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Mathematical Statistics (MA212M) : Lecture Slides

At total reflux, operating lines are vertical (infinite slope). This can be used to determine the minimum number of stages. Not that operating curves are not required to do this -- only the endpoint compositions. While doing constructions on the yx diagram, a "pinch" was defined as the intersection point between the equilibrium curve and the operating curve. On an Hx diagram, there isn't an equilibrium curve -- it has expanded to a region, and each point from the xy equilibrium curve is represe

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60 views8 pages

Mathematical Statistics (MA212M) : Lecture Slides

At total reflux, operating lines are vertical (infinite slope). This can be used to determine the minimum number of stages. Not that operating curves are not required to do this -- only the endpoint compositions. While doing constructions on the yx diagram, a "pinch" was defined as the intersection point between the equilibrium curve and the operating curve. On an Hx diagram, there isn't an equilibrium curve -- it has expanded to a region, and each point from the xy equilibrium curve is represe

Uploaded by

Satkar Jain
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Mathematical Statistics (MA212M)

Lecture Slides
Lecture 03
Continuity of Probability
Def: A sequence, {En }n≥1 , of events are said to be increasing if

En ⊆ En+1 .

Def: A sequence, {En }n≥1 , of events are said to be decreasing if

En+1 ⊆ En .

Def: For an increasing sequence, {En }n≥1 , of events, define

lim En = ∪∞
n=1 En .
n→∞

Def: For a decreasing sequence, {En }n≥1 , of events, define

lim En = ∩∞
n=1 En .
n→∞
Continuity of Probability

Theorem: Let {En }n≥1 be an increasing sequence of events, then


 
P lim En = lim P(En ).
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem: Let {En }n≥1 be a decreasing sequence of events, then


 
P lim En = lim P(En ).
n→∞ n→∞

◮ Finite additivity and continuity from below implies countable


additivity.
Conditional Probability

◮ A die is thrown twice. What is the probability that the sum is 6?


Ans: 5/36
◮ Now suppose you have observed the outcome of the first throw
and it is 4. Now what is the probability that the sum will be 6?
Ans: 1/6.
Once you are given some information or you observe something, the
sample space changes. Conditional probability is a probability on the
changed sample space.
Def: Let H be an event with P(H) > 0. For any arbitrary event A,
the conditional probability of A given H is defined by

P(A ∩ H)
P(A|H) = .
P(H)
(
P(A)P(B|A) if P(A) > 0
P(A ∩ B) =
P(B)P(A|B) if P(B) > 0

Def: A collection of events {E1 , E2 . . .} is said to be mutually


exclusive if Ei ∩ Ej = φ, ∀i 6= j. It is said to be exhaustive if
∪i Ei = S.

Theorem: Let {E1 , E2 . . .} be a collection of mutually exclusive and


exhaustive events with P(Ei ) > 0, ∀i . Then for any event E ,
X
P(E ) = P(E |Ei )P(Ei ) .
i
Theorem: Let {E1 , E2 . . .} be a collection of mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events with P(Ei ) > 0, ∀i . Let E be any event with
P(E ) > 0. Then

P(E |Ei )P(Ei )


P(Ei |E ) = X i = 1, 2 . . . .
P(E |Ej )P(Ej )
j

Example 1: There are 3 boxes. Box 1 containing 1 white, 4 black


balls. Box 2 containing 2 white, 1 black ball. Box 3 containing 3
white, 3 black balls. First you throw a fair die. If the outcomes are 1,
2 or 3 then box 1 is chosen, if the outcome is 4 then box 2 is chosen
and if the outcome is 5 or 6 then box 3 is chosen. Finally you draw a
ball at random from the chosen box.
a) Given the drawn ball is white what is the (conditional)probability
that the ball is from box 1.
b) Given the drawn ball is white what is the (conditional)probability
that the ball is from box 2.
Independence

Observe that P(B1 |W ) = 9/34 < 1/2 = P(B1 ), whereas


P(B2 |W ) = 5/17 > 1/6 = P(B2 ). Thus the “occurrence of one
event is making the occurrence of a second event more or less likely”.

Def: Let A and B be two events. They are said to be


a) negatively associated if P(A ∩ B) < P(A)P(B) ,
b) positively associated if P(A ∩ B) > P(A)P(B) ,
c) independent if P(A ∩ B) = P(A)P(B) .
◮ If P(B) = 0 then A and B are independent.
◮ If P(B) = 1 then A and B are independent.
◮ In particular any event A is independent of S and φ.

Theorem: If A and B are independent, so are A and B c , Ac and B,


Ac and B c .

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