrote Satsai and most importantly Kabir, lived during those times. They wrote in languages other
that the courtly language of Persian.
Urdu literature started developing during the last days of the Mughal emperor. This credit goes to Sir
Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Mirza Galib. The language of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was very simple and
impressive. His compositions inspired the other Urdu writer Mirza Galib, who was a famous poet of his
time. He made an important contribution to uplift Urdu poetry.
TUZUK-i-BABRI or BABURNAMA
It is an autobiographical work, written in the Chagatai – a local Turkish language. Its importance
is that it is an autobiography and this is where Mughals differed from sultans. The work is from
someone who was shaping the India of the age and brought a revolution. He divides his work in
3 parts – first part runs from his accession to the throne of Fargana and ends with leaving
Samarkand for the final time, second part tells us about his struggles and wars in India and the
third part tells us about the state of affairs in India. He describes the political situation of the
country in great detail. He talks about different provincial rulers like Gujarat, Malwa, Bijapur,
Golconda etc., Vijaynagar, Bengal, Rajputana. He talks about the difficulties faced in keeping the
conquered areas firmly under his control. He talks about the difficulties faced in collecting land
revenue. Being a foreigner he tells us in detail about all things which struck to him and which
may have been ordinary to a resident here. He was a keen observer and describes people and
geography in great detail. He writes about their clothes, food, habits, behavior, profession,
social structure, festivals, art forms, architecture, technologies etc. in great detail. Thus he
produces a rich account. He also writes very frankly about his own mistakes.
TUZUK-i-AKBAR or AKBARNAMA
Abul Fazl was a liberal person like Akbar and consequently had come very close to him. Abul Fazl
was a great supporter of Akbar's liberal religious ideas and he wanted to strengthen his position
further. So he highlighted the divine aspect of Akbar's kingship and also praised sulh-i-kul policy
of Akbar. He rejects the highly ornamental style of Persian writing of previous historians and
instead writes in a very simple and yet lovable language. Unlike other Persian historians he
doesn't use any such language which can even hint at religious intolerance. This was a big break
from the history writing tradition of the age. Although it must be noted that he didn't know
Sanskrit like Berouni and thus suffered from this handicap. He rejects the claim of old historians
that in India there is an inherent conflict between the Muslims and Hindus. He also rejects any
fanaticism be it in Hindus or in Muslims.
The first part starts with Akbar's birth and ends in 1572 where he talks about creation of the
universe, other religions and their prophets, Akbar's ancestors etc. In the second one he covers
the period till 1588. The third part is Ain-i-Akbari. The Ain was part of a larger project of history
writing commissioned by Akbar. This history, known as the Akbarnama, comprised three books.
The first two provided a historical narrative. The central purpose of the Ain-e-Akbari or Ain was
to present a vision of Akbar’s empire where social harmony was provided by a strong ruling
class. The Ain-i Akbari was the culmination of a large historical, administrative project of
classification undertaken by Abu Fazl at the order of Emperor.
RAZMNAMA
Razmnama is an abridged illustrated translation of the Mahabharata written in Persian at the

behest of the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
PADMAYAT
Padmavat (1540) is a poem by Malik Muhhamad Jayasi written in Avadhi dialect of Hindi during
reign of Sher Shah Suri describing the story of the historic siege of Chittor by Alauddin Khilji in
AD 1303, who attacked Chittor after hearing of the beauty of Queen Rani Padmini, the wife of
King Rawal Ratan Singh.
EUROPEAN SOURCES DURING MUGHAL TIME
Jean Taverner – He was a merchant and hence was interested mostly in economic activities of
the country. But a difference between him and other writers is that he didn't remain confined to
the court activities. He travelled across India and also wrote about the people, social life
(whatever he could understand) and economic life. Thus he becomes an important source albeit
one which should be interpreted with proper caution. He thus writes about the production
activities in India, the merchants, the sarafs, the involvement of amirs in trade, various temples
etc. He is best known for the discovery and sale of the 118-carat (24 g) blue diamond that he
subsequently sold to Louis XIV of France in 1668, (it was stolen in 1792 and re-emerged in
London as The Hope Diamond).
Francis Bernier – He had stayed in India for a long period. So he came to understand the
circumstances here in a better way. He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668, and
was closely associated with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest
son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and scientist. In virtually every instance
Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation in comparison to developments in
Europe. He had access to the royal courts and hence writes about the lives of the ruling class
including the princesses. He writes about the rajputs as well. He also throws sufficient light on
the economic life. He writes about the craftsmen, the peasants etc. But he incorrectly asserts
that the emperor was the owner of all land here. On amirs he writes that they lived a very
consuming life. Despite large incomes they were always indebted. He talks about the
transportation means, the mughal army, the Brahmans and their narrow mindset and
superstitions, the sati system, devadasi system and craft production processes in India.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE and DEVELOPMENTS

Though India had made an early start in field of science, it couldn’t be carried forward because, science
was later mixed with myths and superstition. For example, while we were a leader in medicine, later we
started to believe that if we touch a corpse, we shall loose our caste.
MATHEMATICS in INDIA
Earliest examples of acquaintance of Indians with maths are found in town planning of
Harrapans which showed good knowledge of geometry. Sulvasutra or Shulbasutra – which
refers to the texts related to the construction of fire altars – are perhaps the early socurce of
science of mathematics in India. The four major sulvasutra are those composed by Baudhayana,
Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana. The sulvasutras are part of the larger corpus of texts called
the Shrauta Sutras, considered to be appendices to the Vedas. They are the only sources of
knowledge of Indian mathematics from the Vedic period. Apart from Pythagoras theorem and
value of Pi, other three important contributions of Indian mathematicians include – the notation
system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to
the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Arabs called
mathematics as ‘Hindisat’ or Indian art.
Budhyana’s ‘Budhyana Sulvasutra’ was the earliest work on mathematics in 6th century BCE
which also mentions use of Pythagoras Theoram and use of Pi as a part of appendices to Vedas.
His Budhyana Sulvasutra also mentions a ritual which included ‘squaring the circle’ i.e.
converting a square of a given areas into a circle and vice-versa. These techniques were used to
construct various forms of fire-altars for conducting yajnas, sacrificesand other rituals.
Pingala was a 2nd century BCE scholar who used binary numbers in the form of short and long
syllables in his Chhandahshastra. It was quite similar to Morse Code which is the basis of
computer industry today.
Apstambha, a mathematicianof 2nd century BCE gave the reference of concepts of acute, obtuse
and right angles which were used in construction of fire altars in his work on sulvasutras.
Aryabhatta lived during Gupta era and in 6th century wrote Aryabhattiya (written at the age of
23 years) in which the concepts of mathematics as well as astronomy were used. It has four
sections which deal with – methods of denoting big decimal numbers with alphabets, number
theory, geometry, trigonometry and algebra and astronomy. There was also an astronomical
observatory in Nalanda where Aryabhatta studied. He stated that day and night were caused by
the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting
everyday. He formulated area of a triangle and also discovered algebra. He also gave value of ‘π’
or pie which was much more accurate than that was given by Greeks. He gave decimal system in
5th century AD. Zero was discovered by Indians in 1st century BCE, however it is attributed to an
unknown Indian. He also gave rule to find area of triangle leading to developments in field of
geometry.
Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer who lived in Ujjain in
6th century and wrote Vrihatsamihta. He is considered to be one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas)
of the court of legendary ruler Vikramaditya (thought to be the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II
Vikramaditya). He wrote Brihatsamhita. He said that moon rotated around earth and earth
around sun.
Brahmgupta in 7th century AD also wrote ‘Brhmasapta Siddhantika’ which was the first book
which mentions zero as a number. He mentions many rules for the first time which govern the
operations of Zero with other numbers including positive and negative numbers. He also
mentions concepts of positive and negative numbers in this book and called negative numbers
as ‘debt’ and positive numbers as ‘fortunes’. He also gave the solution of the general linear
equation in Brahma Saptasiddhanta. He also contributed towards geometry as well, his most
famous result in geometry is his formula for cyclic quadrilaterals.
Bhaskara (commonly called Bhaskara I to avoid confusion with the 12th century mathematician
Bhaskara II or Bhaskaracharya) was a 7th-century Indian mathematician, who was apparently
the first to write numbers in the Hindu decimal system with a circle for the zero, and who gave a
unique rational approximation of the sine function in his commentary on Aryabhata's work–
Aryabhatiyabhasya, written in 629 CE, is the oldest known prose work in Sanskrit on
mathematics and astronomy. He also wrote two astronomical works in the line of Aryabhata's
school, the Mahabhaskariya and the Laghubhaskariya. He is considered the most important
scholar of Aryabhata's astronomical school. He and Brahmagupta are one of the most renowned
Indian mathematicians who made considerable contributions to the study of fractions.
Mahaviracharya a Jain scholar wrote GanitSarsangrah on arithmatics in 9th century AD. It is the
first textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least common
Multiple (LCM) of given numbers was also described by him, long before John Napier introduced
it to the world.
Sridhara in 10th century CEwrote Ganitasara which deals with multiplication, division, numbers,
cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on.
Bhaskaracharya was a 12th century Kannadda mathematician who wrote Siddhantshiromani

which is is divided into four sections – Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya
(Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of planets). He has been called the greatest
mathematician of medieval India. He introduced cyclic method or Chakrawat Methodto solve
algebraic equations using differential calculus. This method was rediscovered six centuries later
by European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. He also calculated the time taken by
earth to revolve around Sun. Yasti Yantra was a unique instrument developed by him which was
used to measure the height of trees, mountains etc.
Madhava a 14th century mathematician developed a procedure to determine the positions of

the moon every 36 minutes. He also provided methods to estimate the motions of the planets.
He gave power series expansions for trigonometric functions, and for pi correct to eleven
decimal places.
ASTRONOMY in INDIA
Aryabhatta in 500 AD wrote Aryabhattiya in which the concepts of astronomy were used in 2
out of 4 sections. He said that earth is round and revolves around its own axis. He also gave
methods of calculation of movement of planets and gave a method of calculating eclipses. He
made a radical departure from Vedic notions about earth and solar system and gave astronomy
a more rational and scientific outlook.
Similarly, Varahmihira made similar observations as those made by Aryabhatta and he classified
astronomy into five branches. Varahamihira's main work is the book Pancha-Siddhantika on the
Five Astronomical Canons. It summarises five earlier astronomical treatises, namely the Surya
Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha
Siddhantas.
An observatory was established at Nalanda and later Ferozshah Tuglaq also established an
observatory at Delhi. Similarly, Feroz Shah Bahamani established an obersvatory near
Daulatabad. Sawai Jaisingh - II also established 5 astronomical observatories – Jantar Mantar at
Delhi is one of them.
MEDICAL SCIENCE in INDIA
First mention of medicines and illnesses is made in Atharveda which mentions various diseases
like cough, diarrhea, leprosy etc and their causes in form of spells, evils etc. It also mentions
their remedy in form of magical spells, hymns and charms.
The basic conception of Indian medicine is that fundamental fluids like – Vat, Pitta, Kaff (wind,
blood, mucus) play an important role and are associated with gunas or qualities like virtue,
passion and dullness ad balance between them keeps human body healthy.
Buddhist monks used to work as doctors as well and Ashoka established free hospitals.
Atreya Samhita is considered as the first work on Ayurveda in India.
Sushruta is called ‘father of surgery’ and he is also known to have performed plastic surgery and
he wrote Shushrutsamahita. Exact date of this work is not known and it is speculated to have
been done in 1000 BCE, much before work of Charaka.
Charaksamhita is one of the earliest works of 3rd century BCE by Charak who was a court doctor
of Kanishka. He mentions mention use of herbs and plants for medicinal urpose and is called
‘father of Ayurveda’.
Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were other noted ancient ayurvedic practitioners.
Various other schools evolved later – Raschikitsa recommended use of mineral medicines, Unani
(Greek) system was introduced by Muslims in 11th century AD.
LITERATURE DURING COLONIAL RULE

Indian nationalism and interaction with European liberal ideas influenced the growth of Indian
literature.
Tagore was foremost literary figure of that time. He represented a combination of ancient Indian
tradition and the new European consciousness. He was a combined voice of national awakening and
international humanism. Gitanjali a collection of Poems and it is about the sermon that Lord Krishna
gave to Arjuna in the battlefiled of the Mahabharata. Though he had a perfect command over English
and had himself translated Gitanjali into English, but he chose to write in Bengali as a medium for his
creative writings. This proves his sense of national pride. His novels Gora, Ghare Baire reflect the genius
of a supereme novelist. In sphere of music also, Tagore was an original creator. Rabindra Sangeet bears
its testimony which was a mix of classical and folk with themes like worship, love, nature, patriotism,
celeberation. In his old age he also dabbled into painting.
‘Novel’ was the most significant outcome of the Indo-European contact and first important work was
‘Anand Math’ by Bankim Chandra Chattarjee which also carried the song Vande Matram. Prem Chand
made significant stride in Hindi-Urdu literature and the Indian peasant was the protagonist of his
writings. He wrote more than 300 short stories also including Kafan, Shatranj ke Khiladi, Poos Ki Raat
etc. Other notable writers were Bibhuti Banerji (wrote Pather Panchali), Tara Shankar (wrote Gandevta)
etc. This tradition was further taken forward by Phaniswarnath Renu (Maila Anchal) in Hindi, Gopinath
Mohanty (Praja) in Oriya, Bal Chandra Nemade (Kosla) in Marathi, T Shivasankar Pillai (Chemeen) in
Malyali, Sarat Chandra Chatterji in Bengali, Jainendra Kumar in Hindi and so on.
In poetry also, in the beginning of 20th century, Indian poetry witnessed the rise of romanticism. Tagore
was at the forefront of this movement and it was influenced by the works of Wordsworth, Shelly etc in
English. However, the difference between Indian romanticism and English romanticism was that Indian
romanticism emphasized on anti-feudalism and anti-imperialism. Mohmmad Iqbal in Urdu, Suryakant
Tripathi Nirala in Hindi, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Keshavsut in Marathi, G Shankar Kurup in Malayalam and
Subramaniyam Bharti in Tamil were the noted poets and they were also the campions of nationalist
struggle.
REGIONAL LITERATURE
One of the major streams of regional and local literature is collectively referred as Abrhamsa literature.
Apbrhamasa literally mean the ‘broken one’. It referred to the languages of the people other than
Sanskrit, which was the language of the educated. Rise of Bhakti movement helped in spread of such
literature starting in South.
BENGALI LITERATURE
Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories
 One indebted to Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first includes translations of
the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (literally auspicious poems, dealing with local deities)
and bhakti literature such as the biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava
bhakti movement
 The second includes Nath literature such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra,
stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads. The
Naths were ascetics who engaged in a variety of yogic practices.
Wood’s Despatch led to establishment of a university in Bengal at Calcutta along with at two
other presidencies. Besides textbooks for schools and colleges, other literature was also
produced. However, it was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali besides English that gave
impetus to Bengali literature. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta
(1820-86) were two other writers of this early period. In addition to these, Bankim Chandra
Chatterji (l834-94), Sharat Chandra Chatterji (l876-1938), and RC Dutta, a noted historian and a
prose writer, all contributed to the making of Bengali literature. But the most important name
that influenced the whole of India was that of Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941). Novels,
dramas, short stories, criticism, music and essays, all flowed from his pen. He won the Nobel
Prize for literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.
Upto 1800, most of the literature produced was limited to religion or courtly literature. The
Western influence brought the writers closer to the man in the street.
The final years of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century saw a new
subject, nationalism, being taken up. Quazi Nazrul Islam became torchbearer of this trend.
GUJRATI LITERATURE
Early Gujarati literature is available in the form of Bhakti songs of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. It still follows the old tradition which is popular in Gujarat. Narsi Mehta’s name is the
foremost in this respect. The people of Gujarat wove these devotional songs in their folk dances
and their religious forms often find expressions in their celebrations.
Saraswati Chandra, a novel by Govardhan Ram, has become a classic and has given great
impetus to other writers.
KANNADA LOTERATURE
Kannada language developed fully after the 10th century AD. The earliest known literary work in
Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga AmoghavarshaI. Pampa,
known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva
Vijaya in the tenth century AD. Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the
reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote
Ajitanatha Purano. Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title ratnatreya (the three
gems).
Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara.
Honnamma was perhaps the first outstanding poetess in Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma
(Duty of a Devout Wife) is a compendium of ethics.
MARATHI LITERATURE
The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in the 13th
century. He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita – Janeshwari. He was the one who
started the kirtan tradition in Maharashtra. He was followed by Namdev (1270-1350), Gora,
Sena and Janabai. All these sang and popularized the Marathi language.
Almost two centuries later, Eknath (1533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the commentaries
on the Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana. His songs are very popular all over Maharashtra. He
brought out first reliable edition of Janeshwari of Jandeva.
Then came Tukarama (1598-1650). He is supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of them all.
Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers.
It was the nationalist movement that made Marathi prose popular and prominent. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak (1857-1920) started his Journal Kesari in Marathi.
PUNJABI LITERATURE
Guru Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi. Some other contemporary poets, mostly Sufi saints,
used to sing in this language. In this list, the first name is that of Farid. His poetry has found a
place in the Adi Granth. The Adi Granth also contains poetry of the next four gurus. There are
several other poetic stories which have been composed by the locals. This folklore has been
preserved. The most important of these is Heer of Waris Shah. Similar is the popularity of Bulley
Shah who was a Sufi saint. He has left a large number of songs. One of his popular forms of
compositions was called kafi; it was sung in a classical musical form.
TELUGU LITERATURE
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Krishnadevaraya was the
greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is
regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu literature. Eight Telugu literary luminaries,
popularly known as Ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among them, Allasani Peddana, the
author of Manucharitram, was the greatest. He was known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha. Others
among Ashtadiggaja were Tenali Ramakrishna, Dhurjati, Pingali Surana etc. Tenali Ramakrishna,
the court jester, was an interesting figure of the Krishnadevaraya’s court. His practical jokes on
high-placed men of the time are recounted with pleasure even today. Ramakrishna was the
author of Panduranga Mahatmayam which was considered one of the greatest poetical works
of Telugu literature. Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit
known as KalahasteeswaraMahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam, Pingali Surana
composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. In the former, he attempted
a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata simultaneously.
OTHER PEOPLE from LITERATURE, PHLOSOPHY etc

Megasthenese wasfrom Mauryan Period, 4th century BCE. He was the first recorded foreign traveler to
come to India. He was one of the first ambassadors – was a Greek ambassador who was sent to the
court of Chandragupta Maurya by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.
Fa-Hian - Gupta Period, 5th Century AD. He is most known for his pilgrimage to Lumbini, the birthplace
of Gautama Buddha Lumbini. He visited India during the reign of Chandragupta VIkramaditya. Fa-Hien
came to India with a view to trace the origin of the Buddhist religion. He came by land, but took sea
route to return.
Hiuen Tsang or Xuan Xang – Post Gupta Period, 7th Century AD. He also visited court of Harsha. He also
visited to Nalanda and took many manuscripts with him back to China. Most of the information about
Nalanda, as we know it, comes from his descriptions. According to him, foundation of a monastery was
laid by Kumargupta I in the fifth century CE; and this was carried forward by the later monarchs who
built up a fantastic university here. There is evidence that all three Buddhist doctrines— Theravada,
Mahayana and Vajrayana—were taught there. This is how he describes Nalanda: The teachers are men
of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the
monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the
old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle
their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after
they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.
I-Tsing or I-Ching – Post Harsha Period, 8th Century AD. I-Ching was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim and was
the first Buddhist monk to take a sea route to India. He studied at Nalanda for many years and took
huge volumes of Buddhist writings when he returned.
Al Beruni was a scholar during Mahmud of Ghaznvi during 1000 AD. He had a good interest in India. Al-
Biruni spent years in the company of Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit, and studying
religious and philosophical texts. His biggest work was Kitab Ul Hind or Tehqiq-i-Hind. Kitab-ul-Hind,
written in Arabic, is divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals,
astronomy, alchemy, manners etc. Some scholars believe that he sympathized with Indians because
Mahmud had plundered his native place too like India. He wanted to understand Indian philosophical,
religious and scientific thought. He analyzed everything that came across him in a critical and scientific
manner and presented his analysis in an unbiased manner. He referred to the original works of
Varahmihira, Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Patanjali as well as Bhagwad Gita, Vishnu Purana, Vaayu Purana
in Sanskrit (for which he himself learned Sanskrit) to have a first hand account of Indian society. He
describes Indian society, culture, festivals, dress, food, entertainment, scientific thought, philosophical
thought etc. in great detail. He describes the weights and measures used in India, distances,
geographical features, alphabet etc. prevailing in India. He also mentions the caste system and other
social institutions that were prevalent at that time. He tells us that Buddhism was not to be seen
anywhere and he had only heard about it. He tells us about the influence of Bhakti by recognizing a firm
monotheism in Northern India. He expresses regret that Indians had abandoned the scientific outlook of
their ancestors and had relapsed into stagnation in mind and in thought. Instead of keeping their minds
open and learning from others as their ancestors did they now relied only on traditions.
Ibn Battuta is called ‘the world's first tourist’. He wrote a book called Rhila. Ibn Battuta had served as a
Qazi in India for about six years during Muhammad bin Tughluq's rule and travelled extensively across
the country.
Thomas Roe was an ambassador to the Court of Jahangir. The principal object of the mission was to
obtain protection for an English factory at Surat.
Mirza Ghalib was a classical Urdu and Persian poet from India during British colonial rule. Mirza Ghalib is
also known as the last great poet of the Mughal Era. He is the most well-known name in Urdu poetry as
of today.
Warrish Shah composed Heer Ranjha.
Raskhan, a Muslim poet,wrote Prem Vatika on the life of Krishna.
Firdausai wrote Shahnama which is translated as book of kings. It is the national epic of Iran and related
societies.
INSTITUTES, TRENDS and PRACTICES in LITERATURE

NALANDA UNIVERSITY
Nalanda is the name of an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India and was a Buddhist
center of learning from the 5th or 6th century CE and was originally established by Kumargupta
and reached its peak during Harsha’s rule and Pala rulers. Nalanda was ransacked and
destroyed by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1193. Much of it still lies under
ground as habitation has come up there.
According to Hiuen Tsang, who visited during Harsha’s time, Nalanda housed as many as 10,000
students and university had imposing buildings of even 4 stories.
It is estimated through evidences that all the three major Buddhist doctrines viz – Mahayana,
Thervada and Vajrayana were taught here. Although this huge monastic-educational
establishment was primarily a centre for learning of Mahayana Buddhism, yet the curriculum
included secular subjects as well. Grammar, logic, epistemology and sciences were taught here.
Students were encouraged to develop a spirit of enquiry and reasoning.
It also promoted art and architecture which was influenced by Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath. A
synthesis of Gupta, local Bihar and central India art forms gave birth to Nalanda School of
sculpture. They were distinct in style as they were not crowded and have a high relief giving
them a three dimensional look.
Apart from Nalanda and Vikramshila, Valbhi in Gujarat was also a center of Buddhist learning.
In 2006, Singapore, China, India, Japan, and other nations, announced a proposed plan to
restore and revive the ancient site as Nalanda International University.
PRASHASTIS
Prashasti literally means in praise of. They were written eulogies of kings in past to extol their
exploits and victories. Earliest prashastis can be considered of Mauryan period when he gave
description about himself as ‘devnampiyadasi’ in Maski and other rock edicts.
Kharvela kings also made inscriptions at Hathigumpha in Udaigiri caves.
Prashashtis in real sense started from Gupta period when full blown accounts of kings were
ordained. Allahbad inscription which is actually a poem composed by Harisena, the court poet of
Samudragupta, is a classical example of that. Gupta rulers used grandiose titles like
‘maharajadhiraja’ in those prashashtis.
Even before Gupta, prashashtis were inscribed by the kings like Gautamiputra Satakarni of
Satvahan dynasty. It is believed that he belonged to a lower caste and to legitimize his rule he
laid such inscriptions.
Similarly, in Aihole, we find inscriptions in praise of Chalukya ruler Pulkeshin. Prashashtis often
exaggerated the achievement and also sometimes represented the kings in the divine form.
Apart from being account of life and deeds of kings, they are now a good source of socio-
economic set up of those times.
OTHERS TOPICS
COINAGE
Earliest coins were the punched mark coins which were made of silver which was scarce in India and was
found at a few places like Kharagpur. Panas were the punch marked silver coins during the Mauryan
period.
Indo-Greek rulers like Menander are important for the fact that they issued a large number of coins.
They were the first ruler in India coins of which bore the name or image of King. Earlier there were
images of animals, trees etc. They were also the first to issue gold coins in India. Indo-Greek rulers are
important for the fact that they issued a large number of coins. They were the first ruler in India coins of
which bore the name or image of King. Earlier there were images of animals, trees etc. They were also
the first to issue gold coins in India.
Another important mark in coinage was made during the rule of Kanishka who introduced elegant gold
coins at large scale inspired from Greek coins. Kushans also issued coins of silver and copper also.
Satvahanas issued coins made of lead which was found locally.
Guptas made coins of various shapes, sizes and materials. Their coins are also important because they
depicted Gupta kings also on them. On one coin Samudragupta is shown playing Veena. On the other
side, Hindu deities were shown, thus they are important source of history as well. He introduced a silver
coin ‘Rupak’ for the first time inspired by coins of Western Kshaptraps.
The gold coins of Gupta period were called Dinara inspired by the Roman coins but later the coins were
minted in the Indian style with the weight standard of 9.2 gms of gold and called Suvarna.
Coins of Muslim kings are valuable in history. Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks give us plenty of
interesting information on this period. From the royal titles, the name and place of minting we can find
out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his status. Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted
at Delhi, Daulatabad and several other provincial capitals and had at least twenty-five different varieties.
Tuglak also tried to reform money system and he introduced common coins which were not made of
precious metals and hence to improve upon the medium of exchange by introducing a true currency,
but it failed as people started forging such coins by home made mints.
Shershah Suri is credited with making important changes and he introduced a coinage system which was
later adopted by Mughals. His silver coins had a lasting influence on Indian currency system.
TRADE
The Jatakas refer to eighteen important handicrafts and industries.
Earliest trade was perhaps with people of central Asia and Greece. The demand for Roman goods was
smaller than that of Indian goods abroad and it suffered an adverse trade balance of trade. To make up
this balance, the Romans supplied gold and silver coins to India. Rome, the Chief importer of Indian
muslin, once banned it, due to the rising loss of morals of its females.
The Vaishyas developed institutions like Sreni, Nigama and Puga to regulate trade and avoid intrusion by
other varnas and develop monopoly. Proper rules of conduct of trade were laid by the head of trade
guilds called Samay and Srenidharma. Guilds of merchants were properly registered and even served as
banks. Nasik cave inscription tells that srenis often acted as law providers also. (Sresthis, are now called
as Seths, Settis in South India and also Chettiyars).
Taxila, Pushkalavati and Vidisha prospered as trade centres, under the Indo-Greek rulers. Magadh
developed an important center during Mauryas. During Mauryas, most important trade route was from
Taxila to Patliputra. Among land-routes, the silk-route was very often in use till Kushan period. Later
period saw it becomming unsafe, due to robbers. Ujjain was the most flourishing trade centre in and
around the Gupta period.
The important exports from India were – fine textiles from Varanasi, Malabathrum (spicy leaves) from
Tamralipti (Tamluk, Bengal), muslins (Pondicherry), pepper (Muziris), ivory (Puhar, Orissa). Pepper was a
very valuable export till 13th century CE, Marco Polo (Italy) mentions that a ship was measured by the
number of pepper baskets contained in it.
The decline in the westward trade towards the 2nd-3rd century CE was later compen-sated for by the
prospering trade now developed with the south-east Asian States like the Suvarnabhumi, Kambuja
(Kampuchea), Champa (Annam) during Chola ruleres. Arabs also established trade relations with India
during 8th century CE as the first Muslim traders in India. India imported horses from Arabia, Iran and
Bactria.
FAIRS, FESTIVALS and RITUAL ARTS

BAISAKHI
Baisakhi or Vaisakhi is a harvest festival which is celebrated across the northern Indian
subcontinent, especially in the Punjab region by the Sikh nation as this day commemorates the
establishment of the Khalsa.
DANDIYA RAAS
Dandiya Ras is the traditional folk dance form of Vrindavan, India, where it is performed
depicting scenes of Holi, and lila of Krishna and Radha.
DEV DEEPAVALI,
It is celebrated on the fifteenth day of Diwali, is a tribute to river Ganga by the people of
Varanasi. After leaving king Bali, the Lord rejoined the devas on this day.
GANESH CHATURTHI
It is the day Shiva declared his son Ganesha as superior to all the gods and is celebrated as his
birthday.
HANUKKAH
It is Jewish festival of lights. It commemorates Jewish struggle for religious freedom.It marks the
victory of Syrian Greeks over the army of the ancient world.
KARTIKAI
It is a festival of lights held on Kartik Poornima in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of
Kerala. It is celeberated in the honor of Shiva at his appearance at the birth of universe.
KHORDAD SAL
It is aParsi festival which celeberates birthday of Zarthustra
LAILUT AL BARAH
Also called Shab-e-Barat.
LAILUT AL KADAR
Last ten days of Ramdan are called Lailut al Kadar or night of power. It is believed that Koran
was revealed to Prophet during this time.
KUMBHA MELA
It has a mythological story of churning of ocean by demons and deities which resulted in rise of
Kumbha of Amrita. Kumbh Mela is held at four places which are supposed to be the ones where
the drops of nector fell when Indra was carrying the Kumbh to save it from demons.
The Ardh (half) Kumbh Mela is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Allahabad, the Purna
(complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years, at four places Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain,
and Nashik. The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144
years, is held at Allahabad
MAHAMASTAKABHISHEKA
It is an important Jaina festival held every 12 years in the town of Shravanbelagola in

Karnanataka in which veneration of a high statue of Bahubali (son of first Tirthankara. In
memoray of his attaining nirvana) takes place.
ONAM
It is a Hindu festival celebrated by the people of Kerala, India. The festival commemorates the
Vamana avatar of Vishnu and the subsequent homecoming of the legendary Emperor Mahabali.
The festival is marked by various festivities including intricate flower carpets, elaborate banquet
lunch, snake boat races. The celebrations of Onam start on Atham day, 10 days before
Thiruvonam. The 10 days are part of the traditional Onam celebrations.
PALETI
It is a Parsi festival and is a day of introspection, and it originally occurred on last day of Parsi
calendar year.
PARYUSHANA
It is a Jain festival during which devotees reflect upon and pay penance. It last for 8 days along
intensive fasting and prayers.
RATH YATRA of PURI
It celebrates the going of Krishna his brother and his sister to their aunt’s place.
ROSH HASHANAH
It is a Jewish festival which celebrates creation of the world. It is also celebrated as judgment
day.
SHAB-e-BARAT or LAILUT AL BARAH
It is also called night of forgiveness. It is the night 2 weeks before Ramdan. It is believed, one’s
destiny is fixed for the year ahead.
According to belief, the destinies of men for the coming year are recorded on this night by God.
All over India, Muslims stay awake all night.
VASANT PNCHAMI
Vasant Pnchami is celebrated in honour of Godess Saraswati, the godess of learning.

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UPSC Civil Services Exam

A BRIEF HISTORY of CULTURE

EARLY ROCK PAINTINGS

Harappan also domesticated Elephant and produced rice which

Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, no evidences of temples have been

Harappan also produced sesamum and mustard also.

People of Lothal also used rice.

Indus people were the earliest to produce cotton.

Trade evidences of Harappa

 Tin used in Bronze making was possibly brought from Afghanistan

In the later Vedic times, the Sabhas lost their democratic

Next important artistic developments took place during

In sculptures, one of the finest examples of popular

In south India, Satvahanas emerged as strongest power in post-Mauryan period. After

BUDDHIST ART in POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

Bharhut is one of the prominent places of early Buddhist

personified representations of certain virtues or qualities as propagated by the Buddhist

I. Apsidal (semicircular) vault-roof (in form

The front of the chaitya hall is dominated by the

Later some modifications were made in 1st

Cave No. 16is known as Kailash leni. A rock-cut

Ajanta vs Ellora Caves –

HINDU and NON-BUDDHIST ARTnin POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

I. Sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha)

Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar are scattered and have

Gupta period is golden period of Indian art. Guptas

HINDUISM and HINDU LITERATURE

The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz.

VEDIC INDIAN PHILOSOPHY SCHOOLS or SHADDARSHANA

I. Ayurveda deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda

His teachings are –

Buddha didn’t recognize god or soul unlike Jaina.

III. Asteya or Non-stealing

3 Ratnas or Three fold path of Jaina teachings are –

I. Right Faith – In the infallibility and competence of teachers

After his death, his followers divided into two branches –

I. Shvetambara or wearer of white cloth of North India, guided by Sthulbhadra.

Core beliefs and principles of Jainas are –

I. Swastika – Signifying well being

SOUTH INDIAN MOVEMENTS and SAINTS

Some of the other Bhakti saints of South are –

SHANKARA or ADI SHANKARA (8th century)

RAMANUJA (11th century)

MADHAV (13th century)

VALLABHACHARYA (15th century)

NORTH INDIAN MOVEMENTS and SAINTS

He was a disciple of Ramananda. Ravidas also populary known as 'Bhagat Ravidas' or

She was also a devotee of Vithala

He is believed by followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism to be the full incarnation of Lord

Ghasi Das founded a socio-religious movement in Chhattisgarh and called it the

He was a Shaivite and wrote Kathasaritsagara (ocean of the streams of stories) a

NATHPANTHIS, SIDHHAS and YOGIS

Contribution of Bhakti Movement –

SUFISM and SILSILAHs

Features of Sufi movement –

SUFI SILSILAS or ORDERS

OTHER RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS, BHAKTI, PHILOSOPHY, PRINCIPLES

CARVAKA or LOKAYATA or BRAHSPATYA PHILOSOPHY