Automotive Electronics and Diagnostics

Sub-Module: CAN Basics

CAN Network Introduction
• Controller Area Network - a serial communication bus well suited to real-time distributed
systems.

• Also referred to as ‘Datalink’

• Communication Network:
• between different controllers on a vehicle / application
• between controller and “smart sensors”
• between controller and off-board tools (service, OBD)

Reduces number of direct connections (inputs) to the ECM

Enables inter-controller sharing of data

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Controller Area Network (CAN) - History
• CAN is an Open International Standard
• Initial definition by Robert Bosch in 1980’s.
• Used in first automobile application in 1990.
• Selected as building block of SAE’s J1939 standards in 1993

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Multiplexing
Transmission of multiple signals over a single communication medium.

• Advantages of multiplexing:
• Reduction in overall system wiring, resulting in cost/weight savings.
• Reduction in wire harness size, simpler packaging.
• Elimination of redundant sensors/functions.
• Improved reliability
• Standardized engine interface
• Disadvantages of multiplexing:
• System diagnostics and service require more specialized training/knowledge
• system architecture more complex

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CAN Standards
• The CAN communication standard ISO 11898 describes how information is passed between the
nodes.
• CAN follow the OSI Seven Layer Model
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework for
implementing protocols in seven layers.
• Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station,
proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.
• Each layer exists to interact with the layer above and below it.

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Seven Layer Model

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Devices on the CAN

Controllers Smart Actuators

•Engine •EGR Controller
•Transmission •Turbo
•ABS and other safety •Glow Plugs
controllers •ECT Motor
•Body Control Module

Sensors IO Modules and

•Oxygen Information
•Nox •Dashboard / Cluster
•Smart Thermistor and •Cruise Control
Differential Pressure •Service Tool
sensors •OBD Tool
•Datalogger

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Think Binary
CAN is a two-wire system
It has non-return-to-zero (NRZ) states
Has two States: Recessive and Dominant
Dominant State is a transmission of logical “0” (2 V differential). Recessive
State is a transmission of logical “1” (0 V differential)
There is no other neutral or rest condition. During idle time, bus is recessive.
Bit-stuffing is employed. The transmitting node inserts a complementary bit in
the transmitted bit stream after five consecutive message bits of the same
value
Vcan_H

Vdiff = 2.5V Nom

ECU 2.0V Nom
Vcan_L
recessive dominant recessive

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection
• Carrier Sense:
• Each node verifies the absence of other traffic before transmitting
• That is, it tries to detect the presence of a carrier wave from another station before attempting to
transmit.
• If a carrier is sensed, the station waits for the transmission in progress to finish before initiating
its own transmission.
• Multiple Access:
• Multiple stations send and receive on the medium.
• Transmissions by one node are generally received by all other stations connected to the medium.
• Collision Detection:
• The node terminates transmission as soon as a collision is detected, thus shortening the time
required before a retry can be attempted.

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CAN Attributes
• Plug and Play for add-on devices on the network (no pre-registration)
• Multi-master – no ‘Almighty’
• Auto prioritization by means of Bus Arbitration
•Provides a self-contained synchronization mechanism (independent devices can run on their
internal clocks)
• Broadcast type bus
• Fault tolerant – Detection and Recovery at multiple levels
• Guaranteed message delivery

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CAN Attributes
• Modules connect to the bus in a “wired-and” fashion.
• During periods of idle time the bus is in a recessive (logic 1) state.
• Uses non destructive bit wise arbitration for bus access. Non-destructive means that the node
winning arbitration just continues on with the message, without the message being destroyed or
corrupted by another node.
• Small message size.
• No explicit address within CAN; the contents of the message determine the address.

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Components of the CAN Network
• Data-link and Physical Layer
• CAN transceiver
• CAN controller
• CAN software application

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Physical Layer Specification
• Cable comprising of two parallel wires with an impedance of 120 ohms.
• Shielded twisted pair wire recommended
• Max. line length of 40 metres @ 1 Mbps
• Reflections in the transmission line should be kept as low as possible
• Reflections happen very quickly during and just after signal transmissions
• Can affect the determination of logic levels
• More cause for concern on longer networks

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Termination
• Both ends of the bus must be terminated so that any node can transmit
• There should be no more than 2 terminating resistors
• Integrating the terminating resistor into a node is not recommended
• Can cause the network to lose communication if the node with terminating resistor is
disconnected.
• Can create a situation of more than 2 terminating resistors on the bus

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Physical Filtering
• For enhanced signal quality, the terminating resistors on each side can be split into two and a
capacitor added to create a R-C network based high-frequency filtering
• Most transceivers with internal termination provide this filtering.

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Isolation
• The ground potentials at different nodes of the network can be different.
• The differential is called Common Mode Voltage
• A high differential should not cause intermittent reboots, lock-ups, bad data transfer or physical
damage to the transceiver
• This and other noise induced in the ground link need to be isolated

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Mis-wiring and Short Circuit
• In some CAN applications, 24V and common ground lines are routed along the 2 CAN lines
• The CAN inputs on the transceiver should be protected for miswiring and short circuit with up to
32 V

• Additionally, the transceiver should be protected against electrostatic discharge

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CAN Bit Timing
• Each node in a CAN network has its own clock, and no clock is sent during data transmission.
• Nominal Bit Rate is the number of bits transmitted per second
• Nominal Bit Time = 1 / Nominal Bit Rate
• Bit divisions – the nominal time to transmit each bit is divided into four times segments.
• Sampling Mode typically one sample per bit.
• Resynchronization takes place when a node receives a data frame or remote frame.

Synchseg Propseg Phaseseg1 Phaseseg2

Nominal Bit Time

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 CAN Bit Divisions
• SYNC SEG - This part of the bit time is used to synchronize the various nodes on the bus. An
edge is expected to lie within this segment.
• PROP SEG - This part of the bit time is used to compensate for the physical delay times
within the network. It is twice the sum of the signal’s propagation time on the bus line, the
input comparator delay, and the output driver delay.
• PHASE SEG1, PHASE SEG2 - These Phase-Buffer-Segments are used to compensate for edge
phase errors. These segments can be lengthened or shortened by resynchronization.
• SAMPLE POINT - The SAMPLE POINT is the point of time at which the bus level is read and
interpreted as the value of that respective bit. It’s location is at the end of PHASE_SEG1.

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 CAN Arbitration Collision

SOF
Idle
Tx
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
Node A
Rx 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

Tx
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Node B
Rx 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

Bus 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

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CAN Message Types
• Information on the bus is sent in fixed format messages of different but
limited length
• Data Frame
• Data Frame is the most common of the CAN Message types – used for sending
data between two controllers.
• Remote Frame
• Remote Frame is a truncated form of the Data Frame
• Error Frame
• A information frame transmitted by a node that detects an error within a
message
• Overload Frame
• Special Frame used to delay transmission of a CAN frame if the receiver circuitry
of a node is not ready

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CAN Data Frame Format
• The CAN Data Frame is composed of eight fields
• Start Of Frame (SOF)
• Identifier or Arbitration field
• Control Field
• Data Field
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Field
• Acknowledge (ACK) field
• End Of Frame (EOF) Field
• Inter-frame Space

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CAN Message Formats
• A CAN can be configured to work with two different message formats:
a. The standard or base frame format (or CAN 2.0 A):
Supports a length of 11 bits for the identifier.
This provides for 2048 unique identifiers.
b. The extended frame format (or CAN 2.0 B) supports a length of 29 bits for the identifier
Made up of the 11-bit identifier (“base identifier”) and an 18-bit extension
(“identifier extension”).
This provides for 537 million unique identifiers
c. CAN controllers, which support extended frame format messages are also able to send and
receive messages in CAN base frame format. (but not vice versa, especially in case of older
controllers)

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CAN Standard Frame Format
Maximum frame length with bit stuffing = 127 bits

Arbitration Field Control Field

CRC
Data Field Delimiter
12 Bits 6 Bits

S R I
Identifier T D r DLC Data Field CRC ACK EOF
O
F R E 0 Field
1 11 1 1 1 4 0 - 64 15 1 2 7
Number
of Bits
Bit Stuffing No Bit Stuffing

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Frame Contents
• SOF - The single dominant start of frame (SOF) bit marks the start of a message, and is used to
synchronize the nodes on a bus after being idle.
• Identifier - The Standard CAN 11-bit identifier establishes the priority of the message. The lower
the binary value, the higher its priority.
• RTR – The single remote transmission request (RTR) bit is dominant when information is required
from another node. All nodes receive the request, but the identifier determines the specified
node. The responding data is also received by all nodes and used by any node interested
• IDE – A dominant single identifier extension (IDE) bit means that a standard CAN identifier with
no extension is being transmitted

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Frame Contents
• r0 – Reserved bit (for possible use by future standard amendment).
• DLC – The 4-bit data length code (DLC) contains the number of bytes of data being transmitted.
• Data – Up to 64 bits of application data may be transmitted.
• CRC – The 16-bit (15 bits plus delimiter) cyclic redundancy check (CRC) contains the checksum
(number of bits transmitted) of the preceding application data for error detection.

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Frame Contents
• ACK – Every node receiving an accurate message overwrites this recessive bit in the original
message with a dominate bit, indicating an error-free message has been sent. Should a receiving
node detect an error and leave this bit recessive, it discards the message and the sending node
repeats the message after re-arbitration. In this way, each node acknowledges (ACK) the integrity
of its data. ACK is 2 bits, one is the acknowledgment bit and the second is a delimiter
• EOF – This end-of-frame (EOF), 7-bit field marks the end of a CAN frame (message) and disables
bit-stuffing, indicating a stuffing error when dominant.
• IFS – This 7-bit inter-frame space (IFS) contains the time required by the controller to move a
correctly received frame to its proper position in a message buffer area.

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CAN Extended Frame Format
Maximum frame length with bit stuffing = 151 bits

Control CRC
Arbitration Field Data
Field
32 Bits
6 Bits
Field Delimiter

S S I R EE
Identifier
O Identifier R D T r r DLC Data Field CRC ACK O
Ext. 1 0
F R E R Field FF
Number
1 11 1 1 18 1 1 1 4 0 - 64 15 1 2 7
of Bits

No Bit
Bit Stuffing
Stuffing

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Frame Contents
• SRR – The substitute remote request (SRR) bit replaces the RTR bit in the standard message
location as a placeholder in the extended format.
• IDE – A recessive bit in the identifier extension (IDE) indicates that more identifier bits follow. The
18-bit extension follows IDE.
• r1 – Following the RTR and r0 bits, an additional reserve bit has been included ahead of the DLC
bit.

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Remote Frame
• The intended purpose of the remote frame is to solicit the transmission of data from another
node.
• The remote frame is similar to the data frame, with two important differences.
• First, this type of message is explicitly marked as a remote frame by a recessive RTR bit in the
arbitration field, and secondly, there is no data.
• The Remote Frame only consists of:
• START OF FRAME, ARBITRATION FIELD, CONTROL FIELD, CRC FIELD, ACK FIELD, END OF FRAME.

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Error Detection and Confinement
• CAN Network has very strong error detection and confinement capabilities, and it is fault
tolerant.
• Powerful error handling.
• Error detection is performed by all network devices.
All devices or no devices will process a given message.
• Errors are confined.

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Bit Level Error Detection
• Bit Monitoring
• Each bit is monitored by the transmitter
• Bit Stuffing
• If more than five bits in the same state are received a Stuff error is raised.

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Bit Monitoring
•Transmitter also reads transmitted signal.
•This feedback is also used to ensure that it is still ‘winning’ the bus state (for it to continue
transmitting)
•During the Identifier based arbitration, if the transmitter sent a ‘recessive’ bit and the state of the
bus is ‘dominant’, the transmitter should stop sending the signal and convert into a receiver. No
error is raised in this condition.
• There are two additional exceptions where an opposite bit level may be detected without error:
• The node sending the acknowledgement field detects the bus in a dominant state.
• The node sending a passive error flag detects the bus in a dominant state.

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Bit Stuffing
• A transmitting node should insert a complementary bit in the transmitted bit stream after five
consecutive message bits of the same value.
• This encoding is used for an entire CAN data or remote frame with the exception of fixed form bit
fields for the CRC delimiter, ACK field, and end of frame. CAN error or overload frames are also
fixed form.
• Any node receiving a message that breaks the bit stuffing rules will detect this as a receive error

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Message Level Error Detection
• Form Check
• CRC Check
• Acknowledge Check

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Form Check
• Certain bit fields in a CAN message frame are of fixed form, specifically the CRC delimiter field,
ACK field, and end of frame.
• Receiving nodes perform a form check to ensure these are correct.

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CRC Check
• The CRC is a sequence of bits that are calculated based on the first part of the CAN frame (up to
the data field).
• The transmitting node computes this sequence by dividing a generator polynomial into a
polynomial formed from the CAN data, to provide a remainder that serves as the CRC sequence.
• The generator-polynomial:
• X 15 + X 14 + X 10 + X 8 + X7 + X 4 + X 3 + 1.
• This CRC sequence is inserted into the CAN message in the CRC field.
• The receiving node divides the generator polynomial into a polynomial formed from the data and
CRC sequences together.
• In the event of no errors, the remainder should be zero.

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Acknowledge Check
• Although the acknowledgement field is transmitted as recessive, the transmitting node checks
for a dominant bit on the bus during this bit time.
• This dominant bit is an ACK bit is sent by any node receiving the message correctly.
• A transmit error occurs if no other node acknowledges the message.

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Error Detection
• Whenever a Bit Monitoring Error, Bit Stuffing Error, Form Error or an Acknowledgement Error is
detected by any station, it starts transmitting an ERROR FLAG at the next bit.

• When a CRC Error is detected, transmission of an ERROR FLAG starts at the bit following ACK
DELIMITER (unless an ERROR FLAG for another ERROR has already started)

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Error Frames
• The ERROR FRAME consists of two different fields. The first field is given by the superposition of
ERROR FLAGs contributed from different stations. The following second field is the ERROR
DELIMITER.
• There are 2 forms of an ERROR FLAG: an ACTIVE ERROR FLAG and a PASSIVE ERROR FLAG.
• The total length of this sequence varies between a minimum of six and a maximum of twelve
bits.

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Active Error Flag
• The ACTIVE ERROR FLAG is sent by all the nodes detecting the Error.
• It consists of six consecutive ’dominant’ bits.
• The resulting bit state of the bus is a super-imposition of the dominant bits (each node will feel
that it has won).
• The ERROR FLAG’s form violates the law of bit stuffing.
• As a consequence, all other stations (i.e. the ones that did not detect the error, including the
node that transmitted the faulty message) detect an error condition and on their part start
transmission of an PASSIVE ERROR FLAG
• After transmission of an ERROR FLAG each node sends ’recessive’ bits and monitors the bus until
it detects a ’recessive’ bit.

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Passive Error Flag
• The PASSIVE ERROR FLAG is sent by the nodes that did not detect the error
• It is sent in response to the ‘bit stuffing’ error that originates in the ACTIVE ERROR FLAG
• This is ideally meant to single out the faulty controller and take the control of the bus from it.
• It consists of six consecutive ’recessive’ bits unless it is overwritten by ’dominant’ bits from other
nodes that wants to send a new message.
• The node sending the PASSIVE ERROR FLAG regains control of the bus only if other controllers are
not sending anything.

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Error Feedback
• An ’error passive’ station detecting an error condition tries to signal this by transmission of a
PASSIVE ERROR FLAG.
• The ’error passive’ station waits for six consecutive bits of equal polarity, beginning at the start of
the PASSIVE ERROR FLAG.
• The PASSIVE ERROR FLAG is complete when these 6 equal bits have been detected.
• The ERROR DELIMITER consists of eight ’recessive’ bits.

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Too Many Error Frames
• An Error Frame is transmitted when a node detects an error in a message, and causes all other
nodes in the network to send an error frame as well.
• The original transmitter then automatically retransmits the message.
• An elaborate system of error counters in the CAN controller ensures that a node cannot tie up a
bus by repeatedly transmitting error frames.

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Fault Confinement
• For fault confinement two counts are implemented in every node:
• 1) TRANSMIT ERROR COUNT
• 2) RECEIVE ERROR COUNT
• A node is ’bus off’ when the TRANSMIT ERROR COUNT is greater than or equal to 256.
• A ‘bus off’ unit cannot have any further influence on the bus.
• An error count value greater than about 96 indicates a heavily disturbed bus. It may be of
advantage to provide means to test for this condition.
• Start-up / Wake-up:
• If during system start-up only 1 node is online, and if this node transmits some message, it will
get no acknowledgement, detect an error and repeat the message. It can become ’error passive’
but not ’bus off’ due to this reason.

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Fault Confinement

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Fault Confinement

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Inter-Frame Spacing
• DATA FRAMEs and REMOTE FRAMEs are separated from preceding frames by a bit field called
INTERFRAME SPACE. In contrast, OVERLOAD FRAMEs and ERROR FRAMEs are not preceded by
an INTERFRAME SPACE and multiple OVER-LOAD FRAMEs are not separated by an
INTERFRAME SPACE
• For stations which are not ‘error passive’ or have been RECEIVER of the previous message,
INTERFRAME SPACE, contains the bit fields INTERMISSION and BUS IDLE
• For ‘error passive’ stations, which have been TRANSMITTER of the previous message, the
INTERFRAME SPACE, contains the bit files, INTERMISSION, SUSPEND TRANSMISSION and BUS
IDLE.

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Inter-Frame Spacing
• INTERMISSION consists of three ’recessive’ bits.
• During INTERMISSION the only action to be taken is signalling an OVERLOAD
condition and no station is allowed to actively start a transmission of a DATA
FRAME or REMOTE FRAME.

• After an ’error passive’ station has transmitted a message, it sends eight

’recessive’ bits following INTERMISSION, before starting to transmit a further
message or recognizing the bus to be idle.

• The period of BUS IDLE may be of arbitrary length. The bus is recognized to be
free and any station having something to transmit can access the bus.
• A message, which is pending for transmission during the transmission of another
message, is started in the first bit following INTERMISSION.
• The detection of a ’dominant’ bit on the bus is interpreted as START OF FRAME.

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Stand-by Mode
• As a lower-power opportunity, many transceivers provide the option to go into ‘stand-by’ or
‘listen only’ mode
• The transmitter is switched off while the receiver continues to monitor bus activity and pass it to
the CAN controller.
• CAN controllers can be programmed to “wake-up” the device upon the receipt of certain data.

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Sleep Mode
• In sleep mode both transmitter and receiver circuits can be switched off to create an extremely
low-power sleep mode.
• There is no bus monitoring.

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Message Filtering
• All messages broadcast on the CAN Network are received at each node.
• CAN controllers can be programmed to filter messages of interest.
• This is a recommended practice so that the transceiver decoder can only spend time and energy
to collect required information.
• Message filtering is based upon the whole identifier to map the messages into receive buffers.

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Message Validation - Transmitter
• The point of time at which a message is taken to be valid, is different for the transmitter and the
receivers of the message.
• Transmitter:
• The message is valid for the transmitter, if there is no error until the end of END OF FRAME. If a
message is corrupted, re-transmission will follow automatically and according to prioritization. In
order to be able to compete for bus access with other messages, retransmission has to start as
soon as the bus is idle.
• Receiver:
• The message is valid for the receivers, if there is no error until the last but one bit of END OF
FRAME. The value of the last bit of END OF FRAME is treated as ’dont care’, a dominant value
does not lead to a FORM ERROR

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Thanks
Automotive Electronics and Diagnostics

CAN – J1939
SAE J1939
• SAE J1939 is a series of data communication standards prescribed by the Society of Automotive
Engineers.
• It dictates both the physical and protocol interfaces to ensure plug and play operation.
• J1939 prescribes a CAN 2.0B network (extended frame format) that supports a length of 29 bits
for the identifier
• SAE J1939 specification numbering also follows the OSI 7-Layer Model
• SAE J1939 is used in all heavy-duty applications globally.

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Vehicle Network

Vehicle

Onboard Traction
Engine
Computer Controller

Transmission Electronic Dash

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Seven Layer Model

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SAE J1939 Transport Layer Specifications
• J1939-11 Physical Layer, 250K bits/s, Twisted Shielded Pair

• J1939-13 Off-Board Diagnostic Connector

• Describes the Off-Board Diagnostic connector used on the vehicle to get access to the
vehicle communication links.

• J1939-15 Reduced Physical Layer (250 kbps, unshielded twisted pair)

• Based on the ISO 11898-2 standard (high-speed CAN physical layer) topology is a linear bus
running at 250 kbit/s with termination resistors to reduce reflections.

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SAE J1939 Transport Layer Specifications
• J1939-21 Data Link Layer
• The heart of the J1939 set of specifications. It describes commonly used messages such as
Request, Acknowledgement, and Transport Protocol messages.
• Breaks up the 29-bit CAN identifier into sub-fields.

• J1939-31 Network Layer

• Describes network elements. Defines how CAN messages are transferred from one network
to an another

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SAE J1939 Application Layer
• SAE J1939 defines application layer message sets with the following purposes:
• Powertrain Control
• Switch / Sensor Multiplexing
• Information Sharing
• Diagnostics Services
• Proprietary Communications
• Power Generation and Industrial Applications

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SAE J1939 Application Layer Specifications
• J1939-71 Vehicle Application Layer
• Defines messages and parameters intended for light, medium, and heavy-duty vehicles used
on or off road as well as appropriate stationary applications which use vehicle derived
components

• J1939-73 Application Layer Diagnostics

• Defines messages to accomplish diagnostic services, provides messages used by the
networked electronic control modules to allow them to report diagnostic information.

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SAE J1939 Application Layer Specifications
• J1939-75 Application Layer—Generator Sets and Industrial
• Describes the parameters and parameter groups associated with monitoring and control for
power generation and industrial applications.

• J1939-81 Network Management

• Concerned with the management of source addresses and the association of those
addresses with an actual function and with the detection and reporting of network related
errors.

• J1939-82 Compliance
• Outlines the tests to assure that an ECU operates correctly as a node on a J1939 network.

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SAE J1939-21 Standard Data Frame
CAN Standard Data Frame

Data CRC
Arbitration Control Field Delimiter
Field Field
CAN
S R I E
Identifier ACK
O T D r DLC Data Field CRC O
F R E 0 Field F
Bits 1 11 1 1 1 4 0 - 64 15 1 2 7

J1939 Bits 3 8 0 - 64

Priority Data
Source
Field
Address

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SAE J1939-21 Extended Data Frame
CAN Extended Data Frame
CRC
Control Field Delimiter
Arbitration Field
S S I R D C E
O R D T r r L Data R ACK O
CAN F Identifier R E Identifier Ext. R 1 0 C Field C Field F
Bits 1 11 1 1 18 1 1 1 4 0 - 64 15 1 2 7

J1939 Bits 3 1 1 6 2 8 8 0 - 64

Data
Priority Source Data
Page
Extended Address Field
Data PDU PDU
Page Format Specific

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SAE J1939 Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
The SAE J1939 PDU provides a framework for organizing the SAE J1939
specific information for each CAN frame.
The PDU only covers data that is uniquely required in a SAE prescribed
format (and not the lower level determined by CAN specification itself)
The PDU basically includes the 29-bit Identifier for the CAN frame and the
64-bit data.

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SAE J1939 Messaging Basics
• Each pre-defined message in the SAE J1939 Application Layer specifications is a collection of:
1. Related parameters of the same type, sub-system and/or component
2. Parameters required as inputs for a control task
3. Parameters that originate in the same controller

These individual parameters are identified by Suspect Parameter Numbers (SPN)

Such a grouping is called Parameter Grouping (PG). Each Parameter Grouping is identified on the
network by an associated number called Parameter Group Number (PGN).
The PGN is a 16-bit number that is composed of 2 halves called Protocol Data Unit (PDU) : PDU
Format and PDU Specific

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29-bit Identifier
Bits (MSB to LSB) Significance Details
1 to 3 Priority (P) Highest (000), Lowest
(111)
4 Extended Data Page ‘0’ for all SAE J1939
(EDP) PGNs
5 Data Page (DP) ‘0’ for all Page 0 PGNs
6 to 13 PDU Format (PF) Prescribes whether the
message is destination
specific or not. PF is 1st
8-bits (MSBs) of PGN
14 to 21 PDU Specific (PS) Works in conjunction
with PF to form the PGN.
PS is the LSBs of PGN
21 to 29 Source Address (SA) J1939 Source Address of
the device sending the
message

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Source Address
• The Source Address for a device on the network is awarded by J1939 in terms of the function
being performed by the controller/device

• The max. number of addresses cannot exceed 256

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CAN vs. SAE – Numbering Difference
CAN Definition
Byte 0 Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 7
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

SAE Definition
Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Multi-byte parameters
• Multi-byte parameters are placed with LSB first.

• E.g: If a 2-byte data is placed in bits 7 and 8, bit 7 contains the LSB and bit 8 the MSB

• Exceptions: ASCII coded data

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J1939 Source Address Determination

• 64 bit NAME to uniquely identify each controller.

• Each controller has a unique 8 bit identifier
• The NAME indicates the main function performed by the controller
• If the function is split between controllers, the Function Instance
parameter is used.
• Address Claim message is sent by each controller at start-up

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J1939-71
• Defines the “data dictionary” used to encode/ decode powertrain & info share message
• Appendix A – SLOTs (Scaling, Limit, Offset, and Transfer Function)
• Appendix B – SPNs (Suspect Parameter Numbers)
• provides a list of parameter definitions
• Appendix C – PGNs (Parameter Group Numbers)
• provides a list of messages definitions
• Appendix D – Supporting Information
• provides further definition for certain parameters

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SPN Data Sizing - Transmitted Signal Ranges
Signal Type

Signal Discrete, Status 1 Byte 2 Byte 4 Byte ASCII

Meaning (2 bit)

Valid Signal 00-01 0x00-0xFA 0x0000-0xFAFF 0x00000000- 0x01-0xFE

0xFAFFFFFF

Parameter none 0xFB 0xFB00-0xFBFF 0xFB000000- none

Specific 0xFBFFFFFF
Meaning

Reserved for 10 0xFC- 0xFC00-0xFDFF 0xFC000000- none

SAE 0xFD 0xFDFFFFFF

Error Indicator 10 0xFE 0xFE00-0xFEFF 0xFE000000- 0x00

0xFEFFFFFF

Not Available 11 0xFF 0xFF00-0xFFFF 0xFF000000- 0xFF

0xFFFFFFFF

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Transmitted Values - Discrete

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SPN Data Dictionary Example

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PGN Example

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SPN Example

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PGN Example

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Typical Standard Messages
Parameter Group Number Typical Communication
PGN 0 – Torque / Speed Control 1 Transmission to ECM
(TSC1)
PGN 256 - Transmission Control (TC1) ECM to Transmission
PGN 57344 – Cab Message 1 (CM1) Vehicle Cab to other devices
PGN 61441 – Electronic Brake ABS to other devices
Controller 1 (EBC1)
PGN 61442 – Electronic Transmission Transmission to other devices
Controller 1 (ETC1)
PGN 61444 – Electronic Engine ECM to other devices
Controller 1 (EEC1)
PGN 61445 – Electronic Transmission Transmission to other devices
Controller 2 (ETC2)

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TSC1 Message

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SAE J1939-21 Special Message Types
• There are five message types supported on the SAE J1939 link
• Command: Convey a command to global or specific destination

• Request: Request specific information from any other controller

• Broadcasts/Response: This is a special mode of data transfer used when the data is more
than 8 bytes. These are also called as Transport Protocol messages

• Acknowledgment: Can be positive (ACK) or negative (NACK) to a specific command.

• Group Function: Used for groups of special functions – proprietary functions, network
management functions etc.

The message type is recognized by its PGN

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Proprietary Messages
• Provides point to point messages and point to multi-point messages.
• Manufacturers provide further definition of proprietary messaging in various internal
specifications.
• J1939 proprietary message definition allows:
• proprietary and standardized messages to co-exist.
• proprietary messages from multiple sources to co-exist.

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Proprietary Message PGNs – Proprietary A

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Proprietary Message PGNs – Proprietary A2

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Proprietary Message PGNs – Proprietary B

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Requests, Response and Acknowledgements
• Rules of operation to determine whether to send PGN to a global or specific destination:
• When the Request is sent to a global address the response is sent to a global address.
• When the Request is sent to a specific address the response is sent to a specific address.
• Exceptions may exist

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Request Message

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Response to a request message
• If the request made was to a specific destination:
• A response is always required from the destination, even if it is a NACK (negative
acknowledgement) indicating that the PGN value is not supported.

The Request message can be directed at specific destination address to find out whether a specific
PG is supported.

Each form of Acknowledgement includes an address acknowledge byte that contains the source
address of the originator.

Since the Acknowledgement of PGN is always directed to the Global Address, these parameters
allow the receiver to know the target being acknowledge.

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Acknowledgement Message

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Acknowledgement Message

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Request and Response Examples
• Example 1:
• 18EA0308 AD FE 00
• 18FEAD03 87 89 84 D9 FF FF FF FF
• Example 2:
• 18EAFFF9 8E FE 00
• 18FE8E0B 01 D7 7F FF FF FF FF FF
• 18FE8E03 25 7F 9D FF FF FF FF FF
• 18FE8E00 20 F4 83 FF FF FF FF FF
• Example 3:
• 18EA03F9 AB FE 00
• 18E8FF03 01 FF FF FF F9 AB FE 00

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Request 2 Message
• This is a special request message for distributed networks
• Provides the capability for the requestor to specify whether the responder should use the
Transfer PGN 51712
• By identifying that the responder should use the Transfer PGN, the responder reports the data
set for all devices it is tasked with reporting.
• Examples of PGNs usually requested through Request 2 Message are:
• Vehicle Identification
• Software Identification

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Request 2 Message

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Transfer PGN
• Used in conjunction with the Request2 message
• Provides a mechanism for reporting multiple data sets for a given PGN
• Each data set is labelled with four bytes from the J1939-81 device name.
• The information of the device itself is in the first data set, followed by other devices.

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Transfer PGN format

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Transport Protocol
• Used when a PG requires more than eight data bytes.
• Broadcast and Destination Specific connection sessions are defined.
• Each node may have at most one active Broadcast session at any time.
• The information is split in multiple messages called ‘packets’
• For the packets to be identified individually for reassembly, the first byte of the data field is
defined as the sequence number of the packet.
• Each packet includes 7 bytes of the original message.
• Sequence numbers start with one and continue until the entire message has be packetized and
transmitted.
• These messages are sent either as BAM (Broadcast Announce Message) or RTS.CTS (Request to
Send / Clear to Send)

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Broadcast Messages
• The node first sends out a BAM to issue a large message warning to other nodes.
• This is done on Connection Management (TP.CM) PGN 60416 (ECXX)
• This message contains the size and number of packets and the associated PGN
• The packets are then sent on Data Transfer (TP.DT) PGN 60160 (EBXX)

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BAM Example
• 18EAFFF9 DA FE 00
• 18ECFF0B 20 0E 00 02 FF DA FE 00
• 18ECFF03 20 15 00 03 FF DA FE 00
• 18ECFF00 20 33 00 08 FF DA FE 00
• 18EBFF0B 01 01 31 32 2E 30 36 2E
• 18EBFF00 01 06 30 37 37 34 35 32
• 18EBFF03 01 02 30 35 2E 30 30 2E
• 18EBFF00 02 32 37 2A 30 30 30 32
• 18EBFF03 02 30 30 2E 30 31 2A 31
• 18EBFF00 03 33 30 31 39 2A 31 32
• 18EBFF0B 02 32 34 2E 52 31 30 2A
• 18EBFF03 03 30 2E 31 32 2E 32 2A
• 18EBFF00 04 30 31 32 30 30 35 31
• 18EBFF00 05 38 31 32 2A 30 35 30
• 18EBFF00 06 34 30 30 31 32 2A 54
• 18EBFF00 07 53 2A 20 20 20 50 49
• 18EBFF00 08 44 2A FF FF FF FF FF

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Request / Clear Messages
• A node transmits a request to send message to destination address with the size of message,
total number of packets, number of packets that can be sent against one ‘Clear to Send’ message
and the associated PGN.
• This is done using Connection Management (TP.CM) (ECXX) message.
• The receiver, i.e. the destination node can accept or reject the request. Acceptance is done by
issuing a ‘Clear to Send’
• This is done using Connection Management (TP.CM) (ECXX) message.

• Data Transfer begins once the originator receives the ‘Clear to Send’ message
• This is done using Connection Management (TP.DT) (EBXX) message.

• Once entire data is transferred, the receiver should issue an ‘End of Transfer’ acknowledgement.
• This is done using Connection Management (TP.CM) (ECXX) message.

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Request / Clear Example

• 18EA00F9 E3 FE 00
• 18ECF900 10 22 00 05 FF E3 FE 00
• 18EC00F9 11 05 01 FF FF E3 FE 00
• 18EBF900 01 C0 12 A2 F0 41 C7 20
• 18EBF900 02 1C BC 80 25 D6 B8 33
• 18EBF900 03 D4 D8 45 FF FF 8E 0A
• 18EBF900 04 20 4E FF 1E DF 7D E1
• 18EBF900 05 D8 45 FF FF FF FF FF
• 18EC00F9 13 22 00 05 FF E3 FE 00

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TP.CM Format

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TP.CM for RTS

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TP.CM for CTS

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TP.CM for End of Message ACK

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TP.CM for Connection Abort

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TP.CM for BAM

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TP.DT Format

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SAE J1939 Diagnostics
• Defined in SAE J1939-73, uses the existing SPN definitions
• Diagnostics are not limited to emissions components – rather complete vehicle diagnostics are
provided
• Provides data for use by cab displays as well as generic scan tool support:
• Active and inactive trouble codes,
• Snapshot information,
• Clearing of trouble codes,
• Service interval information (i.e., time for oil change).
• Complete OBD support:
• Regulatory agencies (EPA, CARB, Euro 4, Euro 5) point to J1939-73 as an accepted OBD
interface for Heavy Duty vehicles.

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Diagnostic Trouble Code
• Diagnostic Trouble Code (DTC) is the set of information required about a failure or fault in the
engine system to determine repair steps.
• A DTC is made up of four fields:
• Suspect Parameter Number (SPN) – 19 bits
• Failure Mode Identifier (FMI) – 5 bits
• Occurrence Count (OC) – 7 bits
• SPN Conversion Method (CM) – 1 bit
Diagnostic trouble codes are transmitted as 4 bytes per trouble code

Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 4

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
SPN FMI CM OC
64 00 0 3 0 03
DTC

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Standard Diagnostic Messages
• DM1 – All Active DTCs (Diagnostic Trouble Codes)
• DM2 – All Previously Active DTCs
• DM3 – Clear Previously Active DTCs
• DM4 – Freeze Frame Parameters
• DM5 – Diagnostic Readiness 1
• DM6 – Pending DTCs
• DM12 – Emissions Related Active DTCs
• DM23 – Emissions Related Previously Active DTCs
• DM28 – Permanent DTCs

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Active Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DM1)
DM1 is the most important diagnostic message
It indicates to the network the currently active Diagnostic Trouble Codes
(DTCs)
It includes emissions related and non-emissions related DTCs
Transmitted when a DTC becomes active/inactive otherwise at one second
rate
Provides information to driver display
When multiple DTCs are active the transport protocol messaging is required.

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DM1 Structure
• Parameter Group Number: 65226 (00FECA16)
• Byte: 1
• bits 8-7 Malfunction Indicator Lamp Status
• bits 6-5 Red Stop Lamp Status
• bits 4-3 Amber Warning Lamp Status
• bits 2-1 Protect Lamp Status
• Byte: 2
• bits 8-7 Flash Malfunction Indicator Lamp
• bits 6-5 Flash Red Stop Lamp
• bits 4-3 Flash Amber Warning Lamp
• bits 2-1 Flash Protect Lamp

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DM1 Structure
• The first two bytes of the DM1 message give the lamp status.
• From the third byte, a 4-byte per active DTC structure repeats.

• Total Length of DM1 message = 2 + (4 * n), where n is the number of active DTCs.

DTC
Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 4
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
SPN FMI CM OC
64 00 0 3 0 03

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FMI Definitions
FMI Description
0 DATA VALID BUT ABOVE NORMAL OPERATIONAL RANGE -
MOST SEVERE LEVEL
1 DATA VALID BUT BELOW NORMAL OPERATIONAL RANGE -
MOST SEVERE LEVEL
2 DATA ERRATIC, INTERMITTENT OR INCORRECT

3 VOLTAGE ABOVE NORMAL, OR SHORTED TO HIGH SOURCE

4 VOLTAGE BELOW NORMAL, OR SHORTED TO LOW SOURCE

5 CURRENT BELOW NORMAL OR OPEN CIRCUIT

6 CURRENT ABOVE NORMAL OR GROUNDED CIRCUIT

7 MECHANICAL SYSTEM NOT RESPONDING OR OUT OF

ADJUSTMENT

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FMI Definitions
FMI Description
8 ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OR PULSE WIDTH OR PERIOD

9 ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OR PULSE WIDTH OR PERIOD

10 ABNORMAL RATE OF CHANGE

11 ROOT CAUSE NOT KNOWN

12 BAD INTELLIGENT DEVICE OR COMPONENT

13 OUT OF CALIBRATION

14 SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS

15 DATA VALID BUT ABOVE NORMAL OPERATING RANGE - LEAST

SEVERE LEVEL
16 DATA VALID BUT ABOVE NORMAL OPERATING RANGE -
MODERATELY SEVERE LEVEL

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FMI Definitions

FMI Description
17 DATA VALID BUT BELOW NORMAL OPERATING RANGE - LEAST
SEVERE LEVEL
18 DATA VALID BUT BELOW NORMAL OPERATING RANGE -
MODERATELY SEVERE LEVEL
19 RECEIVED NETWORK DATA IN ERROR

20-30 RESERVED FOR SAE ASSIGNMENT

31 NOT AVAILABLE OR CONDITION EXISTS

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Active Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DM1)
• ABS DM1 with zero active DTCs
• 18FECA0B 00 00 00 00 00 00 FF FF

• Transmission DM1 with one active DTC

• 18FECA03 F7 FF D3 07 1F 7F FF FF

• Engine DM1 with one active DTC

• 18FECA00 04 FF 6F 00 12 02 FF FF

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Active Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DM1)
• Engine DM1 with two active DTCs
• 18ECFF00 20 0A 00 02 FF CA FE 00
• 18EBFF00 01 14 FF CE 03 04 01 30
• 18EBFF00 02 04 04 03 FF FF FF FF

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Standards Across Industry

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Relevant ISO Standards
• ISO 11898 – Controller Area Network
• ISO 14229-1 - Unified Diagnostic Services (UDS)
• ISO 15031 for OBD Communications
• ISO 15765 for Extended Diagnostic Communications
• ISO PAS 27145 Implementation of WWH-OBD communication requirements

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ISO Protocol Evolution

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 ISO 7-Layer
Enhanced Emission-related (Legislated)
Diagnostics Diagnostics
Application ISO 14229-1 / ISO 15031-5
ISO 15765-3
Presentation None Specified

Session ISO 15765-4 None Specified

Transport ISO 15765-2 None Specified

Network ISO 15765-2 ISO 15765-4

Data Link ISO 11898-1 ISO 15765-4

Physical User Defined ISO 15765-4

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ISO and SAE in OSI Framework

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Passenger Car vs Medium/Heavy Duty

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ISO to SAE Mapping

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ISO 14229
• ISO 14229 is a global, serial data link independent, diagnostic communication standard that was
created by a committee that included participation from all major OEMs.
• ISO 14229 describes a standard set of diagnostic messages available to diagnose any vehicle
module in service, and at End of Line.
• Another industry standard (ISO 15765-3) describes how to implement the ISO 14229 diagnostic
services on the CAN network, to help ensure consistency of implementation across OEMs.

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ISO 14229 Document Set
• 14229-1 Unified diagnostic services (UDS)
• Specification and requirements
• General-purpose diagnostics protocol
• Replaces ISO 14230 (KWP)
• Does not know about CAN
• Defines diagnostic services

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 ISO 15031 Document Set
• Defines communication between vehicle and external equipment for emissions-related
diagnostics
• Requires additional standards to achieve emissions-related diagnostic needs
• Based on RP developed by SAE Motor Vehicle Council

15031-1 General information

15031-2 (SAE 1930) Terms, definitions, abbreviations, and acronyms

• Analogous to SAE J2403 Medium/Heavy-Duty E/E Systems Diagnosis Nomenclature

15031-3 (SAE 1962) Diagnostic connector and related electrical circuits

• Analogous to SAE J1939-13

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 ISO 15031 Document Set
• 15031-4 (SAE 1978) External test equipment
• Specifies a means of establishing communications between an OBD-
equipped vehicle and external test equipment
• Specifies a set of diagnostic services to be provided by the external test
equipment in order to exercise the services defined in ISO 15031-5,
• Specifies conformance criteria for the external test equipment.
• Analogous to J1939-84, J1939-03

• 15031-5 (SAE 1979) Emissions related diagnostic services

• Specifies diagnostic services and functionally addressed request/response
messages
• External test equipment meeting the requirements of ISO 15031-4 use
these messages to retrieve emissions-related information from the
vehicle.
• Analogous to parts of J1939-73, -71

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 ISO 15031 Document Set
• 15031-6 (SAE 2012) Diagnostic trouble code definitions
• Provides recommended uniformity for alphanumeric trouble codes
• Analogous to parts of J1939-73
• 15031-7 (SAE 2186) Data link security
• Provides guidelines for the protection of road vehicle modules from unauthorized intrusion
through a vehicle diagnostic data link
• Analogous to parts of J1939-73

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 ISO 15765 Document Set
• ISO 15765 Diagnostics on controller area network (CAN)
• Implementation specification
• Packages UDS for use on CAN
• Limits use of services
• Defines addressing schemes
• Defines transport protocol
• Defines timing requirements
• 15765-1 General information
• 15765-2 Network layer services
• 15765-3 Implementation of unified diagnostic services (UDS on CAN)
• 15765-4 Requirements for emissions-related systems

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SAE vs ISO Diagnostics
• UDS Diagnostic Model
• Extended Diagnostics are manufacturer defined
• Emissions Related diagnostics are standardized
• Diagnostics are available only to off-board diagnostic tools

• J1939 Diagnostic Model

• All diagnostics are standardized
• Diagnostics are available at any time

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Thanks
Module 05: Powertrain and Vehicle Controls

Sub-Module 02: Engine, Powertrain and Vehicle Controls

Vehicle Propulsion
• Vehicle Propulsion requires balancing of forces action on a vehicle without looking inside it, that
is without studying how the driving force is generated.
• The propulsion force is basically considering the movement of a mass ‘m’ where-in the
movement is opposed by driving resistance and the braking force.
• The driving resistance is the sum of all the external forces acting on the vehicle
• This includes the aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance and gravitation.
• Aerodynamic drag is dependent on the speed
• Rolling friction is dependent on the previous state of the system (i.e. rest or motion)
• Gravitation is dependent on the mass

• The braking force represents all internally generated force from the brake system.

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Reducing Aerodynamic Drag
• As it is a force that opposes the vehicle propulsion, considerable amount of focus is laid on
the reduction of aerodynamic drag
• The aerodynamic drag can by underbody, wheel, wheel houses and vehicle shape
• The drag can be reduced substantially if the vehicle is travelling behind another vehicle.
Large fuel savings could be at hand if platooning is utilized commonly.

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Reducing Rolling Resistance
• Tire properties are another source of driving resistance.
• A pneumatic vehicle tire in contact with the ground and supporting the weight of the
vehicle is neither round nor rolling.
• The tire is compressed by the weight of the vehicle and has an imbalance of forces due to
driving torque and slipping friction.
• Driven wheels do not roll. Instead they rotate faster (or slower) than the corresponding
longitudinal velocity. There is always a differential between what speed the wheel is being
commanded to rotate at and what it rotates at.
• This difference is called longitudinal slip.

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2WD vs. 4 WD
• Consider, two cars where one is two-wheel drive and one is four-wheel drive, but they are
otherwise identical. The torque to overcome the driving resistance for the 2WD has to be
obtained from the driven two wheels, whereas for the 4 WD it requires half the value for
each of the driven wheels.

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Simple Car Model
• Total forces acting on a vehicle= Fw – Fdr – Fb
• Where
• Fw is the propulsion force
• Fdr is the driving resistance = aerodynamic drag + rolling resistance
• Fb is the braking force

• In the simplest driver model, the perspective is that the driver has a desired velocity, vr in
mind, and adjusts the vehicle speed v, by operating the accelerator pedal, which results in a
force F, that is actuated as a propulsion force, or a braking force, depending on the sign.

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Vehicle Requirements
A vehicle has to meet a complex set of requirements, and good design and good calibration is
very much about finding a good balance between them. Performance measures focus on the
mechanical performance of a vehicle.
• Top Speed
• Acceleration – Time 0 to 100 kmph
• Gradeability
• Responsiveness
• Driveability

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Tradeoffs
• Noise and Vibration are undesired.
• There exist driveline and engine modes that are undesired but can be avoided or
attenuated by proper control.
• Fuel consumption and CO2 production need to be reduced.

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Vehicle Efficiency
The overall fuel energy of the vehicle is either consumed or lost in other forms. The losses
are split as:
• 2 to 5% of the energy is lost in incomplete combustion
• 50 to 55% converts into exhaust heat loss
• 1 to 5% timing losses
• 1 to 15% heat transfer losses
• 4 to 10% pumping losses
• 5 to 10% friction losses
• 5 to 10% accessories
• 3 to 5% driveline

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Vehicle Propulsion
Functions and goals of the vehicle propulsion control:

• Control of all components in the powertrain

• Coordination of all components in the powertrain
• Keeping track of the state in the powertrain
• Fulfillment of driver’s request
• Distribution of resulting control actions to actuators
• Integration of engine control functions

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Driving Force
Most manufacturers use a torque-based control structure. One reason for choosing torque as
the key variable is that it is directly related to the force at the wheels, which can be
propagated through the powertrain components to the engine.
Key Functions in torque-based control structure are:
• Driver Interpretation – What is the driver asking for?
• Vehicle Demands – What is the vehicle asking for ?
• Driveline Management – What is the driveline limits ?
• Driveline Engine Integration
• External Torque Intervention

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External Requests
Other control units need the engine to reduce/increase or limit the torque. These situations
can be short-term or long-term.
• Torque reduction during gear-shift
• AC Turned On

Long Term Torque Demands are met by increasing air flow or moving the turbocharger
Short Term Torque Demands need to be catered by additional fuel injections

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Torque Control
At the core of the ‘Engine Management System’ is a Torque to Fuel strategy. The input to this
is the torque requirement origination from different external sources. These sources include:
• The Driver – by means of the Accelerator Pedal and/or Brake
• Transmission – semi-automated/automatic
• Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
• Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)
• Cruise Control system (by means of a speed command)
• Speed Limiter or Road Speed Governor (RSG)

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Internal Torque Requests
Additionally, the engine itself has specific torque needs under the following conditions:
• Starting Torque
• Idle Control
• Engine Protection Mode (Torque and/or Speed limit imposed to protect the components)
• Furthermore, the On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) mandates the imposition of torque and/or
speed limits when faults exist in the engine’s emission management system (sensors,
algorithms etc.)

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Torque Arbitration
The ‘Engine Management System’ has to evaluate all the torque needs on a priority basis and
then command the fueling in a way to deliver the required torque while accounting for all
parasitic elements which mostly includes:
• Fan
• Alternator
• AC and Climate Control
• Fuel Pump
• Coolant Pump

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Power and Torque
The brake output of an engine is typically reported as a torque or power at a certain speed.
The relationship between power, torque, and speed is:

Brake Power = Brake Torque * Angular Speed

Expressed in the English units of horsepower

 rev   2   min   HP  sec   T * N 

BP (HP ) = T ( ft  lbs )* N  * * * =
 min   rev   60 sec   550 ft  lb   5252 
Expressed in SI units of kilowatt

 rev   2π   kW   T ( N  m) N (rpm) 
BP (kW ) = T (N  m)*N  *  *  = 
 sec   rev  1000W   9550 

Note that power output can be increased by increasing the engine speed at a constant load,
increasing the load at a constant engine speed or a combination of the two factors that yield
a greater product.
Engine

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Engine Torque

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Engine Speed Target

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Key Tasks for Engine Control – Spark Ignition
Fundamental control tasks affect emissions, performance and fuel economy in spark ignition
engine:
• Air fuel ratio control (providing the correct ratio of air and fuel)
• Ignition Control – Firing the appropriate spark plug at the right time
• Fueling Control – Delivering the fuel in right quantities at the right time.
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation control

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Air Fuel Ratio Control
• TWC require precise control of air fuel ratio to the stoichiometric value to be effective.
• The air fuel ratio is controlled by a feedback portion in which a signal related to air fuel
ratio from the exhaust gas oxygen sensor is fed back and a feed forward portion in which
the injector fuel flow is adjusted in response to a signal from an air flow meter.
• The feedback or closed loop control is fully effective only under steady state conditions and
when the EGO sensor has attained proper operating temperature
• The open loop is important when the engine is cold and during transient operation

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Air
• Let P,V,T and m be the pressure in the intake manifold, volume of intake manifold,
temperature and mass of the air in the intake manifold.
• Ideal Gas Law….
• dP/Dt = RT/V [MAFa – Cyl(N,P,Tec,T1)]
• Where MAF is the actual mass air flow metered by the throttle.
• R is moral gas constant
• Cyl(N,P,Tec,T1) is the average instantaneous air flow pumped into the intake manifold by
the cylinders as a function of engine speed
• Air inlet temperature is T1 and engine coolant temperature is Tec

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Air Fuel Ratio Control
• The variation in air flow commanded by the driver is treated as a disturbance to the
system.
• The Air Mass Flow rate upstream of the throttle and the throttle position is used to
calculate air charge estimate for predicting the air charge entering the cylinders
• This air charge estimate is used to form the base fueling calculation

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Air Fuel Ratio - Feedback
• Even if the average air fuel ratio is controlled to stoichiometry, individual cylinders may be
operating rich or lean.
• Air Fuel ratio mal-distribution can result in increased emissions
• For the purpose of close loop control, the engine is equipped with a switching type Exhaust
Gas Oxygen sensor located at the confluence of the individual exhaust runners.

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Fueling Control
• The base fueling calculation is then modified to account for any transients.
• A time invariant PI controller is used to correct for any persistent errors in the open loop
calculation by adjusting the average Air fuel ratio to perceived stoichiometry

10/7/2019 Confidential 25
Ignition Control
• The spark plug is fired near the end of the compression stroke, as the piston approaches
TDC.
• The optimal time during the compression stroke for ignition to occur is the point at which
maximum brake torque (MBT) is generated.
• Advance spark timing can damage the piston
• Retarded spark timing reduces the combustion pressure generated and more energy is lost
to the exhaust stream.

10/7/2019 Confidential 26
Ignition Timing
• Crankshaft position along with barometric pressure, engine coolant temperature and
throttle position is used
• Ignition timing may be used to modulate torque to improve shifting quality
• The ECM activates the induction coil in response to the sensed timing and routes the high
voltage to the spark plug.

10/7/2019 Confidential 27
EGR Control
• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems control emissions of NOx.
• The principle of EGR is to reduce NOx formation during the combustion process by diluting
the air fuel charge with inert exhaust gas.
• This is accomplished by a metering orifice in the exhaust manifold to enable a portion of
the exhaust gas to flow from the exhaust manifold through the valve into the intake
manifold.
• Feedback based on the difference between desired and measured pressure drop is
employed to modulate the regulator for controlling the EGR valve position.
• Manifold pressure and Torque are influenced by EGR and the dynamics of the system can
have significant effect on engine response and drivability
• There is an additional EGR transport delay – associated with the time required

10/7/2019 Confidential 28
Idle Speed Control
• The Idle Speed Control is to maintain constant engine RPM at closed throttle while
rejecting disturbances

10/7/2019 Confidential 29
Closed-Loop Controls in Automotive

10/7/2019 Confidential 30
Electronic Clutch Control
• Relieves pressing of clutch during gear change
• Throttle cable of accelerator pedal replaced by closed loop control system
• Accelerator Pedal position sensor and servomotor
• Connected to an ECU for gear change process
• ECU controls clutch engagement and disengagement
• Improved Safety
• Prevents engine starting when in gear
• Prevents inappropriate gear change

10/7/2019 Confidential 31
ECM – TCM Gear Change Interaction
• During gear up-shifts
• TCM indicates need to shift gears
• ECM cuts-off / Reduces fuel injection
• ECM signals TCM ‘OK’ to shift

• During gear down-shifts

• TCM indicates need to shift gears
• ECM reduces fueling or varies ignition timing
• ECM signals TCM ‘OK’ to shift

10/7/2019 Confidential 32
Interlocks
• If the gear selector switch is not in either Park or Neutral when starting,
operation of the starter motor is inhibited
• If the gear selector switch is not in park, the key cannot be removed
• The hold switch on the selector level
• Instructs the ECU to hold the transmission in current gear ratio
• Useful in descending a hill
• The stoplight switch
• Does not allow transmission gear to change when brakes are applied
• Overdrive inhibit signal prevents the transmission from taking overdrive (fifth
gear) when cruise control is activated

10/7/2019 Confidential 33
Transmission - Ambient and Surroundings
• Automatic Transmission Fluid thermo-sensor
• Modifies line pressures at temperature extremes, to account for changes in fluid viscosity

• If the vehicle is at an altitude of above 1500 m, the gear change points are
modified (as engine develops less power at high altitudes)

10/7/2019 Confidential 34
Powertrain Control System
• Engine + Transmission control in a
single controller

10/7/2019 Confidential 35
Cruise Control
• The purpose of cruise control is to keep the velocity of a car constant
• The driver selects the set point for the desired speed using the cruise control ‘set’ switch
• The control system has to keep the speed constant

• The major disturbance comes from changes of slope of the road

• There are also disturbances due to changes in air drag and rolling friction

• The cruise control system measures the difference between the desired and actual velocity and
generates a control effort that attempts to keep the error small in spite of changes in the slope of
the road.

10/7/2019 Confidential 36
Cruise Control
• Speed is set by the driver

10/7/2019 Confidential 37
CC - Model Development
• The mathematical model needs to show how the velocity of the car is influenced by the throttle
and the slope of the road

• The momentum of the car determines how the slopes will affect it.

• Momentum = m (mass) * v (velocity)

• Let θ be the slope of the road, then the momentum balance is given by:

• M dv/dt + cv = F - mg θ
• Where cv is the momentum loss due to changes in air resistance and rolling friction
• F is the force generated by the engine

10/7/2019 Confidential 38
CC - Controller
• The control effort generated by the cruise control system influences the accelerator pedal and
thus the torque generated by the engine

• The controller should be able to maintain constant speed during stable conditions.
• The control effort required is higher when the deviation from set speed is higher. Hence, a
proportional effort is needed
• The state of the system should catch up to the set-point. Hence, a controller with Integral effort is
chosen

• A PI controller is a good fit for the problem

10/7/2019 Confidential 39
Chassis Control Systems
• Anti Lock Braking System
• Traction Control System
• Electronic Stability Program
• Electronic Damping Control system
• Power Assisted Steering System
• Traction Control Systems

10/7/2019 Confidential 40
Detailed View of Vehicle Dynamics
• Apart from the driving force which is trying to move the vehicle
forward, there are plenty of other forces acting on the vehicle

• Tractive Force
• Brake Pressure
• Lateral Forces on the wheel
• Adhesion forces (Gravity and friction)

10/7/2019 Confidential 41
Moments
• Vehicles are also subjected to the following forces
• Yaw Moments – which try to rotate the vehicle about its vertical axis
• Pitch
• Roll
• Wheel moments – inertia or momentum of the wheels.
• Aerodynamic Drag

10/7/2019 Confidential 42
Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• When the vehicle skids, the wheels lock and driving stability is lost
• In such conditions, the vehicle cannot be steered
• The braking distance increases due to skidding
• If a trailer or caravan is being pulled, it will swerve onto incoming traffic
• The tires may burst due to excessive friction and forces being concentrated at the points
where the locked wheels are in contact with the road surface.

10/7/2019 Confidential 43
 ABS vs TCS
Inability to brake due to locked
wheel – ABS

Inability to move forward in a

balanced fashion - TCS

10/7/2019 Confidential 44
ABS System

10/7/2019 Confidential 45
ABS
• Four-wheel ABS can control the brake force on each wheel
• Let Ffs and Frs be the braking force on the front and rear wheels and Rs is the desired response on
an icy road
• Find Ffs/Rs

10/7/2019 Confidential 46
ABS

10/7/2019 Confidential 47
Traction Control System
• Prevents drive wheels from wheel spinning during starting – or accelerating on a
wet or icy surface
• Controller needs to avoid loss or reduction in steering response in FWD vehicles
• Controller needs to ensure vehicle stability on RWD

• TCS will
• Increase adhesion to the road surface during acceleration
• Use fueling, ignition and wheel braking actions

10/7/2019 Confidential 48
Traction Control System
• Maintain the acceleration slip of the driven wheels equal to the mean rotational velocity of
the non-driven wheels + a specified speed difference known as slip threshold
• Driven wheels are kept at a faster speed than the non-driven wheels
• The vehicle accelerates at a constant rate proportional to the difference in the two speeds.
• Control depends on the road surface condition.
• On dry road surfaces, max. acceleration occurs at slip rates of 10 to 30%
• On ice, max traction is at slip rates of 2 to 5%

10/7/2019 Confidential 49
Traction Control System
• The system has to adapt to various
road surfaces

10/7/2019 Confidential 50
Electronic Stability Program
• Electronic Stability Program is another key driver assist system.
• The system’s task is to assist the driver in demanding driving situations:
• If an animal suddenly runs across the path of the vehicle, the driver will overreact
• Under such conditions the stability of the vehicle may be compromised.
• This is where ESP pitches in.

• ESP is based and closely dependent on the ABS, TCS, EDL, EBD and EBC
• It recognises when the vehicle is in danger of skidding and compensates
for the same.
• It significantly reduces the accident risk if the driver overreacts

10/7/2019 Confidential 51
All Terms Together
• ABS – Anti-lock Braking System
• TCS – Traction Control System
• EBD – Electronic Brake Distribution
• EDL – Electronic Differential Lock
• ESP – Electronic Stability Program
• EBC – Engine Braking Control
• ASMS – Automatic Stability Management System
• DSC – Dynamic Stability Control
• DDC – Driving Dynamic Control
• VSA – Vehicle Stability Assist
• ESA – Electronic Stability Assist
• VSC – Vehicle Stability Control

10/7/2019 Confidential 52
Electronic Stability Program
• In order to prevent skidding, the ESP must be able to control brake activation
within a fraction of a second.
• Also, there must be sufficient pre-pressure in the braking fluid to provide instant
braking.

• In some ESP systems, the pre-pressure is generated by a charge pump or

hydraulic pump.
• In some systems, the pre-pressure is generated by an active brake servo acting as
a booster.

10/7/2019 Confidential 53
When does ESP kick in
• Before ESP can respond to the driving situation, it has to determine in
what direction the driver is steering and in what direction the vehicle
is moving.
• This is done by the steering angle sensor and the speed sensors at
the wheels
• The steering angle sensor aids the determination of Yaw Rate and the
speed sensors provide the ability to determine lateral acceleration
• If the two, do not correlate, the ESP kicks in

10/7/2019 Confidential 54
Understeer and Oversteer
• If the vehicle is understeering – i.e. the lateral acceleration is more than the yaw rate, the
ESP system shall intervene
• It will selectively activate the rear brake on the inner wheel and prevent the vehicle from
overshooting.

• If the vehicle is oversteering – i.e. the yaw rate is more than the lateral acceleration, the
ESP system shall intervene
• It will selectively activate the front brake on the outer wheel and prevent the vehicle from
skidding

10/7/2019 Confidential 55
Obstacle Avoidance
• In vehicles without ESP, obstacle avoidance is an open loop system
with the driver in the loop.
• In order to avoid the obstacle the driver steers very quickly to the left
and then immediately to the right.
• The vehicle swerves and the wheel movements become
uncontrollable.
• A yaw motion is set due to the quick movements of the steering
wheel.

10/7/2019 Confidential 56
Obstacle Avoidance
• In the vehicle equipped with ESP, the loss of stability is detected
when the driver makes the quick movement.
• The system applies the brakes the outer wheel as a countermeasure.
• As the driver moves the steering back to the path of motion, the
system applies brakes on the inner wheel to balance it off.
• Thereby, no moments are caused and a yaw motion does not set in.

10/7/2019 Confidential 57
Components of ESP

10/7/2019 Confidential 58
ESP Controls
• The speed sensors provide a continuous data of the wheel speeds
• The steering angle sensor provides the steering angle information.
• The desired steering direction is determined.

• The actual state of the vehicle is determined by the lateral acceleration sensor and the yaw
rate sensor.

10/7/2019 Confidential 59
Electronic Damping Control
• The EDC system boosts the shock absorber.
• The shock absorber are controlling vehicle movement against roll and pitch.
• They also prevent vibrations caused by poor road surface
• EDC control does real-time altering of the characteristics of the spring and damper
arrangement.
• This can be done electronically using air, nitrogen gas and hydraulic oil as three separate suspension agents.

10/7/2019 Confidential 60
Damping Control
• The longitudinal and lateral forces acting on the vehicle are
determined
• The dampers provide three or four different settings
(normal, soft, super-soft and firm)
• Driver can choose sport or smooth ride mode
• Sport Mode – soft dampers are excluded

10/7/2019 Confidential 61
Electronically Assisted Power Steering
• The ports of a solenoid valve are
connected across the rack and pinion
steering hydraulic power cylinder
• With increasing vehicle speed, the
valve opening is extended
• Reduces the hydraulic pressure in the power
cylinder
• Increases the steering effort

• The valve is connected directly to the

steering wheel and a small movement
of this control causes the high
pressure hydraulic fluid to reach the
power cylinder

10/7/2019 Confidential 62
Electric Power Steering
• Input to the rack and pinion steering system is from a
motor/gear reduction
• The torque is applied directly to either the pinion gear or to
the rack shaft
• The effort range is greater than with hydraulic systems.
• Power is only consumed when steering wheel moves.

10/7/2019 Confidential 63
Adaptive Cruise Control / Automatic Proximity
Control
• If a driver attempts to activate the Cruise Control in heavy traffic
scenario, he will soon have to brake and the cruise control feature
will quit.
• The ACC or APC combines the braking into the Cruise System while
trying to keep the distance with the vehicle in front at or above a
fixed threshold.

10/7/2019 Confidential 64
Body Controls
• Air Bag System
• AC Controls

10/7/2019 Confidential 65
Air Bag Control System
• Air bags are passive safety devices that are mandatory in many countries.
• Airbags are a critical part of the supplemental restraint system (SRS)
• The objective of the airbag, which is deployed when the vehicle suddenly decelerates (as in
a collision) is to prevent the vehicle occupants from hitting any rigid surfaces and cushion
the forces on their heads and upper or lower bodies
• Airbags are typically made of nylon fabric and are hidden behind panels at various locations
in the vehicle, including the steering wheel.

10/7/2019 Confidential 66
Sensors
• Accelerometers, Wheel Speed Sensors, Brake Pressure Sensor, Seat Occupancy Sensor

• Air Bag Inflation device, passenger airbag ON/OFF indicator

• CAN communication

10/7/2019 Confidential 67
Air bag Control
• Depending on the crash severity, the rate at which the airbags are employed is decided by
the airbag control unit.
• In the event of a crash, the crash sensor (an accelerometer) sends a signal to the airbag
control unit.
• This unit triggers the inflation device, which generates nitrogen gas by igniting a mixture of
sodium azide (NaN3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3).
• The time between crash detection and complete deployment of the airbag is approx. 0.05
seconds
• The airbag speed is about 200 mph, which itself can be harmful in certain cases.
• Adaptive air bag systems employ multiple inflators to produce low-level or high-level
deployments. The airbag pressure can be changed depending on factors such as seat
position, size of passenger, crash severity and seat belt use.

10/7/2019 Confidential 68
Air Bag Electronics

10/7/2019 Confidential 69
Air Bag
• Systems use a weight sensor in the front passenger seat to determine if the seat is
unoccupied.
• The US FMVSS requires airbag deployment systems to detect whether a child is seated in
the front passenger seat. Airbag deployment will be suppressed it the sensor identifies a
low-weight condition.
• Some systems may additionally detect the presence of child safety seats.
• If a low level impact is sensed i.e. with a pedestrian, the hood opens from the back and an
airbag is inflated over the windshield wiper area.

10/7/2019 Confidential 70
Air Bags
• GM uses airbags for side impact crashes. It inflates near the center console and provides
padding between the front passenger or support for the solo driver.
• The front airbag also includes a vent which opens when the passenger compresses the bag

10/7/2019 Confidential 71
Car Air-Conditioning
• The driver sets the desired interior temperature on a dashboard panel

10/7/2019 Confidential 72
Thanks
Module 02: Engine and Vehicle Basics

Sub-Module 02: Engine Basics

Engine – Inputs and Outputs
Primary Inputs
• An internal combustion engine needs Air and Fuel to function.
• Air is the most critical input, the shortage of which can considerably hamper the efficiency of the
engine.
• Air (as a source of Oxygen) performs the same function in an internal combustion engine, as it
does in Human Body.

• No wonder – the process of drawing air into the engine is called ‘Engine Breathing’

• The more efficiently an engine breathes, the more efficiently it will produce power or deliver
torque.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 3

Primary Input - Fuel
• Fuel is the source of energy
• Most common fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and derived from fossil fuels.
• These include – Diesel, Gasoline, Compressed Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas
• Additionally, biofuels like Ethanol and Biodiesel are also used a Fuel
• Producer Gas and Bio-mass is another Fuel

October 7, 2019 Confidential 4

Diesel
• Any liquid fuel used in diesel engines that can be ignited by compression (without spark) is called
diesel fuel
• The most common form of diesel is a distillate of petroleum oil
• Boiling range of 149 Deg C to 371 Deg C
• Complex blend of hydrocarbons
• Alkanes (C7 and up)
• Aromatics (substituted and multi-ring)
• Alkenes (C7 and up)
• Calorific Value (45.5 MJ/kg)

October 7, 2019 Confidential 5

Diesel Fuel Properties
• Cetane Number
• It is a measure of the ignition delay of a diesel fuel.
• The shorter the interval between the time the fuel is injected and the time it begins to burn, the higher the cetane
number.
• Cetane number is measured in a single cylinder test engine
• A low cetane number can cause white smoke and odor on cold days

• Volatility
• Volatility is a distillation characteristic of the blended components of the fuel
• The ability of a liquid to change to vapor
• A properly designed fuel has an optimum proportion of low boiling components for easy cold starting and fast
warm-up
• The volatility is provided as the temperature at which 10%, 50% and 90% fuel vaporisation occurs

October 7, 2019 Confidential 6

Other Diesel Fuel Properties
• Viscosity:
• Measure of the liquid’s resistance to flow.
• Viscosity affects fuel atomization and fuel delivery rates

• Fuel Lubricity:
• The lubricity of a substance is not a material property, and cannot be measured directly
• Lubricity is the measure of the reduction in friction and or wear by a lubricant

• Flash Point:
• Flash point is the lowest temperature at which vapours of the material will ignite, when given an ignition source
• Flash point test is usually undertaken to check the fuel for impurities & helps differentiate between types of fuels

• Sulfur Content:
• Sulfur content in fuel is detrimental to mechanical components. Sulfur also impacts emission reduction systems
used by the engines. Conversely, sulfur has lubricating properties

October 7, 2019 Confidential 7

Spark Ignition Fuels
• Spark Ignition fuels do not self-ignite, there ignitability is measured in terms of octane number as
an indication to resistance to ignition
• Natural gas ~95% methane (49.5 MJ/kg)
• Methanol (20.1 MJ/kg)
• Gasoline (Petrol) (45.8 MJ/kg)
• Complex blend of hydrocarbons
• Ability to vaporize
• Calorific Value

October 7, 2019 Confidential 8

Petrol
• Petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid used as fuel in internal combustion engines.
• Lead tetraethyl was used as an additive till 1995 to prevent knocking
• Contains hydrocarbons: 87% C and 12% H

October 7, 2019 Confidential 9

Petrol Fuel Properties
• Cetane Number: Petrol has a relative large time-lag between injection in hot air and auto-
ignition, although this is irrelevant in typical gasoline applications (as they are spark ignited).

• Octane Number:
• A figure indicating the anti-knock properties of a fuel, based on a comparison with a mixture of isooctane
and heptane
• Isooctane is assigned an octane number of 100. It is a highly branched compound that burns smoothly,
with little knock
• On the other hand, heptane is given an octane rating of zero. It is an unbranched compound and knocks
badly
• Cracking, isomerization, and other processes can be used to increase the octane rating of gasoline to
about 90. Anti-knock agents may be added to further increase the octane rating. Tetraethyl lead,
Pb(C2H5)4, was one such agent, which was added to gas at the rate of up to 2.4 grams per gallon of
gasoline.
• The switch to unleaded gasoline has required the addition of more expensive compounds, such as
aromatics and highly branched alkanes, to maintain high octane numbers

October 7, 2019 Confidential 10

 Cetane & Octane Relationship

)
100
CN = 58.33 - 0.483*ON

Cetane Number (easier to auto-ignite

90
ON = 120.69 - 2.069*CN
80
70
60
50
Diesel Fuels

Gasolines
40
30
20
10
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
Octane Number (more resistant to auto-ignition )
E.M.Goodger, ‘Hydrocarbon Fuels’,
Halsted Press, 1975

October 7, 2019 Confidential 11

Alternative Fuels
• Biodiesel
• Varied Sources - soybean/rapeseed (canola) oil, vegetable oil and fats
• Use is motivated by government tax incentives and social responsibility claims
• Varying emissions results
• Blending up to 20% with diesel minimizes negatives
• Syncrude
• Canadian oil-sand
• Lower lubricity, viscosity and cetane; higher aromatic

October 7, 2019 Confidential 12

Fuel Additives
• Many fuel properties can be modified by fuel additives
• Cetane, lubricity, thermal and bio stability, carboning/residue, acidity/corrosion
• Additives have little or no effect on:
• Density/heating value, viscosity, impurities, distillation, sulfur, ash

October 7, 2019 Confidential 13

Engine as a Machine
• An engine, as it comes down to the end, needs to perform ‘work’.
• This work may involve rotating the wheels of a vehicle or running an alternator – the Engine has
to deliver something.

• Link

October 7, 2019 Confidential 14

Torque
• Torque is the measure of the turning force on an object.
• The magnitude of torque depends on the force applied, the length of the lever arm and the angle
between the force vector and the lever arm.
• For an engine, the stroke, the connecting rod length, the crankshaft size play significant roles in
determining the torque delivered.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 15

Power
• Power is the rate at which work is performed by the engine.
• It is equivalent to the amount of energy generated per unit time.
• Its unit is J/s
• Commonly used term for the unit is Watt. Even more common is Horsepower (Hp)
• 1KW = roughly 1.34 Hp
• For an engine, the power is the product of the torque on the shaft and the shaft’s angular
velocity

October 7, 2019 Confidential 16

Engine Power and Torque
• The output of an engine is typically reported in terms of torque or power at a certain speed.
• Depending on the end application for which the engine is used, one of the two may serve as the
defining parameter.
• The relationship between power, torque, and speed is:
• Brake Power (PB) = Brake Torque (TB)* Angular Speed
• In SI Units:
• PB (kW) = TB (N.m) * N (rpm) / 9550

October 7, 2019 Confidential 17

Co-Dependency of Outputs
• The Speed is basically the means by the variation of which the engine is able to deliver a
demanded power or torque (or a combination of both).
• The power output on the engine can be increased by increasing the engine speed at a constant
load, increasing the load at a constant engine speed or a combination of the two factors that
yield a greater product.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 18

 Engine Curves

Peak Power

Peak Torque

October 7, 2019 Confidential 19

Other Performance Indicators
• Power-to-weight ratio::
• It is the ratio of the engine’s power output to the weight of the vehicle.
• Such a metric is independent of the both the engine and vehicle size.
• The lower the power to weight ratio (pounds per horsepower), the more relatively powerful is
the engine.
• Entry level cars typically have a power to weight ratio of > 11 lb/hp
• Mid level cars typically have a power to weight ratio > 8 lb/hp
• Luxury segment cars typically have a power to weight ratio of 5 lb/hp to 8 lb/hp

October 7, 2019 Confidential 20

Mechanical Architecture and Subsystems
Mechanical Architecture
• The base mechanical architecture of an engine is composed of the 5 C’s
• Crankcase / Cylinder Block
• Cylinder Head
• Crankshaft
• Camshaft
• Connecting Rod

October 7, 2019 Confidential 22

Cylinder Block
• The cylinder block is the main component of
the engine, and the other engine parts are
attached to it.
• The cylinder block may be in-line, V or
Opposed Cylinder configuration with a variable
number of cylinders
• The largest cavity in the cylinder block is called
the crankcase. This cavity is located beneath
the cylinders and houses the crankshaft.
• Individual cylinders may have a cylinder liner
(replaceable). These liners need lubrication
especially in the area close to the top dead
center.
• Cylinder Blocks are made of cast iron or
aluminium alloy.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 23

Engine Configurations
• The design of the cylinder blocks dictate the
piston motion. The layout of the cylinders
relative to each other gives the base
configuration of the engine.
• INLINE ENGINE – In an INLINE engine, all the
cylinders are placed in a single row. It is a
straight design.
• V ENGINE – In a V engine, there are two banks
of cylinder at an angle with each other.
• FLAT ENGINE – In a Flat Engine or a
Horizontally Opposed Engine, the two banks of
cylinders directly oppose each other

October 7, 2019 Confidential 24

Crankshaft
• The crankshaft is a forged component. It
converts the vertical movement of the
piston into a turning force.
• The gears are located typically at the front
end of the crankshaft
• They are force fitted and drive the idler
wheel and oil pump and other accessories.
The front end of the crankshaft is splined to
fit the hub of the V belt pulley
• The crankshaft is supported on the cylinder
block by bearings fitted to either side of
each cylinder. It is possible to regrind the
bearings.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 25

Cylinder Head
• Cylinder heads go on top of the Engine
cylinder block and may be single or split.
• It closes the top of the cylinder, thereby,
forming the combustion chamber.
• A cylinder head gasket is placed
between the cylinder block and the
cylinder head.
• The cylinder head contains intricate
passages to feed air and fuel to the
cylinders.
• The head also interfaces with other
mountings like intake and exhaust
valves, spark plugs, glow plugs and fuel
injectors

October 7, 2019 Confidential 26

Camshaft
• The camshaft is located in the cylinder
block or cylinder head.
• If it is in the head – pushrod; if not -
camshaft may be single overhead or dual-
overhead (usually 4+ valves/cylinder)
• The camshafts operate the intake and
exhaust valves. The lift is produced by the
cam and transmitted to the valve:
• either by a tappet, push rod and rocker arm as in
under-head camshafts
• Or by rocker arm or cam follower or by a tappet
in overhead camshafts
• On engines with overhead cams (single or
dual), the cams are driven by the
crankshaft either by belt or chain.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 27

Camshaft

October 7, 2019 Confidential 28

Valves and Valve Timing
• The camshafts operate the intake and exhaust valves.
• The Intake valves put clean air into the cylinders while the exhaust valves remove the exhaust
fumes post combustion, and connect to inlet and exhaust ports located on either side of the
cylinder head.
• The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out
exhaust.
• Also both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the combustion chamber
is sealed.
• Each cylinder may have 2 (one inlet, one exhaust) or 4 valves (two inlet and two exhaust) valves
and usually surround the injectors.
• Most modern engines have 4 valves (two intake and two exhaust) for increased efficiency.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 29

Single Overhead Cam
• In Single Overhead Cam, there is one
camshaft per cylinder head in the
engine. (i.e. 1 for inline configuration, 2
for V-configuration)
• This cam will operate all the valves
(intake and exhaust)
• The cam actuates rocker arms that press
down the valves, opening them.
• Springs return the valves to their closed
position

October 7, 2019 Confidential 30

Double Overhead Cam
• In Double Overhead Cam, there are two
camshafts per cylinder head in the
engine. (i.e. 2 for inline configuration, 4
for V-configuration)
• These cams are used on engines with
four or more valves per cylinder as a
single cam cannot fit enough lobes for
each valve.
• One cam actuates the intake valves and
the other actuates the exhaust valves.
position

October 7, 2019 Confidential 31

Connecting Rods
• The pistons are connected to the crankshaft by
means of connecting rods.
• Together with the crank, connecting rods form
the mechanism for converting reciprocating
motion into rotating motion.
• The small end of the connecting rod connects
to the piston while the big end connects to the
crankshaft.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 32

Pistons
The top part of the piston ‘piston head’
comprises the combustion chamber. The shape
of the chamber is designed to optimise the
combustion event.
Piston has three rings. Two of them act as a
gasket to create an airtight seal, the third one
holds oil which lubricates the cylinder as the
piston moves up and down.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 33

Flywheel
• The flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that
is used to store rotational energy.
• They have a high moment of inertia and thus
resist changes in rotational speed.
• It serves the following purposes:
• It provides continuous energy even though the engine
torque output is intermittent.
• It balances out fluctuations that arrive due to the
combustion process.
• The flywheel is housed in a flywheel housing.
• The lower part of the flywheel housing may also
function as a friction surface for the oil sump
seal.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 34

Timing Gear
• The timing gear or belt drives the camshaft,
high pressure pump and the oil pump.
• It keeps the crankshaft and the camshaft
mechanically synchronized to maintain engine
timing
• It also transmits power from the engine
crankshaft to accessories that need to be
driven
• The gears are housed in the timing housing
fitted at the front of the engine. This
arrangement is often referred to as: FEAD
(Front End Accessory Drive)
• If the engine is fitted with a hydraulic pump it
is driven by a separate drive mechanism.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 35

Fuel System
• The Fuel System ensures the metering, control and delivery of fuel to the injectors.
• The Fuel System comprises of the fuel tank, fuel filter, fuel pump and fuel injectors. Lp vs Hp
• Traditionally, carburettors were used to mix the fuel and air
• In the current scenario, fuel injectors are electrically actuated to put fuel into the cylinders.
• Fuel injection may be direct or indirect (port injection).
• The injector is typically located in the middle of the four valves.
• Injector location in the vertical center of the cylinder is ideal for achieving a precise, homogenous
mix of fuel and air

October 7, 2019 Confidential 36

Intake Air System
• The air intake system comprises of a filter. Impurities in the air are collected in the filter cartridge,
which can be cleaned if required.
• The inlet air system also includes additional devices/components for controlling, regulating and
boosting the supply of air.
• These includes superchargers, compressor driven by turbo, intake air throttles etc.
• The intake air system ends at the intake air manifold.
• If additional boosting systems are used, an intercooler may also be incorporated. The compressed
intake air is cooled by an air-to-air intercooler system. The temperature of the air coming from
the compressor is approx. 150 Deg C and is cooled by the engine air cooling system.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 37

Exhaust Manifold
• The exhaust manifold is connected to the cylinder head.
• The exhaust manifold is followed by exhaust pipe-work. The end closer to the exhaust manifold is
referred to as the hot-end while the one downstream is referred to as cold-end.
• The exhaust system may incorporate Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Valve that allows diverting a
part of the exhaust gas to the intake manifold.
• Also, the exhaust gases may be used to turn a turbine which is turn is linked to a compressor.
• The exhaust system may additionally incorporate catalysts and filters to rid the exhaust gases of
pollutants / restricted gases.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 38

Exhaust and Emission System
• The exhaust system routes the exhaust gas from the engine out and away.
• It also reduces the noise from the engine.
• The car’s emission system controls the emission of polluting gases from the vehicle.
• The emission system typically is a chemical reactor that treats one of more species of polluting
gases

October 7, 2019 Confidential 39

Lubrication System
• The engine has a pressurised lubrication system in which the oil pump is connected to the lower
section of the cylinder block, which houses the oil sump.
• The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the bottom
of the sump (the oil pan).
• The oil is sucked through the pump via a strainer
• The oil then circulates inside a special channel to the oil pressure regulator and then through the
oil cooler (if used) to the oil filter. The oil regulator maintains a constant oil pressure
• The oil then flows though the main lubrication line, from which oil pipes extend.
• The oil flows through these pipes into the bearings, through the crankshaft and to the connecting
rod big end bushes.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 40

Lube
• The constant pressure and temperature gradients in the engine cause a wear to the mechanical
parts
• Additionally, a lot of moving parts rub against each other causing friction
• Lube or engine oil is used to lubricate the parts and reduce wear on the moving parts.
• Additionally, it serves the purpose of inhibiting corrosion, improving sealing and cooling the
moving parts by carrying heat away from moving parts.

• Engine oils are either petroleum based or non-petroleum based synthetic oils.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 41

Lube Oil Grades - SAE
• The lube oils are graded based on their viscosity characteristics from low to high viscosity.
• 0, 5, 10 …. 60
• 5W-30 is the most commonly used lube oil grade.
• The number before the W describes the viscosity of the oil at low temperatures. The lower
the number, the thinner the oil and the better the oil's cold temperature/ cold start
performance. The number after the W describes how thick the oil is at the engine's normal
operating temperature

• However, the viscosity based grading is not sufficient enough to ensure selection of the best
suitable oil for your engine.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 42

Lube Oil Grades - API
• The service rating of passenger car and commercial automotive motor oils is classified by the
American Petroleum Institute (API)

October 7, 2019 Confidential 43

Lube Oil Grades – API - Commercial
• The API – “C” Series provides the service rating for oils to be used with
commercial vehicles

October 7, 2019 Confidential 44

Cooling System
• Cooling system’s role is to remove heat from the engine and transmission and to dissipate heat to
the surrounding air.
• The water pump or coolant pump circulates the coolant through the engine.
• The water pump or coolant pump is fitted to the front end of the cylinder block and the
thermostat housing is fitted just next to it.
• The water pump may be driven by a gear system.
• The system has an internal fluid system which passes through the bypass pipe. Circulation is
controlled by a two-way thermostat.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 45

Coolant
• Coolant is a fluid which flows through the engine to prevent its overheating.
• An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-cost, non-toxic and chemically
inert.
• Water is the most common coolant.
• Additives like corrosion inhibitors and antifreeze are added to it. Antifreeze is used to allow the
solution to withstand temperatures below freezing point.
• These additives provide the coolant with distinctive colour.
• The low temperature portions of the engine are cooled by the coolant while the high
temperature portions are typically cooled by the lube oil (as a secondary function).
• As the coolant becomes hot it is cooled by passing it through an air cooled radiator where it
transfers its heat to the surrounding air

October 7, 2019 Confidential 46

Radiator
• As the coolant circulates through the engine, it draws away the engine heat, thereby – itself
heating up.
• Above a certain set point, the coolant flow is diverted to a Radiator
• The job of the Radiator is to cool down the coolant before it is sent back into the engine

October 7, 2019 Confidential 47

Antifreeze
• Water, with the proper anticorrosion additives, would make an adequate cooling medium for
automotive engines.
• But it freezes, and boils over.
• Ethylene glycol, an alcohol, is added to extend the boiling and freezing points of the coolant.
• It however compromises the ability to draw the heat away.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 48

Filters
• Filters are present in all the intake systems of the engine.
• Oil filter traps contaminants
• Fuel filter separates harmful contaminants
• Air filter traps dirt particles
• Cabin filter traps pollen, bacteria and dust

October 7, 2019 Confidential 49

Performance Enhancement
Base Engine
• The base engine has its limitations in achieving power and efficiency
• Subsidiary systems come into picture to help overcome this limitation

October 7, 2019 Confidential 51

Producing More Power – Design Elements
• Increasing the Size of the Engine: More displacement (bore and stroke) means more power
because you can burn more gas during each revolution of the engine
• Increase the compression ratio - Higher compression ratios produce more power, up to a point.
The more we compress the air/fuel mixture, however, the more likely it is to spontaneously burst
into flame (before the spark plug ignites it)
• Increase Oxygen in the cylinder - If we can cram more air (source of oxygen) into a cylinder of a
given size, we can get more power from the cylinder

October 7, 2019 Confidential 52

Producing More Power – Design Elements
• Cool the entering air - If the air entering the cylinder is cold, it is more dense and therefore
higher compression can be achieved in the cylinder without sacrificing the oxygen content.
• Reduce Restriction – If the air can enter the cylinder easily and the exhaust products can exist the
cylinder with ease, engine can more efficiently deliver its power
• Making Engine Lighter – Reducing the engines’ weight will cause it to be more efficient.
• Meter Fuel Precisely – Effectively utilizing the capability of the fuel system to meter the fuel.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 53

Thanks
Module 02: Engine and Vehicle Basics

Sub-Module 03: Engine: Critical Subsystems

Engine – Emissions and Performance Enhancement
By-Products
• Gaseous Emissions and Smoke
• Heat
• Noise

October 7, 2019 Confidential 3

Gaseous Emissions and Smoke
• A number of undesired compounds are formed post combustion.
• Improper combustion can also lead to compounds which provide a distinct colour – white or
black to the released exhaust gases. This is generally labelled as ‘smoke’
• Key Emissions from the Engine are:
• Carbon Monoxide
• Hydrocarbons
• Nitrogen Oxides (NO and NO2)
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
• Particulate Matter (complex hydrocarbon chains)

October 7, 2019 Confidential 4

Carbon Monoxide
• CO is a toxic gas, which is produced during incomplete combustion.
• It survives in the atmosphere for one month and finally gets oxidised to CO2.
• It reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

• CO emission from petrol engines is higher than that from diesel engine.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 5

Greenhouse Gases
• The escape of infrared radiation is delayed by the green house gases.
• Thick blanket of greenhouse gases traps more infrared radiation and increases the earth’s
temperature.
• The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide and ozone
• CO2 is responsible for 60 percent of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 6

Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are un-burnt or partially burnt fuel.
• The two main groups of HC are Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH)
• VOCs are released in vehicle exhaust gases.
• Benzene and 1,3-butadiene are known carcinogens
• VOCs play a role in the photochemical formation of ozone in the atmosphere.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 7

Nitrogen Oxides
• The intake air contains a high percentage of nitrogen.
• During combustion at high temperature, the nitrogen is oxidised.

• Nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere in the form of NO, which is readily oxidised to
NO2 by reaction with ozone.
• Elevated levels of NOx causes respiratory track irritation and can worsen asthma
• NO (Nitric Oxide) is colourless and forms up to 90% of the NOx content. NO2 (Nitrous Oxide) is
brown in colour

• In the presence of sunlight it reacts with hydrocarbons to produce photochemical pollutants

• Photochemical smog, often referred to as summer smog, is the chemical reaction of
sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, which leaves
airborne particles and ground-level ozone
• NO combines with water vapour to form nitric acid.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 8

Sulfur Dioxide
• Sulphur dioxide is a corrosive acid gas
• It combines with water vapour to produce sulphuric acid and causes acid rain.
• Both wet and dry deposition can damage vegetation and cause degradation of soils, building
materials and watercourses.
• SO2 also causes asthma and chronic bronchitis.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 9

Particulate Matter
• Particulate Matter is a complex mix of carbon and hydrocarbons and compounds of the two with
other impurities
• Airborne particulates vary widely in this physical and chemical composition, source and size.
PM10 particles are of major concern as they are small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs
• Diesel engines are a major source of PM.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 10

Ozone
• Ozone is a secondary pollutant produced by the reaction of NO2 and hydrocarbons in the
presence of sunlight.
• It can irritate the eyes and air passages causing breathing difficulties and may increase
susceptibility to infection(adversely affect immune system).
• It is highly reactive chemical and toxic to some crops, vegetation and trees.
• Ozone destroys O2 from the air.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 11

TOMPs (Toxic Organic Micropollutants)
• They are produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels.
• The list includes:
• Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
• Polychlorinated biphenyls
• Dioxins
• Furans

• TOMPs can cause a wide range of effects, from cancer to reduced immunity to nervous system
disorders.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 12

Lead
• Lead is a poison to the central nervous system and particularly detrimental to the mental
development of children.
• Lead is most widely used non-ferrous metal.
• It is used in batteries, paints, tank lining and piping among other things.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 13

Ways to Reduce Emissions
• A proper and complete combustion process is a key to reduce the emissions from the engine.
• However, regulatory limits require more stringent reductions for CO, NOx, Particulate Matter and
HC
• This require additional devices to be used.
• The presence of several other species like TOMPs have to be reported.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 14

Exhaust Gas Recirculation
The exhaust gases are relatively inert (mainly containing CO2). By mixing part of this exhaust gas
with the fresh inlet air, the nitrogen content entering the cylinder during combustion can be
reduced.
Such a system can therefore, help reduce further generation of nitrogen oxides.
Also, during cold start and winter conditions, a significantly higher amount of exhaust gas can be
diverted to the inlet side to raise the intake manifold temperature.
These dual benefits are achieved by Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems.
EGR systems provide a method for better utilizing the heat energy being lost post-combustion.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 15

Exhaust Gas Recirculation
• EGR systems employ a metering orifice in the exhaust manifold to enable a portion of the
exhaust gas to flow from the exhaust manifold through the valve into the intake manifold.
• An electric butterfly valve is mounted in the intake manifold on the cold side of the engine in
the direction of flow before the EGR line.
• It enables reducing the intake cross section in the part load range and thus controlling the
pressure level after the wall.
• Closing the valve increases the flow rate of the intake air and the vacuum after the valve. The
increase of the vacuum increases the exhaust gas return.

• This device is called EGR Valve.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 16

Exhaust Gas Recirculation

October 7, 2019 Confidential 17

Heat and Energy
• Again, relating to the laws of thermodynamics, a large portion of the energy released in the
combustion process is lost as heat to the exhaust gases generated.
• These exhaust gases are removed from the cylinder during the exhaust stroke.
• Most of this energy is in one way or another lost to the environment.
• However, there are ways to utilize this energy content to perform mechanical work.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 18

Turbocharging
• The kinetic energy of the exhaust gases can be used to rotate a turbine.
• The turbine thus connected in the exhaust flow can be made to rotate a compressor on the
intake air side.
• The compressor helps to delivers a greater mass of air into the combustion chamber so that
more air-fuel mixture can be burnt.
• At high engine speeds a wastegate can be employed to divert a part of the exhaust gas stream, so
that it bypasses the turbine.
• This reduces the exhaust gas flow through the turbine and the exhaust back pressure.

• Note: Addition of the turbine in the exhaust flow path increases the exhaust back pressure and
make it tougher to rid the cylinder of exhaust gases post combustion.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 19

Exhaust System

Spring – Spherical Joint

Spl Bolt

Seal bearing

Flange
Spring – Spherical Joint
Gasket
Pre Muffler Mounting Rubber – 4 Qty
Nut
Spl Bolt

Seal bearing

Sub Muffler Assy

Main Muffler

October 7, 2019 Confidential 20

Heat Containment Design Alternatives
• Single Wall (No Treatment)
• Double Wall
• Foil wrapped blanket insulation
• Sock-type blanket insulation
• Blanket Wrap insulation
• Elastomeric Wrap insulation
• Metal Encapsulated insulation
• Ceramic coating insulation

October 7, 2019 Confidential 21

Design Factors
• Insulation (Thermal) characteristics
• Ease of installation
• Resistance to Water
• Resistance to Debris
• Thickness
• Cost
• Aesthetics

October 7, 2019 Confidential 22

Typical Noise Sources in a Vehicle
• These are the typical noise sources in a vehicle
• Engine Radiation
• Transmission/ Drive Components
• Exhaust noise (measured at the tailpipe)
• Intake
• Cooling Fans
• Wind Noise
• Tires, Tracks

October 7, 2019 Confidential 23

Noise - Decibel Scale

Sound Pressure Level in dB

October 7, 2019 Confidential 24

Noise Regulations and Function of a Silencer
• Every vehicle must meet noise regulations set by different governments The
regulations apply to entire vehicle/application.
• Mufflers/silencer are designed to meet these regulations.
• They are designed so that exhaust noise at the tailpipe is a non contributor to the
overall vehicle noise (Generally exhaust noise is designed to be 10 dB below the
overall noise level).
• Mufflers/silencers are a box or cylindrically shaped component which are used to
reduce the noise coming from an engine or other noise source while passing
exhaust with minimum/range of defined back pressure.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 25

Thanks
A omo i e Elec ronics and Diagnos ics

S b-Mod le: Sensors and Ac a ors

Se T a d ce
Sensor : A device that converts a physical parameter in to an electrical parameter.
E.g., microphone converts the sound pressure waves to electrical waves, RTD that converts a change in
temperature to a change in resistance.
Transducer: A device that converts energy from one form to another in the same domain.
A transducer usually has a sensor integrated with it.
E.g. A pressure transducer which has a pressure sensor senses pressure in the form of change in the
resistor and provides output in the form of analog voltage V OR current mA .
What is transformer?
A transformer converts an electrical parameter usually potential to same electrical parameter
while scaling it to another level lower or higher

3-Oct-19 Confidential 2
Se Ref e he Ph ica W d Pa a e e
The world around us is full of various phsical parameters such as temperature, pressure, flow, mass, force,
speed, acceleration etc.
All animals are embedded with various sensors in various forms. We know about the five senses and the
sensory organs that a human body has.
All instruments that we use in our daily life are embedded with various sensors. E.g. cellphones, computer,
printer, AC etc.
Automation is all about controlling some physical parameter according to some laid down algorithm.
Controlling something without knowing or sensing it; is an impossible task.
That is where the need of the sensors arise.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 3

Sensor Terminologies
Sensitivity: The minimum input of physical parameter that will create a detectable output change is called as sensitivity.

Range: The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of the applied parameter that can be measured.

Precision: Precision is the degree of reproducibility of the measurement.

Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum different that will exist between the actual value and the indicated
value at the output of the sensor. The accuracy is expressed either as a percentage of full range or in absolute terms.

Offset: The offset of a sensor is the output that will exist when it should be zero.

Linearity: Linearity is the extent to which the measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 4

Se Te i gie
Hysteresis: A sensor should be capable of following the changes of the input parameter regardless of which direction the
change is made; hysteresis is the measure of this property.

Response Time: The response time is the time required by the sensor output to change from its previous state to a final
settled value within a tolerance band of the new value.

Dynamic Linearity: The dynamic linearity of the sensor is a measure of its ability to follow rapid changes in the input
parameter.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 5

Thermocouple
Based on Seebeck Effect
Discovered in by scientist Thomas Seebeck in Germany
When two different electrical conductors or semiconductors are kept at different temperatures, the system results in the
creation of electrical potential.
The valence electrons in the warmer part of the metal are solely responsible for this and the thermal energy they gain is
converted into kinetic energy. They migrate rapidly towards the colder region.

Electrons go where the energy is lower and this transportation continues till an equilibrium is reached.

Seebeck coefficient S DV DT
Where DV and DT are voltage and temperature difference between the junctions respectively and the negative sign comes from the negative charge of
electron.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 6

The c e
The magnitude of thermo-electric emf depends upon the nature of the two metals and on the temperature difference
between the terminals.
Seebeck effect is reversible i.e. if the hot and cold junctions are reversed, the direction of thermoelectric current is also
reversed
Seebeck investigated thermo-electric properties of a large number of metals and arranged them in a series known as
thermo-electric series or seebeck series
The Seebeck series is given as - Bi, Ni, Co, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, As, Sb, Te
When two of these metals in the series are used to form a thermocouple, the thermos emf is greater when two metals
used are farther apart in the circuit.

The thermo-emf of a Cu Fe couple is only 1.3 mV for a temperature difference of 100 Deg C between the hot and cold
junction.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 7
Thermistors - Introduction
Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors and they exhibit change in resitance with the change in
temeprature
Thermistors are inexpensive, easily obtainable temperature sensors
Circuits with thermistors can have reasonable outout voltages not the millivolt outputs as the
thermocouples have
All resistors vary with temperature, but thermistors are constructed of semiconductor material with a
resistivity that is especially sensitive to temperature.
However, unlike most other resistive devices, the resistance of a thermistor may decrease with increasing
temperature.
Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials metallic compounds including oxides such as
manganese, copper, cobalt, and nickel, as well as single crystal semiconductors silicon and germanium .

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 8

Thermistors - Introduction
Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance and temperature for the following discussion
ΔR k ΔT where
ΔR change in resistance
ΔT change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k.
If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, Posistor.
If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have the smallest possible k, so that their resistance
remains almost constant over a wide temperature range.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 9

The i Ba ic E ai M de
The Steinhart Hart equation gives the reciprocal of absolute temperature as a function of the resistance
of a thermistor.
Using the Steinhardt Hart equation, one can calculate the temperature of the thermistor from the
measured resistance.
The Steinhart Hart equation is:
T A B ln R C ln R where R in Ω, T in ̊K
The constants, A, B and C can be determined from experimental measurements of resistance, or they
can be calculated from tabular data.
This model is most accurate

3-Oct-19 Confidential 10
The i Ba ic E ai M de
Temperature coefficient
NTC Resistance decreases with temperature
PTC Resistance increases with temperature
Exponential relationship between temperature and resistance is interpreted by following
equation (which is simplified form of Stienhart-Hart Equation
β model: β Ln RT1/ RT2) / (1/T1 1/T2)
where
β coefficient in °K
RT1 = the resistance at temperature 1
RT2 = the resistance at temperature 2
T1 = Temperature one in °K
T2= Temperature two in °K
In another words: RT2=RT1 * e β T - T) / T0*T)]
The beta value of an NTC Thermistor is calculated using only two temperatures over a given range
and is not the most accurate

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 11

Thermistor - Typical Datasheet and specifications

3-Oct-19 Confidential 12
Thermistor - Selection and Calculations for your
design
Thermistor choice is based on the nominal resistance you want at the operating temperature
range, on the size, and on the time constant response time .
Time constants are about seconds. Check this out with your thermistor datasheet
Use above table and try to find values of A,B and C using Steinhart Hart equation
Use three different and distinct values of temperature to get three simultaneous equations
Solve these equations to arrive at values of A, B and C
Now we know values of R Ω , A, B and C which can be used to find the temperature.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 13

Thermisotor - Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
High sensitivity Initial accuracy drift
Low cost and easily available De calibration if used outside the
specified temperature range
Easy interfacing and no
compensation Self heating effect
Rugged and reliable
Tiny sensing element; thus offers
fast response time

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 14

The i A ica i
NTC thermistors - Mostly temperature probes in varied areas. Industrial process control, Engine
parameters such as coolant, oil, Air intake, emission control, HVAC temperature parameters etc.
PTC Thermistors - Mainly Temperature compensation, overcurrent protection and self regulating
heater

3-Oct-19 Confidential 15
RTDs - Introduction
RTD Resistance Temperature Dependent Detectors
Electrical resistance resistivity of the pure metal changes with the temperature. This principle is
used to detect the temperature by determining the change in resistivity that has occurred.
In place for many years now but the most expensive compared to Thermistors and
Thermocouples.
Platinum is the most widely specified RTD element though other metals like nickel, copper and
balco nickel iron are also in use.
Platinum is widely used due to its broad temperature range, stability and accuracy.
RTDs are characterized by linear positive change in resistance with rise in temperature.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 16

RTDs - Introduction
There are two main types of RTDs viz. wire wound and thin film Like resistors !
Most RTDs are too fragile to use in their raw form so they are put under protective sheath and
have extension lead wires.
The housing immobilizes the element while protecting it from mechanical stress and
environmental conditions.
With various packaging for different applications the RTDs are used for to C
̊
measurement range.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 17

RTD Te i g
RTDs are generally characterized by their base resistance at ̊C.
Typical base resistance values for platinum thin film RTD are , and Ω and called as
PT , PT and PT .
These have characteristic standard curve ITS
C Equation
C Rt R At Bt Ct t
C Rt R At Bt
Where:
Rt resistance at temperature t
R base resistance at C
A, B and C are constants of the equation
t temperature in accordance with ITS
Typical temperature coefficient or α for platinum is . Ω Ω C
̊ per DIN The standard widely
used for industrial grade platinum RTD

3-Oct-19 Confidential 18
Mag e ic Se
Magnetic sensors are solid state devices that are becoming more and more popular because they
can be used in many different types of application such as sensing position, velocity or directional
movement.
They are also a popular choice of sensor for the electronics designer due to their non-contact
wear free operation, their low maintenance, robust design and as sealed hall effect devices are
immune to vibration, dust and water.
One of the main uses of Magnetic Sensors in automotive is for sensing the position, distance and
in turn speed.
For example, the angular position of the crank shaft for the firing angle of the spark plugs, the
position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag control or wheel speed detection for the anti-
lock braking system, (ABS).

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 19

Magnetic Sensors
Magnetic sensors are designed to respond to a wide range of positive and negative magnetic
fields in a variety of different applications and one type of magnet sensor whose output signal is
a function of magnetic field density around it is called the Hall Effect Sensor.
The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic field density around the
device.
When the magnetic flux density around the sensor exceeds a certain pre-set threshold, the
sensor detects it and generates an output voltage called the Hall Voltage, VH.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 20

Ha Effec
If an electric current flows through a conductor placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field
exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of
the conductor.
This is most evident in a thin flat conductor as illustrated.
A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing
a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor.
The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who
discovered it in .
The basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz force.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 21

Ha Effec Diag a

3-Oc -19 Confidential 22

Ha Effec E a ai
Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p type semiconductor
material such as gallium arsenide GaAs , indium antimonide InSb or indium arsenide InAs
passing a continuous current through itself.
While placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor
material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the
semiconductor slab.
This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing
through the semiconductor material.
As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between the
two sides of the semiconductor material by the build up of these charge carriers.
The movement of electrons through the semiconductor material is affected by the presence of
an external magnetic field which is at right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat
rectangular shaped material.
To generate a potential difference across the device the magnetic flux lines must be
perpendicular, ̊ to the flow of current and be of the correct polarity, generally a south pole.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 23
Ha Effec Mag e ic Se Diag a f
e a d c di i e
The output voltage, called the Hall voltage, (VH) of the basic Hall Element is directly proportional
to the strength of the magnetic field passing through the semiconductor material (output α H).
This output voltage can be quite small, only a few microvolts even when subjected to strong
magnetic fields so most commercially available Hall effect devices are manufactured with built-in
DC amplifiers, logic switching circuits and voltage regulators to improve the sensors sensitivity,
hysteresis and output voltage.
This also allows the Hall effect sensor to operate over a wider range of power supplies and
magnetic field conditions.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 24

Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor - Diagram - Typical Hall Effect Switch

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 25

Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor Diagram - Typical Hall Effect how it works?

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 26

Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor - Types
Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or digital outputs.
The output signal for linear (analogue) sensors is taken directly from the output of the operational amplifier
with the output voltage being directly proportional to the magnetic field passing through the Hall sensor.
This output Hall voltage is given as: VH = RH*[(I/t)*B]
Where
VH = Hall Voltage in Volts
Rh = Hall Coefficient ( Ωm/Tesla)
I = Current in Amps
t - thickness of sensor plate in mm
B = Magnetic flux density in Tesla

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 27

Ha Effec Mag e ic Se T e
Linear or analog sensors give a continuous voltage output that increases with a strong magnetic
field and decreases with a weak magnetic field.
Digital output sensors on the other hand have a Schmitt trigger with built in hysteresis connected
to the op amp.
When the magnetic flux passing through the Hall sensor exceeds a pre set value the output from
the device switches quickly changes without any type of contact bounce.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 28

Ha Effec Mag e ic Se T e
There are two basic types of digital Hall effect sensor, Bipolar and Unipolar.
Bipolar sensors require a positive magnetic field south pole to operate them and a negative
field north pole to release them while unipolar sensors require only a single magnetic south
pole to both operate and release them as they move in and out of the magnetic field.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 29

Ha Effec Se A ica i
Most Hall effect devices can not directly switch large electrical loads as their output drive
capabilities are very small around 10 to 20mA.
For larger loads current sinking open collector NPN transistor is added as an output stage.
This transistor operates in its saturated region as a NPN sink switch which shorts the output
terminal to ground whenever the applied flux density is higher than that of the “ON pre-set
point
The output switching transistor can be either an open emitter transistor, open collector transistor
configuration or both providing a push-pull output type configuration that can sink enough
current to directly drive many loads, including relays, motors, LEDs, and lamps.
Typical required gap between sensor face and target is 1mm

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 30

Inductive (VR) Sensor
Inductive magnetic reluctance speed sensors are lightweight and very robust, which makes
them particularly suited to demanding motorsport applications.
In an inductive sensor, the magnetic field around a permanent magnet changes if a ferrous target
e.g. a toothed wheel is moved in front of the sensor.
The change is sensed by the voltage generated in a coil of wire in the magnetic field.
The coil and magnet are integrated in the sensor body for ease of installation.
The magnitude of the induced voltage increases with the speed of movement of the ferrous
object i.e. the target wheel speed . The voltage decreases as the distance air gap between the
end of the sensor and the moving target gets larger.

Typical applications are measuring speed position of crank and camshaft. Wheel speed and
turbocharger speed.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 31

Inductive (VR) Sensor - Construction and output

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 32

I d c i e VR Se
These circuits trigger when the voltage output crosses a threshold typically mV .
The detection level can be set lower, but the sensor would be more susceptible to noise.
The output of the sensor has to exceed the detection voltage before motion can be detected.
Since this voltage depends on the speed of the target, inductive sensors are unable to detect very
low speeds.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 33

Pe e Se i g Ba ic Ph ic
Static Pressure. Pressure, P, is defined as force, F, per unit area, A and P F A
The measurement of pressure is generally associated with fluids, either liquids or gases. A
container filled with a liquid visualize a water tank has a pressure due to the weight of the
liquid at certain point in the liquid of:
P ΔF ΔA hw where
h distance from the surface to the point
w weight of the liquid most liquids are nearly non compressible
The weight per unit volume, V, is given by w mg V where
m mass
g gravitational acceleration

Note that this relation can be used to determine the height of the column of liquid in a tank
by measuring the pressure.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 34

Pe e Se i g Ba ic Ph ic
The density of the liquid is given by density ρ mass m volume V
Thus, the density of a liquid determines the pressure, P, exerted for a given height
Mercury is 13.6 times denser than water, so would exert a pressure 13.6 times that of water for a
column of the same height
It should be noted that the pressure due to the height of a column of liquid is in addition to the
atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 35

Pressure - Types of Measurement
Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum. An example is atmospheric pressure. A
common unit of measure is pounds per square inch absolute psia .
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points of measurement. This is commonly
measured in units of pounds per square inch differential psid .
Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient pressure. Blood pressure is one example. Common
measurement units are pressure per square inch gauge psig . Intake manifold vacuum in an automobile
engine is an example of a vacuum gauge measurement vacuum is negative gauge pressure .
The three types of measurements are shown in Figure on the next slide.
Note that the same sensor may be used for all three types; only the reference is different.
Differential pressures may be measured anywhere in the range above, below, and around atmospheric
pressure.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 36

Pressure - Types of Measurement

1 ba = 105 Pa = 14.5 PSI

1 Pa cal = 1 Ne on / 1 m
1 PSI = 1 o nd e in

3-Oc -19 Confidential 37

Pe e U i
Pressure is force per unit area and historically a great variety of units have been used, depending
on their suitability for the application. For example, blood pressure is usually measured in mmHg
because mercury manometers were used originally.
Atmospheric pressure is usually expressed in inHg for the same reason. Other units used for
atmospheric pressure are bar, Pascal and psi.
Following are some units for pressure and their conversion values:

psi . mmHg . in.Hg . in.H O . kPa

bar . psi kPa
atm. . psi . kPa . bar . inHg mmHg

3-Oct-19 Confidential 38
Pe e Se i g
Traditionally pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as plates, shells, and tubes that are
designed and constructed to deflect when pressure is applied.
This is the basic mechanism converting pressure to physical movement. Next, this movement
must be transduced to obtain an electrical or other output.
Finally, signal conditioning may be needed, depending on the type of sensor and the application.
Thus traditional sensor includes sensing element, transduction element and optional signal
conditioner

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 39

Pressure Sensing Elements - Traditional

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 40

Pressure Sensing Element - Bourdon Tube

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 41

Pressure Guages - Traditional
In mechanical gauges, the motion created by the sensing element is read directly by a dial or
pointer. These devices are typically seen in low-performance applications, including blood
pressure measurement and automotive pressure gauges. The mechanical approach used to
couple the sensing element to the readout can introduce repeatability errors. The mechanical
mass of the gauges also limits the frequency response and makes these sensors suitable only for
slowly changing measurements.
Electromechanical pressure sensors convert the applied pressure to an electrical signal. A wide
variety of materials and technologies has been used in these devices, resulting in performance
vs. cost tradeoffs and suitability for applications. The electrical output signal also provides a
variety of choices for various applications.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 42

Pe e Se Tech gie M de
P e ai i g
Potentiometric Pressure Sensors
Inductive Pressure Sensors
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors
Piezoresistive Integrated Semiconductor

3-Oc -19 Confidential 43

 Pe e Se P e i e ic
These use a Bourdon tube, capsule, or
bellows to drive a wiper arm on a resistive
element. For reliable operation the wiper
must bear on the element with some
force, which leads to repeatability and
hysteresis errors.
These devices are very low cost and are
used in low performance applications

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 44

 Pe e Se I d ci e
Several configurations based on varying
inductance or inductive coupling are used in
pressure sensors. They all require AC excitation of
the coil(s) and, if a DC output is desired,
subsequent demodulation and filtering. The linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT) types have
a fairly low frequency response due to the
necessity of driving the moving core of the
differential transformer
The LVDT uses the moving core to vary the
inductive coupling between the transformer
primary and secondary.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 45

Pressure Sensor - Capacitive
Capacitive pressure sensors typically use a thin diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor. Applied
pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the capacitance to change.
This change may or may not be linear and is typically on the order of several picofarads out of
a total capacitance of pF.
The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency of an oscillator or to vary the
coupling of an AC signal through a network.
The electronics for signal conditioning should be located close to the sensing element to
prevent errors due to stray capacitance.
The capacitance of two parallel plates is given by: C A d where dielectric constant of
the material between the plates, A area of the plates, d spacing between the plates
Capacitive absolute pressure sensors with a vacuum between the plates are ideal in this
respect. Because the capacitance of this sensor depends only on physical parameters, sensors
with good performance can be constructed using materials with low coefficients of thermal
expansion. These sensors exhibit acceleration and vibration sensitivity due to the necessity for
a large, thin diaphragm.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 46

 Pressure Sensor - Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric elements are bi directional transducers
capable of converting stress into an electric potential
and vice versa.
They consist of metallized quartz or ceramic
materials.
One important factor to remember is that this is a
dynamic effect, providing an output only when the
input is changing. This means that these sensors can
be used only for varying pressures.
The piezoelectric element has a high impedance
output and care must be taken to avoid loading the
output by the interface electronics. Some
piezoelectric pressure sensors include an internal
amplifier to provide an easy electrical interface

3-Oc -19 Confidential 47

 Pe e Se S ai G age T e
Strain gauge sensors originally used a metal
diaphragm with strain gauges bonded to it. A strain
gauge measures the strain in a material subjected
to applied stress.
Consider a strip of metallic material see Figure
with electrical resistance given by: R ρL WT
where ρ,L,W and T are resistivity, length, width
and thickness.
Metallic strain gauges depend only on dimensional
changes to produce a change in resistance. A stress
applied to the strip causes it to become slightly
longer, narrower, and thinner, resulting in a
resistance of: R ρ L ΔL W ΔW T ΔT , or R
approx. R Δ

3-Oct-19 Confidential 48
Pe e Se Pie e i i e B idge
A semiconductor may resistor may change its resistance when applied with stress or deformation.
Discovered by Lord Kelvin, this is called as piezoresistive effect.
This effect provides an easy and direct energy/signal transduction in mechanical and electrical domains.
It's used in MEMS field for wide variety of sensing needs e.g. pressure, acceleration, flow, gyro rate etc.
Peizoresistivity refers to the change in resistivity due to stress
If there is change in resistance due to stress or deformation then that's a strain guage. Stress is the cause
and strain is the effect.
The piezoresistors on the sensing element are four and connected together in a wheatstone bridge circuit.
Bulk microfabricated pressure sensors with thin deformable diaphragms made of singlecrystalsilicon are the
earliest products and still dominate the market today

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 49

Pie ei i i

Pressure Deflects Diaphragm

Computer model of ¼ slice of a sensor die. Blue =

maximum deflection,
Red = zero deflection.

Deflection Induces Stress

Ansys stress model: Red=max

stress.

Piezoresistivity Stress Change in electrical resistance

Ba ic MEMS Se

Silicon piezoresistive pressure die:

B a
Implanted Piezoresistor

Implanted Piezoresistor

Differential Gage
Absolute
Ga ge/Differential Absol te
Pie e i a ce
R=4900W

R W
Piezoresistance Change in electrical resistance with stress
W
Piezoresistor

Piezoresistor
Piezoresistor
R W
W

W
W
Piezoresistor
R W

The resistance change

is dependent on
direction of stress relative
to silicon crystal lattice
Wheatstone Bridge

The en or ha fo r
R R implan ed re i or in
ei her an open or clo ed
config ra ion
V
R4 R3 V1 = (Vin .R 4
R1+ R 4) V 2 = ( RVin2+.RR33)
Vo = V1 V 2

Vin.R4 Vin.R3
Vo =
( R4 + R1) ( R3 + R2)
T e fP e e Mea e e
Differen ial pre re mea remen

Two active pressure ports varying pressure

P
Most general case P

P2

P = P1-P2

P
T e fP e e Mea e e
2. Vented gage pressure Ambient Pressure

1 active port

2nd port vented to ambient pressure

P
P1

Gage vent
P = P1-Ambient Pressure
Types of Pressure Measurement

Ab ol e pre re

active port
P1
nd port sealed with hard vacuum No vent

P
1
P P Vacuum

Sealed vacuum
Se C e ai

R1,R2: Offset TC
compensation resistors
R3, R4: Offset adj stment
resistors (balance
resistors)
R5: FSO TC
compensation resistors

Sensor Die R1 to R5 comprise the resistor network

Pe e Se Pie e i i e B idge
Piezoresistors are located in the center of four edges.
The location of these piezoresistors corresponds to regions of maximum tensile stress when the diaphragms
bent by a uniformly applied pressure difference across the diaphragm.
Four resistors are connected in a full Wheatstone bridge configuration.
The resistors are organized along the crystalline direction
A fully functional on chip signal processing unit consists of two stage amplifiers, compensation circuitry, and
may provide either of the two forms of output frequency and voltage
In the Wheatstone bridge configuration, the temperature sensitivity of the piezoresistors cancels each
other.
The diaphragm with embedded piezoresistors is made by using silicon bulk micromachining steps.
Piezoresistors are made by selectively doping the silicon diaphragm.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 58
Pe e Se Pie e i i e B idge Diag a

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 59

Ma Ai F Se
The ECM especially on gasoline engines requires precise information about the mass and other
characteristics of the intake air.
This information is supplied by the air mass flow sensors.
The Hot Film (or Hot Wire) mass air flow sensor directly measures the engines air intake.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 60

Mass Air Flow sensor
The sensor element consists of a heated sensor membrane over which the intake air flows.
A small passage inside the sensor directs part of the air flow to the heated element.
More the air passing, more is the heat carried away by the passing air
The temperature of two defined areas on the membrane is measured.
The more air is flowing over the membrane, the higher the temperature difference between the
measuring areas.

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 61

Mass Air Flow Sensor
Therefore the resulting difference in temperature is a measure of the air mass flow.
An electronics circuit evaluates the measurement data and provides precise recording of the air
volume, including the direction of the flow.
The sensor element only detects part of the air mass flow
The total air mass flowing through the tube is determined by calibration

3-Oc -19 Confidential 62

K ck Se
Knocking occurs when the air fuel mixture self ignites prematurely
Knocking can cause damage to the engine.
The knocking can be reduced by moving the ignition point
The knock sensor is mounted on the crankcase or engine block and measures the structure born
noise using a piezoceramic measuring element
The sensor moves in correlation to the engine block vibration; this motion results in a
compressive force at the element which is converted to a voltage signal.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 63
K ck Se
For each acceleration magnitude (m/sec2) or G Level (1 G = 9.8 m/sec2) and upper and lower
voltage threshold can be determined.
Knocking is discernible by its higher sound frequencies.
Knock sensors can typically capture accelerations in the frequency range of 1 to 25 kHz

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 64

Lambda Sensor
At the stoichiometric point (lambda = 1, one part of fuel in 14.7 parts of air), the oxygen content
of the exhaust gas is ideal for the catalytic converter.
The lambda sensor provides the ECM with the basis for appropriate mixture formation.
These sensors are also referred to as Oxygen Sensors

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 65

La bda Se Readi e
A ceramic element of zirconium oxide ZrO is placed in a steel enclosure.
The element is protected to prevent it from wetness and coarse particles

In order to be functional, the ceramic element has to be heated to nearly Deg C. The heater
is integrated into the sensor element and controlled by a pulse width modulation signal.

A reference oxygen gas is sourced into a chamber. In older sensors, this oxygen was sourced
through the connecting electrical cable.
The latest Lambda sensors include a pumping cell which generates the reference gas within the
sensor with the aid of pumping current.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 66

La bda Se O eai
Owing to the high temperature the ceramic becomes conductive to ions and because of different
oxygen concentrations, an ion exchange takes place between the reference gas and exhaust gas.
The actual measurement of the different oxygen concentrations is undertaken in the Nernst cell
named after Prof. Nernst
The ion exchange develops a potential difference in the Nernst cell, which enables a current
flow.
The higher the ion exchange, the higher is the potential difference.

The pumping flow and the temperature of the ceramic element have to be maintained during the
operation.

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 67

Na ba d f S i chi g T e La bda Se
The switching type lambda sensor generates a switching signal during the transition from lean to
rich operation.
The stoichiometric point is identified precisely
The sensor only has a narrow window

3-Oct-19 Confiden ial 68

Wideband Lambda Sensor
The wideband lambda sensor provides a continuous measurement signal of lambda . rich
mixture to air.
It allows for more precise control arrangements not just with lambda

3-Oc -19 Confiden ial 69

Nitrogen Oxide Sensor
NOx sensor is typically a high temperature device build to detect nitrogen oxides in the exhaust
gas.
The NOx sensor is an evolution of the widerange oxygen sensor
It contains an additional chamber that allows the determination of NOx concentration.

Their function is quite complex and these sensors come with their own controllers.

3-Oc -19 Confidential 70

NO Se O eai
The oxygen entering from exhaust gas is pass through a diffusion barrier into a cavity by applying
a voltage to the pumping electrodes.
The oxygen concentration in the cavity is controlled by pumping current to the constant
concentration of a few ppm NOx.
The pumping current is directly proportional to the amount of oxygen in the cavity.

From this cavity, a few ppm O and NOx enters into a second cavity
Gaseous oxygen is totally removed by an auxiliary pump
Oxygen is generated by the reduction of NO. This oxygen ions drive a current which is
proportional to the generated oxygen and the reduced NO.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 71
ACTUATOR BASIC UNDERSTANDING
Actuator is a unit that activates something physically.
A device that produces a force torque for some mechanical action to
happen in proportion to applied command.
Energy in conversion energy out where ‘Energy in’ may be
electrical, hydraulic pressure, flow or pneumatic pressure, flow and
‘Energy out’ is physical action displacement, force, torque etc.
In automotive we can treat the heating coils as “heating actuators
though these don’t actuate anything.

10/3/2019 72
Ac a or Linkage
Actuators provide motion displacement as an output
Thus actuators do have “linkage from input to output
Electrical: Where the input is passed on to the output as an electric signal. Thus
generally called as ‘drive by wire’ technology.eg. Electronic clutch, Electronic
Throttle
Hydraulic: Where the link is a column of an hydraulic fluid oil that has certain
pressure and flow e.g. Hydraulic brakes, hydraulic actuation of implements in
the construction and agri equipment.
Pneumatic: Where the link is a column of a compressed air e.g. Air brake where
the brake shoe is actuated by pneumatic pressure.
Combination Hybrid:
Electro Hydraulic: Where the force torque linkage is hydraulic while signal linkage is electric.
Electro pneumatic: Where the force torque linkage is pneumatic while signal linkage is electric.

10/3/2019 73
Ac a or Engine
Fuel System
. Fuel Injectors Electromagnetic and Piezoelectric actuators
. Fuel Pressure Limiting Valve Electromagnetic actuator
. Throttle Body Actuator Electromagnetic actuator
. Electronic Choke Actuator Heating actuator Electromagnetic actuator
. Fuel cut off valve Electromagnetic
Intake System
. Intake air throttle
. VGT actuator
Exhaust system
. EGR
. SCR system actuators such as injector, pump motor, metering valve
. DPF System actuators such as solenoid valve, metering valve.

10/3/2019 74
Ac a or Tran mi ion and Dri e line
S em
Electric Clutch Actuator
Electric brake drum actuator
Various on off solenoid valves
Oil pressure regulator

10/3/2019 75
Ac a or O her S em
Actuators for Climate Control System
. Clutch for compressor engagement control
. Coolant Refrigerant valve actuators
Vehicle systems
. Grill shutter actuator For actuating the radiation grills to reduce the aerodynamics losses.
. Electric power sterling
. Electric coolant fan
. Bus door actuator for passenger safety
. Power windows
. Central locking system actuators
. Headlight tilt actuator
. Windscreen headlight wipers and washers
. Seat adjustment
. Sunroof adjustment
Aftertreatment system actuators
. DEF injector
. Metering valves

10/3/2019 76
Ac a or Terminologie Ke ord and Spec
Input: Electrical or hydraulic: Based on what is the type of input energy required

Output: Linear Traditional and Rotary in case of proportional or On Off

. Force N, Kg and torque Nm, Kgm
. Stroke mm and angle deg, rad

Response time
. mm/msec, deg/msec

Operating Duty Cycle: Continuous / Intermittent

Rated Power consumption(W)

Absolute Maximum Ratings (V, I, F, T): This includes rated parameters such as rated force, torque, current and voltage.

Medium (Fluid, Air, Gas, Diesel, Petrol)

Restoring force / torque

10/3/2019 77
Ac a -T ,K
Environmental specifications : Temperature, Pressure, vibrations, electromagnetic and atmospheric.
Mounting specifications / Orientation
Physical specifications: Mass
Pull Force / Torque (On-Off Solenoids): Pulling force (ultimately current ) is required force for any electromechanical
actuator to start moving its core or rotor from standstill against the static friction, stiction and restoring force. This
may be - times of the holding force (current).
Holding Force / Torque (On-Off Solenoids): Holding force (ultimately current ) is a force necessary for any
electromechanical actuator core to maintain the current position against the restoring forces (usually restoring
spring)
Dither (Proportional solenoid): Dither is specified as much lower amplitude and higher frequency vibrations around
the current mean position achieved to reduce stiction so as to aid the fast response.
Bearings used

10/3/2019 78
Ac a -G P c
Electromagnetic:
. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
The voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the number of turns and rate of change of flux.
The induced current flows in the direction that opposes the changing flux. Flux has no source or
sink (What goes in comes out)
. Ampere's Law: The magneto-motive force (mmf) around a closed loop is
equal to net current enclosed by the loop. The objective of solenoid design is
to transfer the maximum amount of NI (energy) from the coil to the working
air gap.
. Flemings Left Hand Rule for direction of force (thumb), magnetic field and
current.

10/3/2019 79
Ac a or - Go erning Principles
Piezoelectric Effect: Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials
to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress.
The word Piezoelectric is derived from the Greek piezein, which means
to squeeze or press, and piezo, which is Greek for “push .

10/3/2019 80
N -Ac a a /H a
Ac a
The actuators are major power consumers in any embedded automotive
electronics
The non-actuating loads which don't really provide any physical motion or
displacement but provide other type of physical quantity such as heat.
The heaters, glow-plugs, defrosters etc are said to be non-actuating loads.
Since these also consume considerable power and have similar ways to
control the power delivery at output with respect to control system; they are
also considered as actuators in general.
The limiting factor of operating temperature of a solenoid is the insulation
material of the magnet wire used. Insulation classes:
. Class B- 0º C
. Class F- ºC
. Class H- 0º C
. Class C- 0º C

10/3/2019 81
R ac a
a b
Best reliability for use in automotive environment
Best efficiency in less size. (Power density)
Easy construction, servicing, driving.
Fit for environment
. Robust: ( Withstands Vibrations experienced in automobile)
. Temperature: (Exhaust gas and Engine compartment temperature)
. Dirt ingress protection
. Oil and fuel protection

10/3/2019 82
E c c Ac a - Va -M
Electric Motors
. AC
-ph and -ph
Synchronous Motors
DC
. Brushed DC motors
. Brush-less (Permanent Magnet Motors) / Stepper Motors
. Brush-less (No Magnet) BLDC motors
Motor terminology
. Stator and Rotor
. Armature and Field windings
. Series and Parallel connections

10/3/2019 83
DC Ac a -R a a L a
Rotary:
. Motors:
Starter Motor
PMDC Motor
Stepper Motor
. DC solenoid (Rotary)
Linear (Solenoids):
. DC solenoid (On-Off)
. DC solenoid (Proportional)

10/3/2019 84
E c c Ac a - Va -S
(O -O )
Solenoids - (On-Off)
. AC
. DC
Relays
Small stroke (Valve spool actuation, Fuel Injectors)
Large stroke (Lever actuation, Valve stem actuation, Pressure / Flow control)

10/3/2019 85
E c c Ac a -S ( Va ab
)
AC
DC
. Integrated actuator (e.g. EGR valve)
In this category the actuator is well integrated with the actuating part.
. Externally mounted Actuators (e.g. EGR, Throttle control Actuator)
In this category the actuator exists as a separate unit. The implementation of actuator
involves the calculation of force requirement based on the force and lever data of the
actuating part. Also the mounting and securing considerations are also of major
importance.

10/3/2019 86
R a

10/3/2019 87
DC S -L a - O -O
DC solenoid mainly comes with two windings or coils.
Pulling coil: This is high wattage coil to provide the initial force required to
move the plunger against the spring tension and lever load. This is activated
momentarily ( - secs) to enable the movement of the solenoid plunger.
Holding coil: This is comparatively low wattage coil which provides holding
force for the plunger against the spring tension and lever load. This coil is
activated as long as the plunger is expected to be in the extreme position.
Specifications:
. Stroke: The stroke of the plunger is specified in mm. e.g. mm
. Force: The maximum weight that can be pulled or pushed by the solenoid. Provided
in Gram or Kg.
The solenoids consume a lot of power and get heated with the continuous use.
The duty cycle of the operation should be optimized to limit heating to a safe
limit.

10/3/2019 88
DC S -L a -O - -
C c

10/3/2019 89
Solenoid - Linear - Variable Position -
Construction

10/3/2019 90
DC Solenoid (on-off) - Description
Housing: This is made up of a ferromagnetic material and acts as path
for magnetic flux.
Plunger: Plunger is a metallic rod of ferromagnetic core material
Return Spring: A spring against which the solenoid operates. Returns to
the original resting position when excitation is zero or lost.
The arrangement of the spring can make the solenoid to rest "in" or
"out".
These solenoids generally have two coils.
. Pulling coil: Which is a low resistance (high current) coil that is activated
for solenoid plunger originally at "rest". This is not a continuously rated
coil. Consumes at least - times of that of holding coil.
. Holding coil: Which is higher resistance coil that has to be activated when
the pulling is over. This provides the holding torque against the spring and
the lever to be actuated. Consumes less power than pulling coil.

10/3/2019 91
DC Solenoid-Rotary - On-Off
The rotary solenoid provides the rotary angle stroke e.g. deg.
The construction is little different than that of the linear solenoid
but the principle remains same.
The linear solenoid with properly designed pivot and lever
arrangement can also be used to achieve rotary actuation.

10/3/2019 92
Throttle Body Actuator
The throttle body actuator is an important part for engines
operating on gaseous fuel.
These are meant to control the air or air fuel mixture for these
engines.
The "throttle position feedback" sensor which is essentially a
potentiometer can be a integral part of this actuator.
This sensor provides the current angle of opening (deg) in terms of
resistance, R.
The actuators can be motorized or electromechanical solenoid type.
Application: Engine speed governor

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Throttle Body Actuator - Continuous
movement (GAC)

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S Ac a -L a -
C Va ab (W a )
Speed Range: 0- 00 Hz
. Input: . Vrms minimum speed signal
. Operating Voltage: Vdc or Vdc
. Maximum Linear Output Travel: 0. in. ( 0. mm)
DYNA 000:
. Maximum Stall Current: . amps @ Vdc; .0 amps @ Vdc
. Maximum Force Energized: . lbf. ( . N)
. Maximum Work Output: 0. ft. lbs. (0. joules)
DYNA 00:
. Maximum Stall Current: . amps @ Vdc; .0 amps @ Vdc
. Maximum Force Energized: .0 lbf. ( . N)
. Maximum Work Output: 0. 0 ft. lbs. (0. joules)

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S Ac a -L a -
C Va ab (W a )

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 I c

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F I c
Most diesel engines and also gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines
inject fuel directly into the combustion chamber
Multi-port fuel Injection systems also use injectors but they inject
into a port instead of the hot cylinder
Fuel Injectors are small electromechanical devices that are used to
spray fuel into the ports or intake manifold or the combustion
chamber
The injectors have multiple holes The fuel also acts as a lubricating
agent.
Most injectors use the same basic design.

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I c W
High pressure fuel enters the
injector and reaches upto the
spray tip.
When the solenoid is engaged,
the plunger is pulled inwards,
thereby raising the pintle
This allows the fuel to be
injected into the cylinder
through the spray tip.
When the solenoid is
deenergized, the valve spring
reseats the plunger to its
original position.

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 Starter Motor /Cranking Motor

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Sa M
A starter motor converts the electrical energy stored in the battery into mechanical
energy to crank the engine for starting
The starter motor is motor which has a field ( or PM field) and an armature. Armature
is always on the rotor and utilizes very high current in vary short time.
One end of the rotor is fitted with a pinion.
The pinion is actuated by a lever which is operated by a solenoid.
The solenoid also offers a high current ( 0- 00 Amp) contact for armature current.
The solenoid has separate pulling and holding coils
Based on whether the starter motor implements the reduction gear or not; there can
be two categories of this component available
Starter motors can be a available in two categories with respect to "field (magnetic)"
. Permanent magnet field
. Wound Field coils

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Sa M -C a

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Starter Motor - Gear Reduction Type

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Starter Motor - More Detailed

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Sa M -K
Voltage : The rated voltage of the motor ( / V)
Current: Maximum power current in A
Wattage : The consumption of power in kW
Torque : The torque produced at pinion. Usually the manufacturer
provides the curve.
RPM: The maximum rated RPM of starter
Operating Duty Cycle : Number of cranks per unit time.
Life : Usually specified in number cranks over the life time

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 P a Ma DC M

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PMDC M (B M )
Permanent magnet DC brushed motors (PMDC motors) consist of permanent
magnets located in the stator.
Windings are located in the rotor.
The ends of the winding coils are connected to commutator segments, that make
slipping contact with the stationary brushes.
Brushes are connected to DC voltage supply across motor terminals.
Change of direction of rotation can be achieved by reversal of voltage polarity.
The current flow through the coils creates magnetic poles in the rotor, that
interact with permanent magnet poles.
In order to keep the torque generation in same direction, the current flow must
be reversed when the rotor north pole passes the stator south pole.
These motors can be usually available in or - pole versions

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PMDC C a a c
a c - 2-

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PMDC A b

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PMDC Assembly parts

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PMDC Pros and Cons
Simplest construction
Low cost
Simple driving scheme
Brush wear and tear
EMI

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 S M

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Stepper Motor - Introduction
Stepper motor convert electrical energy in to a rotation
The name stepper suggests that the motor moves in discrete steps of angle (in degree)
A rotational stepper motor is an electromechanical device that can divide one full rotation ( 0 )
into a number of rotational steps
The linear stepper motor is similar to the rotational motor other than the shaft moves in a linear
or length ways fashion
The PM or "tin can" stepper motor is a low cost solution positioning applications with typical step
angles of . - .
Smaller step angles can be obtained trough Micro stepping.
The shaft of the motor moves in distinct step increments when electrical control pulses are
applied.
The current polarity and frequency of the applied pulses determines the direction and speed of
the shaft's movement.
One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled
in an open loop system.

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Stepper Motor - Keywords
Detent, Holding, Pull-In and Pull-Out torque capabilities, speed (RPM)
and steps per revolution (step angle) characterize a stepper motor.
Detent torque defines the maximum torque that can be applied to a de-
energized motor without causing the motor to rotate.
Holding torque defines the maximum torque with which an energized
motor can be loaded without causing rotary movement.
Pull-In performance defines the motor's capability to start or stop. This
is the maximum frequency at which the motor can start or stop
instantaneously, with a load applied, without loss of synchronization.
Pull-Out torque defines the maximum torque when applying an
acceleration/deceleration ramp without loosing steps. It defines the
maximum frequency at which the motor can operate without losing
synchronism.

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Stepper Motor Types
Permanent-Magnet (PM)
. PM rotor & electromagnetic coil
Uni-polar : The windings have center tap The current is not reversed but the change in
magnetic polarity is achieved by operating winding half in turn.
Bipolar The windings don't have center tap Needs to reverse the polarity of the
applied voltage to the winding. Complex circuit for driving

Variable Reluctance (VR): No PM, no residual torque

Hybrid – NEMA Sizing :Combined PM & VR Technology

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A Hybrid Stepper Motor - Stator and
Rotor

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H b S M -C c

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VR S M -C c a
c

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 BLDC Motor

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BLDC - I c
Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors) also known as electronically
commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors that
are powered by a DC electric source via an integrated inverter /
switching power supply
As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for
commutation; instead, they are electronically commutated
Advantages of BLDC
1. Better speed versus torque characteristics
2. High dynamic response
3. High efficiency
4. Long operating life
5. Noiseless operation
6. Higher speed ranges
7. Ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher

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BLDC - Construction
Stator:
1. The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with
windings placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner
periphery. Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction
motor; however, the windings are distributed in a different manner.
2. Most BLDC motors have three stator windings connected in star
fashion.
3. Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to
form an even numbers of poles.
Rotor: The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from
two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S)
poles.

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BLDC - C c c ..
Hall Sensors:
1. Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically.
To rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence.
2. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding will be
energized following the energizing sequence.
3. Rotor position is sensed using Hall effect sensors embedded into thestator.
4. Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the nondriving
end of the motor.
5. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low
signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of
these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined.
Without Hall Effect Sensor:
1. Any motor winding has a back emf which is proportional to the motor's rpm apart from
the other parameters such as length, radius of rotor, number of winding turns for stator,
rotor magnetic field density.
2. The hall Effect Sensor is eliminated in some motors by sensing the back emf to know
which of the winding is to be commutated.

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BLDC - Construction contd..

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BLDC - Typical Control Block Diagram

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BLDC - T ca A ca
A
Diesel Air Valve
Intake Manifold Tuning Valves (ITV-IMTV)
Turbo Bypass Valve (TBVA)
Variable Vane Turbocharger (V V L)
Waste Gate Valve (VGT)
DPF Bypass Valve
Transmission Control
EGR Bypass Valve
Back pressure Valve
Electronic Throttle Control (ETC)

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BLDC A a a a D a a a
Advantages
. High efficiency ( )
. Variable speed
. Silent operation
. Reliable, long life
. High power/size ratio
. High start-up torque
Disadvantages
. Overall system cost high
. Complex control design

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D M - 6- M

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BLDC M c c a

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T ca BLDC Ac a - EGR a
VGT

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Torque Characteristics

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C a S c

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Tha k
Automotive Electronics and Diagnostics

Sub-Module: Sensors and Actuators

Sensor, Transducer
• Sensor : A device that converts a physical parameter in to an electrical parameter.
• E.g., microphone converts the sound pressure waves to electrical waves, RTD that converts a change in
temperature to a change in resistance.
• Transducer: A device that converts energy from one form to another in the same domain.
• A transducer usually has a sensor integrated with it.
• E.g. A pressure transducer which has a pressure sensor senses pressure in the form of change in the
resistor and provides output in the form of analog voltage (0-5V) OR current (4-20 mA).
• What is transformer?
• A transformer converts an electrical parameter (usually potential) to same electrical parameter
while scaling it to another level (lower or higher)

3-Oct-19 Confidential 2
Sensor Refresher - Physical World Parameters
• The world around us is full of various phsical parameters such as temperature, pressure, flow, mass, force,
speed, acceleration etc.
• All animals are embedded with various sensors in various forms. We know about the five senses and the
sensory organs that a human body has.
• All instruments that we use in our daily life are embedded with various sensors. E.g. cellphones, computer,
printer, AC etc.
• Automation is all about controlling some physical parameter according to some laid down algorithm.
Controlling something without knowing or sensing it; is an impossible task.
• That is where the need of the sensors arise.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 3
Sensor Terminologies
• Sensitivity: The minimum input of physical parameter that will create a detectable output change is called as sensitivity.

• Range: The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of the applied parameter that can be measured.

• Precision: Precision is the degree of reproducibility of the measurement.

• Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum different that will exist between the actual value and the indicated
value at the output of the sensor. The accuracy is expressed either as a percentage of full range or in absolute terms.

• Offset: The offset of a sensor is the output that will exist when it should be zero.

• Linearity: Linearity is the extent to which the measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 4
Sensor Terminologies
• Hysteresis: A sensor should be capable of following the changes of the input parameter regardless of which direction the
change is made; hysteresis is the measure of this property.

• Response Time: The response time is the time required by the sensor output to change from its previous state to a final
settled value within a tolerance band of the new value.

• Dynamic Linearity: The dynamic linearity of the sensor is a measure of its ability to follow rapid changes in the input
parameter.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 5
Thermocouple
• Based on Seebeck Effect
• Discovered in 182 by scientist Thomas Seebeck in Germany
• When two different electrical conductors or semiconductors are kept at different temperatures, the system results in the
creation of electrical potential.
• The valence electrons in the warmer part of the metal are solely responsible for this and the thermal energy they gain is
converted into kinetic energy. They migrate rapidly towards the colder region.

• Electrons go where the energy is lower and this transportation continues till an equilibrium is reached.

• Seebeck coefficient = S = -DV/DT

• Where DV and DT are voltage and temperature difference between the junctions respectively and the negative sign comes from the negative charge of
electron.

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Thermocouples
• The magnitude of thermo-electric emf depends upon the nature of the two metals and on the temperature difference
between the terminals.
• Seebeck effect is reversible i.e. if the hot and cold junctions are reversed, the direction of thermoelectric current is also
reversed
• Seebeck investigated thermo-electric properties of a large number of metals and arranged them in a series known as
thermo-electric series or seebeck series
• The Seebeck series is given as - Bi, Ni, Co, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, As, Sb, Te
• When two of these metals in the series are used to form a thermocouple, the thermos emf is greater when two metals
used are farther apart in the circuit.

• The thermo-emf of a Cu – Fe couple is only 1.3 mV for a temperature difference of 100 Deg C between the hot and cold
junction.

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Thermistors - Introduction
• Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors and they exhibit change in resitance with the change in
temeprature
• Thermistors are inexpensive, easily-obtainable temperature sensors
• Circuits with thermistors can have reasonable outout voltages - not the millivolt outputs as the
thermocouples have
• All resistors vary with temperature, but thermistors are constructed of semiconductor material with a
resistivity that is especially sensitive to temperature.
• However, unlike most other resistive devices, the resistance of a thermistor may decrease with increasing
temperature.
• Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials (metallic compounds including oxides such as
manganese, copper, cobalt, and nickel, as well as single-crystal semiconductors silicon and germanium).

3-Oct-19 Confidential 8
Thermistors - Introduction
• Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance and temperature for the following discussion
• ΔR = k ΔT where
• ΔR = change in resistance
• ΔT = change in temperature
• k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
• Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k.
• If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, Posistor.
• If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
• Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have the smallest possible k, so that their resistance
remains almost constant over a wide temperature range.

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Thermistor - Basic Equations -Model 01
• The Steinhart-Hart equation gives the reciprocal of absolute temperature as a function of the resistance
of a thermistor.
• Using the Steinhardt-Hart equation, one can calculate the temperature of the thermistor from the
measured resistance.
• The Steinhart-Hart equation is:
• 1/T = A + B*ln(R) + C*(ln(R))3 where R in Ω, T in K
̊
• The constants, A, B and C can be determined from experimental measurements of resistance, or they
can be calculated from tabular data.
• This model is most accurate

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Thermistor - Basic Equations -Model 02
• Temperature coefficient
• NTC – Resistance decreases with temperature
• PTC – Resistance increases with temperature
• Exponential relationship between temperature and resistance is interpreted by following
equation (which is simplified form of Stienhart-Hart Equation
• β model: β = Ln(RT1/ RT2) / (1/T1 – 1/T2)
• where
• β = coefficient in °K
• RT1 = the resistance at temperature 1
• RT2 = the resistance at temperature 2
• T1 = Temperature one in °K
• T2= Temperature two in °K
• In another words: RT2=RT1 * e[β (T0 - T) / T0*T)]
• The beta value of an NTC Thermistor is calculated using only two temperatures over a given range
and is not the most accurate

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Thermistor - Typical Datasheet and specifications

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Thermistor - Selection and Calculations for your
design
• Thermistor-choice is based on the nominal resistance you want at the operating temperature
range, on the size, and on the time constant (response time).
• Time constants are about 5 - 10 seconds. (Check this out with your thermistor) datasheet
• Use above table and try to find values of A,B and C using Steinhart-Hart equation
• Use three different and distinct values of temperature to get three simultaneous equations
• Solve these equations to arrive at values of A, B and C
• Now we know values of R (Ω), A, B and C which can be used to find the temperature.

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Thermisotor - Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• High sensitivity • Initial accuracy drift
• Low cost and easily available • De-calibration if used outside the
specified temperature range
• Easy interfacing and no
compensation • Self-heating effect
• Rugged and reliable
• Tiny sensing element; thus offers
fast response time

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Thermistor - Applications
• NTC thermistors - Mostly temperature probes in varied areas. Industrial process control, Engine
parameters such as coolant, oil, Air intake, emission control, HVAC temperature parameters etc.
• PTC Thermistors - Mainly Temperature compensation, overcurrent protection and self regulating
heater

3-Oct-19 Confidential 15
RTDs - Introduction
• RTD - Resistance Temperature Dependent / Detectors
• Electrical resistance (resistivity) of the pure metal changes with the temperature. This principle is
used to detect the temperature by determining the change in resistivity that has occurred.
• In place for many years now but the most expensive compared to Thermistors and
Thermocouples.
• Platinum is the most widely specified RTD element though other metals like nickel, copper and
balco (nickel+iron) are also in use.
• Platinum is widely used due to its broad temperature range, stability and accuracy.
• RTDs are characterized by linear positive change in resistance with rise in temperature.

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RTDs - Introduction
• There are two main types of RTDs viz. wire-wound and thin-film (Like resistors !)
• Most RTDs are too fragile to use in their raw form so they are put under protective sheath and
have extension lead wires.
• The housing immobilizes the element while protecting it from mechanical stress and
environmental conditions.
• With various packaging for different applications the RTDs are used for -100 to 1000 C
̊
measurement range.

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RTD Terminology
• RTDs are generally characterized by their base resistance at 0 ̊C.
• Typical base resistance values for platinum thin film RTD are 100, 500 and 1000 Ω and called as
PT100, PT500 and PT1000.
• These have characteristic standard curve (ITS-90)
• (°C) Equation
• <0°C Rt = R0[ 1 + At + Bt2 + Ct3 (t – 100)]
• >0°C Rt = R0[ 1 + At + Bt2]
• Where:
• Rt = resistance at temperature t
• R0 = base resistance at 0°C
• A, B and C are constants of the equation
• t = temperature in accordance with ITS90
• Typical temperature coefficient or α for platinum is 0.003850 Ω / Ω / ̊C per DIN43760 ( The standard widely
used for industrial grade platinum RTD )

3-Oct-19 Confidential 18
Magnetic Sensors
• Magnetic sensors are solid state devices that are becoming more and more popular because they
can be used in many different types of application such as sensing position, velocity or directional
movement.
• They are also a popular choice of sensor for the electronics designer due to their non-contact
wear free operation, their low maintenance, robust design and as sealed hall effect devices are
immune to vibration, dust and water.
• One of the main uses of Magnetic Sensors in automotive is for sensing the position, distance and
in turn speed.
• For example, the angular position of the crank shaft for the firing angle of the spark plugs, the
position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag control or wheel speed detection for the anti-
lock braking system, (ABS).

3-Oct-19 Confidential 19
Magnetic Sensors
• Magnetic sensors are designed to respond to a wide range of positive and negative magnetic
fields in a variety of different applications and one type of magnet sensor whose output signal is
a function of magnetic field density around it is called the Hall Effect Sensor.
• The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic field density around the
device.
• When the magnetic flux density around the sensor exceeds a certain pre-set threshold, the
sensor detects it and generates an output voltage called the Hall Voltage, VH.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 20
Hall Effect
• If an electric current flows through a conductor placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field
exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of
the conductor.
• This is most evident in a thin flat conductor as illustrated.
• A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing
a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor.
• The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who
discovered it in 1879.
• The basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz force.

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Hall Effect - Diagram

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Hall Effect - Explanation
• Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide (InAs)
passing a continuous current through itself.
• While placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor
material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the
semiconductor slab.
• This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing
through the semiconductor material.
• As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between the
two sides of the semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge carriers.
• The movement of electrons through the semiconductor material is affected by the presence of
an external magnetic field which is at right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat
rectangular shaped material.
• To generate a potential difference across the device the magnetic flux lines must be
perpendicular, (90̊) to the flow of current and be of the correct polarity, generally a south pole.

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Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor- 01 - Diagram of
sensor and conditioner
• The output voltage, called the Hall voltage, (VH) of the basic Hall Element is directly proportional
to the strength of the magnetic field passing through the semiconductor material (output α H).
• This output voltage can be quite small, only a few microvolts even when subjected to strong
magnetic fields so most commercially available Hall effect devices are manufactured with built-in
DC amplifiers, logic switching circuits and voltage regulators to improve the sensors sensitivity,
hysteresis and output voltage.
• This also allows the Hall effect sensor to operate over a wider range of power supplies and
magnetic field conditions.

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Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor - Diagram - Typical Hall Effect Switch

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Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor Diagram - Typical Hall Effect how it works?

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Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor - Types
• Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or digital outputs.
• The output signal for linear (analogue) sensors is taken directly from the output of the operational amplifier
with the output voltage being directly proportional to the magnetic field passing through the Hall sensor.
• This output Hall voltage is given as: VH = RH*[(I/t)*B]
• Where
• VH = Hall Voltage in Volts
• Rh = Hall Coefficient ( Ωm/Tesla)
• I = Current in Amps
• t - thickness of sensor plate in mm
• B = Magnetic flux density in Tesla

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Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor - Types
• Linear or analog sensors give a continuous voltage output that increases with a strong magnetic
field and decreases with a weak magnetic field.
• Digital output sensors on the other hand have a Schmitt-trigger with built in hysteresis connected
to the op-amp.
• When the magnetic flux passing through the Hall sensor exceeds a pre-set value the output from
the device switches quickly changes without any type of contact bounce.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 28
Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor - Types
• There are two basic types of digital Hall effect sensor, Bipolar and Unipolar.
• Bipolar sensors require a positive magnetic field (south pole) to operate them and a negative
field (north pole) to release them while unipolar sensors require only a single magnetic south
pole to both operate and release them as they move in and out of the magnetic field.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 29
Hall Effect Sensor - Application
• Most Hall effect devices can not directly switch large electrical loads as their output drive
capabilities are very small around 10 to 20mA.
• For larger loads current sinking open collector NPN transistor is added as an output stage.
• This transistor operates in its saturated region as a NPN sink switch which shorts the output
terminal to ground whenever the applied flux density is higher than that of the “ON” pre-set
point
• The output switching transistor can be either an open emitter transistor, open collector transistor
configuration or both providing a push-pull output type configuration that can sink enough
current to directly drive many loads, including relays, motors, LEDs, and lamps.
• Typical required gap between sensor face and target is 1mm

3-Oct-19 Confidential 30
Inductive (VR) Sensor
• Inductive (magnetic reluctance) speed sensors are lightweight and very robust, which makes
them particularly suited to demanding motorsport applications.
• In an inductive sensor, the magnetic field around a permanent magnet changes if a ferrous target
(e.g. a toothed wheel) is moved in front of the sensor.
• The change is sensed by the voltage generated in a coil of wire in the magnetic field.
• The coil and magnet are integrated in the sensor body for ease of installation.
• The magnitude of the induced voltage increases with the speed of movement of the ferrous
object (i.e. the target wheel speed). The voltage decreases as the distance (air gap) between the
end of the sensor and the moving target gets larger.

• Typical applications are measuring speed / position of crank and camshaft. Wheel speed and
turbocharger speed.

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Inductive (VR) Sensor - Construction and output

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Inductive (VR) Sensor
• These circuits trigger when the voltage output crosses a threshold (typically 200mV).
• The detection level can be set lower, but the sensor would be more susceptible to noise.
• The output of the sensor has to exceed the detection voltage before motion can be detected.
• Since this voltage depends on the speed of the target, inductive sensors are unable to detect very
low speeds.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 33
Pressure Sensing - Basic Physics
• Static Pressure. Pressure, P, is defined as force, F, per unit area, A and P = F/A
• The measurement of pressure is generally associated with fluids, either liquids or gases. A
container filled with a liquid (visualize a water tank) has a pressure (due to the weight of the
liquid) at certain point in the liquid of:
• P = ΔF / ΔA = hw where
• h = distance from the surface to the point
• w = weight of the liquid (most liquids are nearly non-compressible)
• The weight per unit volume, V, is given by w = mg/V where -
• m = mass
• g = gravitational acceleration

• Note that this relation can be used to determine the height of the column of liquid in a tank
by measuring the pressure.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 34
Pressure Sensing - Basic Physics
• The density of the liquid is given by density (ρ) = mass (m) / volume (V)
• Thus, the density of a liquid determines the pressure, P, exerted for a given height
• Mercury is 13.6 times denser than water, so would exert a pressure 13.6 times that of water for a
column of the same height
• It should be noted that the pressure due to the height of a column of liquid is in addition to the
atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid

3-Oct-19 Confidential 35
Pressure - Types of Measurement
• Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum. An example is atmospheric pressure. A
common unit of measure is pounds per square inch absolute (psia).
• Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points of measurement. This is commonly
measured in units of pounds per square inch differential (psid).
• Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient pressure. Blood pressure is one example. Common
measurement units are pressure per square inch gauge (psig). Intake manifold vacuum in an automobile
engine is an example of a vacuum gauge measurement (vacuum is negative gauge pressure).
• The three types of measurements are shown in Figure on the next slide.
• Note that the same sensor may be used for all three types; only the reference is different.
• Differential pressures may be measured anywhere in the range—above, below, and around atmospheric
pressure.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 36
Pressure - Types of Measurement

1 bar = 105 Pa = 14.5 PSI

1 Pascal = 1 Newton / 1 m²
1 PSI = 1 pound per in²

3-Oct-19 Confidential 37
Pressure - Units
• Pressure is force per unit area and historically a great variety of units have been used, depending
on their suitability for the application. For example, blood pressure is usually measured in mmHg
because mercury manometers were used originally.
• Atmospheric pressure is usually expressed in inHg for the same reason. Other units used for
atmospheric pressure are bar, Pascal and psi.
• Following are some units for pressure and their conversion values:

• 1 psi = 51.714 mmHg = 2.0359 in.Hg = 27.680 in.H2O = 6.8946 kPa

• 1 bar = 14.504 psi = 100 kPa
• 1 atm. = 14.696 psi = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar =29.92126 inHg = 760 mmHg

3-Oct-19 Confidential 38
Pressure Sensing
• Traditionally pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as plates, shells, and tubes that are
designed and constructed to deflect when pressure is applied.
• This is the basic mechanism converting pressure to physical movement. Next, this movement
must be transduced to obtain an electrical or other output.
• Finally, signal conditioning may be needed, depending on the type of sensor and the application.
• Thus traditional sensor includes sensing element, transduction element and optional signal
conditioner

3-Oct-19 Confidential 39
Pressure Sensing Elements - Traditional

3-Oct-19 Confidential 40
Pressure Sensing Element - Bourdon Tube

3-Oct-19 Confidential 41
Pressure Guages - Traditional
• In mechanical gauges, the motion created by the sensing element is read directly by a dial or
pointer. These devices are typically seen in low-performance applications, including blood
pressure measurement and automotive pressure gauges. The mechanical approach used to
couple the sensing element to the readout can introduce repeatability errors. The mechanical
mass of the gauges also limits the frequency response and makes these sensors suitable only for
slowly changing measurements.
• Electromechanical pressure sensors convert the applied pressure to an electrical signal. A wide
variety of materials and technologies has been used in these devices, resulting in performance
vs. cost tradeoffs and suitability for applications. The electrical output signal also provides a
variety of choices for various applications.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 42
Pressure Sensor Technologies (Modern /
Prevailing)
• Potentiometric Pressure Sensors
• Inductive Pressure Sensors
• Capacitive Pressure Sensors
• Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
• Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors
• Piezoresistive Integrated Semiconductor

3-Oct-19 Confidential 43
 Pressure Sensor - Potentiometric
• These use a Bourdon tube, capsule, or
bellows to drive a wiper arm on a resistive
element. For reliable operation the wiper
must bear on the element with some
force, which leads to repeatability and
hysteresis errors.
• These devices are very low cost and are
used in low-performance applications

3-Oct-19 Confidential 44
 Pressure Sensor - Inductive
• Several configurations based on varying
inductance or inductive coupling are used in
pressure sensors. They all require AC excitation of
the coil(s) and, if a DC output is desired,
subsequent demodulation and filtering. The linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT) types have
a fairly low frequency response due to the
necessity of driving the moving core of the
differential transformer
• The LVDT uses the moving core to vary the
inductive coupling between the transformer
primary and secondary.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 45
Pressure Sensor - Capacitive
• Capacitive pressure sensors typically use a thin diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor. Applied
pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the capacitance to change.
• This change may or may not be linear and is typically on the order of several picofarads out of
a total capacitance of 50-100 pF.
• The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency of an oscillator or to vary the
coupling of an AC signal through a network.
• The electronics for signal conditioning should be located close to the sensing element to
prevent errors due to stray capacitance.
• The capacitance of two parallel plates is given by: C = µA/d where µ = dielectric constant of
the material between the plates, A = area of the plates, d = spacing between the plates
• Capacitive absolute pressure sensors with a vacuum between the plates are ideal in this
respect. Because the capacitance of this sensor depends only on physical parameters, sensors
with good performance can be constructed using materials with low coefficients of thermal
expansion. These sensors exhibit acceleration and vibration sensitivity due to the necessity for
a large, thin diaphragm.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 46
 Pressure Sensor - Piezoelectric
• Piezoelectric elements are bi-directional transducers
capable of converting stress into an electric potential
and vice versa.
• They consist of metallized quartz or ceramic
materials.
• One important factor to remember is that this is a
dynamic effect, providing an output only when the
input is changing. This means that these sensors can
be used only for varying pressures.
• The piezoelectric element has a high-impedance
output and care must be taken to avoid loading the
output by the interface electronics. Some
piezoelectric pressure sensors include an internal
amplifier to provide an easy electrical interface

3-Oct-19 Confidential 47
 Pressure Sensor - Strain Guage Type
• Strain gauge sensors originally used a metal
diaphragm with strain gauges bonded to it. A strain
gauge measures the strain in a material subjected
to applied stress.
• Consider a strip of metallic material (see Figure )
with electrical resistance given by: R0 = ρL / WT
where ρ,L,W and T are resistivity, length, width
and thickness.
• Metallic strain gauges depend only on dimensional
changes to produce a change in resistance. A stress
applied to the strip causes it to become slightly
longer, narrower, and thinner, resulting in a
resistance of: R = ρ(L + ΔL) / (W - ΔW)(T - ΔT), or R
approx. = R0(1 + 3Δ)

3-Oct-19 Confidential 48
Pressure Sensors – Piezo-resistive Bridge
• A semiconductor may resistor may change its resistance when applied with stress or deformation.
• Discovered by Lord Kelvin, this is called as piezoresistive effect.
• This effect provides an easy and direct energy/signal transduction in mechanical and electrical domains.
• It's used in MEMS field for wide variety of sensing needs e.g. pressure, acceleration, flow, gyro rate etc.
• Peizoresistivity refers to the change in resistivity due to stress
• If there is change in resistance due to stress or deformation then that's a strain guage. Stress is the cause
and strain is the effect.
• The piezoresistors on the sensing element are four and connected together in a wheatstone bridge circuit.
• Bulk microfabricated pressure sensors with thin deformable diaphragms made of singlecrystalsilicon are the
earliest products and still dominate the market today

3-Oct-19 Confidential 49
Piezoresistivity

Pressure Deflects Diaphragm

Computer model of ¼ slice of a sensor die. Blue =

maximum deflection,
Red = zero deflection.

Deflection Induces Stress

Ansys stress model: Red=max

stress.

Piezoresistivity + Stress = Change in electrical resistance

Basic MEMS Sensor

Silicon piezoresistive pressure die:

Bondpad
Implanted Piezoresistor

Implanted Piezoresistor

Differential & Gage

Absolute
Gauge/Differential Absolute
Piezoresistance
R=4900W

R=5000W
Piezoresistance – Change in electrical resistance with stress
W
Piezoresistor

Piezoresistor
Piezoresistor
R=5000W
W

W
W
Piezoresistor
R=5100W

The resistance change

is dependent on
direction of stress relative
to silicon crystal lattice
Wheatstone Bridge

The sensor has four

R1 R2 implanted resistors in
either an open or closed
configuration.
V
R4 R3 V1 = (Vin .R 4
R1+ R 4) V 2 = ( RVin2+.RR33)
Vo = V1 − V 2

Vin.R4 Vin.R3
Vo = −
( R4 + R1) ( R3 + R2)
Types of Pressure Measurement
1. Differential pressure measurement

• Two active pressure ports varying pressure

P1
• Most general case P2

P2

P = P1-P2

P1
Types of Pressure Measurement
2. Vented gage pressure Ambient Pressure

• 1 active port

• 2nd port vented to ambient pressure

P1
P1

Gage vent
P = P1-Ambient Pressure
Types of Pressure Measurement

3. Absolute pressure

• 1 active port
P1
• 2nd port sealed with hard vacuum No vent

P
1
P = P1-Vacuum

Sealed vacuum
Sensor Compensation

• R1,R2: Offset TC
compensation resistors
• R3, R4: Offset adjustment
resistors (balance
resistors)
• R5: FSO TC
compensation resistors

Sensor Die R1 to R5 comprise the resistor network

Pressure Sensors – Piezo-resistive Bridge
• Piezoresistors are located in the center of four edges.
• The location of these piezoresistors corresponds to regions of maximum tensile stress when the diaphragms
bent by a uniformly applied pressure difference across the diaphragm.
• Four resistors are connected in a full Wheatstone bridge configuration.
• The resistors are organized along the crystalline direction
• A fully functional on-chip signal-processing unit consists of two stage amplifiers, compensation circuitry, and
may provide either of the two forms of output (frequency and voltage)
• In the Wheatstone bridge configuration, the temperature sensitivity of the piezoresistors cancels each
other.
• The diaphragm with embedded piezoresistors is made by using silicon bulk micromachining steps.
• Piezoresistors are made by selectively doping the silicon diaphragm.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 58
Pressure Sensors – Piezo-resistive Bridge Diagram

3-Oct-19 Confidential 59
Mass Air Flow Sensor
• The ECM especially on gasoline engines requires precise information about the mass and other
characteristics of the intake air.
• This information is supplied by the air mass flow sensors.
• The Hot Film (or Hot Wire) mass air flow sensor directly measures the engines air intake.

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Mass Air Flow sensor
• The sensor element consists of a heated sensor membrane over which the intake air flows.
• A small passage inside the sensor directs part of the air flow to the heated element.
• More the air passing, more is the heat carried away by the passing air
• The temperature of two defined areas on the membrane is measured.
• The more air is flowing over the membrane, the higher the temperature difference between the
measuring areas.

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Mass Air Flow Sensor
• Therefore the resulting difference in temperature is a measure of the air mass flow.
• An electronics circuit evaluates the measurement data and provides precise recording of the air
volume, including the direction of the flow.
• The sensor element only detects part of the air mass flow
• The total air mass flowing through the tube is determined by calibration

3-Oct-19 Confidential 62
Knock Sensor
• Knocking occurs when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites prematurely
• Knocking can cause damage to the engine.
• The knocking can be reduced by moving the ignition point
• The knock sensor is mounted on the crankcase or engine block and measures the structure born
noise using a piezoceramic measuring element
• The sensor moves in correlation to the engine block vibration; this motion results in a
compressive force at the element which is converted to a voltage signal.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 63
Knock Sensor
• For each acceleration magnitude (m/sec2) or G Level (1 G = 9.8 m/sec2) and upper and lower
voltage threshold can be determined.
• Knocking is discernible by its higher sound frequencies.
• Knock sensors can typically capture accelerations in the frequency range of 1 to 25 kHz

3-Oct-19 Confidential 64
Lambda Sensor
• At the stoichiometric point (lambda = 1, one part of fuel in 14.7 parts of air), the oxygen content
of the exhaust gas is ideal for the catalytic converter.
• The lambda sensor provides the ECM with the basis for appropriate mixture formation.
• These sensors are also referred to as Oxygen Sensors

3-Oct-19 Confidential 65
Lambda Sensor - Readiness
• A ceramic element of zirconium oxide (ZrO2) is placed in a steel enclosure.
• The element is protected to prevent it from wetness and coarse particles

• In order to be functional, the ceramic element has to be heated to nearly 800 Deg C. The heater
is integrated into the sensor element and controlled by a pulse width modulation signal.

• A reference oxygen gas is sourced into a chamber. In older sensors, this oxygen was sourced
through the connecting electrical cable.
• The latest Lambda sensors include a pumping cell which generates the reference gas within the
sensor with the aid of pumping current.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 66
Lambda Sensor - Operation
• Owing to the high temperature the ceramic becomes conductive to ions and because of different
oxygen concentrations, an ion exchange takes place between the reference gas and exhaust gas.
• The actual measurement of the different oxygen concentrations is undertaken in the Nernst cell
(named after Prof. Nernst)
• The ion exchange develops a potential difference in the Nernst cell, which enables a current
flow.
• The higher the ion exchange, the higher is the potential difference.

• The pumping flow and the temperature of the ceramic element have to be maintained during the
operation.

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Narrow band of Switching Type Lambda Sensor
• The switching type lambda sensor generates a switching signal during the transition from lean to
rich operation.
• The stoichiometric point is identified precisely
• The sensor only has a narrow window

3-Oct-19 Confidential 68
Wideband Lambda Sensor
• The wideband lambda sensor provides a continuous measurement signal of lambda = 0.65 (rich
mixture) to air.
• It allows for more precise control arrangements not just with lambda = 1

3-Oct-19 Confidential 69
Nitrogen Oxide Sensor
• NOx sensor is typically a high-temperature device build to detect nitrogen oxides in the exhaust
gas.
• The NOx sensor is an evolution of the widerange oxygen sensor
• It contains an additional chamber that allows the determination of NOx concentration.

• Their function is quite complex and these sensors come with their own controllers.

3-Oct-19 Confidential 70
NOx Sensor - Operation
• The oxygen entering from exhaust gas is pass through a diffusion barrier into a cavity by applying
a voltage to the pumping electrodes.
• The oxygen concentration in the cavity is controlled by pumping current to the constant
concentration of a few ppm NOx.
• The pumping current is directly proportional to the amount of oxygen in the cavity.

• From this cavity, a few ppm O2 and NOx enters into a second cavity
• Gaseous oxygen is totally removed by an auxiliary pump
• Oxygen is generated by the reduction of NO. This oxygen ions drive a current which is
proportional to the generated oxygen and the reduced NO.

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ACTUATOR - BASIC UNDERSTANDING
• Actuator is a unit that activates something physically.
• A device that produces a force/torque for some mechanical action to
happen in proportion to applied command.
• Energy in>>conversion>>energy out where ‘Energy in’ may be
electrical, hydraulic (pressure, flow) or pneumatic(pressure, flow) and
‘Energy out’ is physical action(displacement, force, torque etc.)
• In automotive we can treat the heating coils as “heating actuators”
though these don’t actuate anything.

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Actuators Linkages
• Actuators provide motion/displacement as an output
• Thus actuators do have “linkage” from input to output
▪ Electrical: Where the input is passed on to the output as an electric signal. Thus
generally called as ‘drive by wire’ technology.eg. Electronic clutch, Electronic
Throttle
▪ Hydraulic: Where the link is a column of an hydraulic fluid(oil) that has certain
pressure and flow e.g. Hydraulic brakes, hydraulic actuation of implements in
the construction and agri equipment.
▪ Pneumatic: Where the link is a column of a compressed air e.g. Air-brake where
the brake shoe is actuated by pneumatic pressure.
▪ Combination/Hybrid:
▪ Electro-Hydraulic: Where the force torque linkage is hydraulic while signal linkage is electric.
▪ Electro-pneumatic: Where the force torque linkage is pneumatic while signal linkage is electric.

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Actuators - Engine
• Fuel System
1. Fuel Injectors(Electromagnetic and Piezoelectric actuators)
2. Fuel Pressure Limiting Valve (Electromagnetic actuator)
3. Throttle Body Actuator(Electromagnetic actuator)
4. Electronic Choke Actuator (Heating actuator/Electromagnetic actuator)
5. Fuel cut-off valve (Electromagnetic)
• Intake System
1. Intake air throttle
2. VGT actuator
• Exhaust system
1. EGR
2. SCR system actuators such as injector, pump motor, metering valve
3. DPF System actuators such as solenoid valve, metering valve.

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Actuators-Transmission and Drive-line
System
• Electric Clutch Actuator
• Electric brake drum actuator
• Various on-off solenoid valves
• Oil pressure regulator

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Actuator - Other Systems
• Actuators for Climate Control System
1. Clutch for compressor engagement control
2. Coolant/Refrigerant valve actuators
• Vehicle systems
1. Grill shutter actuator - For actuating the radiation grills to reduce the aerodynamics losses.
2. Electric power sterling
3. Electric coolant fan
4. Bus door actuator for passenger safety
5. Power windows
6. Central locking system actuators
7. Headlight tilt actuator
8. Windscreen/headlight wipers and washers
9. Seat adjustment
10. Sunroof adjustment
• Aftertreatment system actuators
1. DEF injector
2. Metering valves

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Actuator-Terminologies, Keywords and Specs
•Input: Electrical or hydraulic: Based on what is the type of input energy required

•Output: Linear(Traditional) and Rotary(in case of proportional) or On-Off

1. Force (N, Kg) and torque (Nm, Kgm)
2. Stroke (mm) and angle (deg, rad)

• Response time
1. mm/msec, deg/msec

• Operating Duty Cycle: Continuous / Intermittent

• Rated Power consumption(W)

• Absolute Maximum Ratings (V, I, F, T): This includes rated parameters such as rated force, torque, current and voltage.

• Medium (Fluid, Air, Gas, Diesel, Petrol)

• Restoring force / torque

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Actuator - Terminologies, Keywords
• Environmental specifications : Temperature, Pressure, vibrations, electromagnetic and atmospheric.
• Mounting specifications / Orientation
• Physical specifications: Mass
Pull Force / Torque (On-Off Solenoids): Pulling force (ultimately current ) is required force for any electromechanical
actuator to start moving its core or rotor from standstill against the static friction, stiction and restoring force. This
may be 2-5 times of the holding force (current).
Holding Force / Torque (On-Off Solenoids): Holding force (ultimately current ) is a force necessary for any
electromechanical actuator core to maintain the current position against the restoring forces (usually restoring
spring)
Dither (Proportional solenoid): Dither is specified as much lower amplitude and higher frequency vibrations around
the current mean position achieved to reduce stiction so as to aid the fast response.
Bearings used

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Actuator - Governing Principles
•Electromagnetic:
1. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
• The voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the number of turns and rate of change of flux.
The induced current flows in the direction that opposes the changing flux. Flux has no source or
sink (What goes in comes out)
2. Ampere's Law: The magneto-motive force (mmf) around a closed loop is
equal to net current enclosed by the loop. The objective of solenoid design is
to transfer the maximum amount of NI (energy) from the coil to the working
air gap.
3. Flemings Left Hand Rule for direction of force (thumb), magnetic field and
current.

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Actuator - Governing Principles
• Piezoelectric Effect: Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials
to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress.
The word Piezoelectric is derived from the Greek piezein, which means
to squeeze or press, and piezo, which is Greek for “push”.

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Non-Actuating loads /Heating
Actuators
• The actuators are major power consumers in any embedded automotive
electronics
• The non-actuating loads which don't really provide any physical motion or
displacement but provide other type of physical quantity such as heat.
• The heaters, glow-plugs, defrosters etc are said to be non-actuating loads.
• Since these also consume considerable power and have similar ways to
control the power delivery at output with respect to control system; they are
also considered as actuators in general.
• The limiting factor of operating temperature of a solenoid is the insulation
material of the magnet wire used. Insulation classes:
1. Class B- 130º C
2. Class F- 155º C
3. Class H- 180º C
4. Class C- 220º C

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Requirements for actuators in
automobiles
• Best reliability for use in automotive environment
• Best efficiency in less size. (Power density)
• Easy construction, servicing, driving.
• Fit for environment
1. Robust: ( Withstands Vibrations experienced in automobile)
2. Temperature: (Exhaust gas and Engine compartment temperature)
3. Dirt ingress protection
4. Oil and fuel protection

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Electric Actuators - Variety - Motors
• Electric Motors
1. AC
• 1-ph and 3-ph
• Synchronous Motors
• DC
1. Brushed DC motors
2. Brush-less (Permanent Magnet Motors) / Stepper Motors
3. Brush-less (No Magnet) BLDC motors
• Motor terminology
1. Stator and Rotor
2. Armature and Field windings
3. Series and Parallel connections

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DC Actuators - Rotary and Linear
• Rotary:
1. Motors:
• Starter Motor
• PMDC Motor
• Stepper Motor
2. DC solenoid (Rotary)
• Linear (Solenoids):
1. DC solenoid (On-Off)
2. DC solenoid (Proportional)

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Electric Actuators - Variety - Solenoid
(On-Off)
• Solenoids - (On-Off)
1. AC
2. DC
• Relays
• Small stroke (Valve spool actuation, Fuel Injectors)
• Large stroke (Lever actuation, Valve stem actuation, Pressure / Flow control)

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Electric Actuator - Solenoids ( Variable
output)
• AC
• DC
1. Integrated actuator (e.g. EGR valve)
• In this category the actuator is well integrated with the actuating part.
2. Externally mounted Actuators (e.g. EGR, Throttle control Actuator)
• In this category the actuator exists as a separate unit. The implementation of actuator
involves the calculation of force requirement based on the force and lever data of the
actuating part. Also the mounting and securing considerations are also of major
importance.

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Relay

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DC Solenoid - Linear - On-Off
• DC solenoid mainly comes with two windings or coils.
• Pulling coil: This is high wattage coil to provide the initial force required to
move the plunger against the spring tension and lever load. This is activated
momentarily (1-3 secs) to enable the movement of the solenoid plunger.
• Holding coil: This is comparatively low wattage coil which provides holding
force for the plunger against the spring tension and lever load. This coil is
activated as long as the plunger is expected to be in the extreme position.
• Specifications:
1. Stroke: The stroke of the plunger is specified in mm. e.g. 15 mm
2. Force: The maximum weight that can be pulled or pushed by the solenoid. Provided
in Gram or Kg.
• The solenoids consume a lot of power and get heated with the continuous use.
The duty cycle of the operation should be optimized to limit heating to a safe
limit.

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DC Solenoid -Linear- On-off -
Construction

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Solenoid - Linear - Variable Position -
Construction

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DC Solenoid (on-off) - Description
• Housing: This is made up of a ferromagnetic material and acts as path
for magnetic flux.
• Plunger: Plunger is a metallic rod of ferromagnetic core material
• Return Spring: A spring against which the solenoid operates. Returns to
the original resting position when excitation is zero or lost.
• The arrangement of the spring can make the solenoid to rest "in" or
"out".
• These solenoids generally have two coils.
1. Pulling coil: Which is a low resistance (high current) coil that is activated
for solenoid plunger originally at "rest". This is not a continuously rated
coil. Consumes at least 3- 4 times of that of holding coil.
2. Holding coil: Which is higher resistance coil that has to be activated when
the pulling is over. This provides the holding torque against the spring and
the lever to be actuated. Consumes less power than pulling coil.

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DC Solenoid-Rotary - On-Off
• The rotary solenoid provides the rotary angle stroke e.g. 45 deg.
• The construction is little different than that of the linear solenoid
but the principle remains same.
• The linear solenoid with properly designed pivot and lever
arrangement can also be used to achieve rotary actuation.

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Throttle Body Actuator
• The throttle body actuator is an important part for engines
operating on gaseous fuel.
• These are meant to control the air or air fuel mixture for these
engines.
• The "throttle position feedback" sensor which is essentially a
potentiometer can be a integral part of this actuator.
• This sensor provides the current angle of opening (deg) in terms of
resistance, R.
• The actuators can be motorized or electromechanical solenoid type.
• Application: Engine speed governor

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Throttle Body Actuator - Continuous
movement (GAC)

10/3/2019 94
Solenoid Actuator - Linear -
Continuously Variable (Woodward)
• Speed Range: 250 - 9500 Hz
1. Input: 2.5 Vrms minimum speed signal
2. Operating Voltage: 12 Vdc or 24 Vdc
3. Maximum Linear Output Travel: 0.8 in. (20.3 mm)
• DYNA 2000:
1. Maximum Stall Current: 5.4 amps @ 12 Vdc; 3.0 amps @ 24 Vdc
2. Maximum Force Energized: 6.5 lbf. (28.9 N)
3. Maximum Work Output: 0.25 ft. lbs. (0.34 joules)
• DYNA 2500:
1. Maximum Stall Current: 5.9 amps @ 12 Vdc; 3.0 amps @ 24 Vdc
2. Maximum Force Energized: 13.0 lbf. (57.8 N)
3. Maximum Work Output: 0.50 ft. lbs. (0.68 joules)

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Solenoid Actuator - Linear -
Continuously Variable (Woodward)

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 Injector

10/3/2019 97
Fuel Injectors
• Most diesel engines and also gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines
inject fuel directly into the combustion chamber
• Multi-port fuel Injection systems also use injectors but they inject
into a port instead of the hot cylinder
• Fuel Injectors are small electromechanical devices that are used to
spray fuel into the ports or intake manifold or the combustion
chamber
• The injectors have multiple holes The fuel also acts as a lubricating
agent.
• Most injectors use the same basic design.

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Injector Working
• High pressure fuel enters the
injector and reaches upto the
spray tip.
• When the solenoid is engaged,
the plunger is pulled inwards,
thereby raising the pintle
• This allows the fuel to be
injected into the cylinder
through the spray tip.
• When the solenoid is
deenergized, the valve spring
reseats the plunger to its
original position.

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 Starter Motor /Cranking Motor

10/3/2019 100
Starter Motors
• A starter motor converts the electrical energy stored in the battery into mechanical
energy to crank the engine for starting
• The starter motor is motor which has a field ( or PM field) and an armature. Armature
is always on the rotor and utilizes very high current in vary short time.
• One end of the rotor is fitted with a pinion.
• The pinion is actuated by a lever which is operated by a solenoid.
• The solenoid also offers a high current (150-200 Amp) contact for armature current.
• The solenoid has separate pulling and holding coils
• Based on whether the starter motor implements the reduction gear or not; there can
be two categories of this component available
• Starter motors can be a available in two categories with respect to "field (magnetic)"
1. Permanent magnet field
2. Wound Field coils

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Starter Motor - Conventional

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Starter Motor - Gear Reduction Type

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Starter Motor - More Detailed

10/3/2019 104
Starter Motor - Keywords
• Voltage : The rated voltage of the motor (12/24 V)
• Current: Maximum power current in A
• Wattage : The consumption of power in kW
• Torque : The torque produced at pinion. Usually the manufacturer
provides the curve.
• RPM: The maximum rated RPM of starter
• Operating Duty Cycle : Number of cranks per unit time.
• Life : Usually specified in number cranks over the life time

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 Permanent Magnet DC Motor

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PMDC Motor (Brushed Motor)
• Permanent magnet DC brushed motors (PMDC motors) consist of permanent
magnets located in the stator.
• Windings are located in the rotor.
• The ends of the winding coils are connected to commutator segments, that make
slipping contact with the stationary brushes.
• Brushes are connected to DC voltage supply across motor terminals.
• Change of direction of rotation can be achieved by reversal of voltage polarity.
• The current flow through the coils creates magnetic poles in the rotor, that
interact with permanent magnet poles.
• In order to keep the torque generation in same direction, the current flow must
be reversed when the rotor north pole passes the stator south pole.
• These motors can be usually available in 2 or 4 - pole versions

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PMDC Commutation and current
reversal in coil - 2- pole

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PMDC Assembly

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PMDC Assembly parts

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PMDC Pros and Cons
• Simplest construction
• Low cost
• Simple driving scheme
• Brush wear and tear
• EMI

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 Stepper Motor

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Stepper Motor - Introduction
• Stepper motor convert electrical energy in to a rotation
• The name stepper suggests that the motor moves in discrete steps of angle (in degree)
• A rotational stepper motor is an electromechanical device that can divide one full rotation (360°)
into a number of rotational steps
• The linear stepper motor is similar to the rotational motor other than the shaft moves in a linear
or length ways fashion
• The PM or "tin can" stepper motor is a low cost solution positioning applications with typical step
angles of 7.5° - 15°.
• Smaller step angles can be obtained trough Micro stepping.
• The shaft of the motor moves in distinct step increments when electrical control pulses are
applied.
• The current polarity and frequency of the applied pulses determines the direction and speed of
the shaft's movement.
• One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled
in an open loop system.

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Stepper Motor - Keywords
• Detent, Holding, Pull-In and Pull-Out torque capabilities, speed (RPM)
and steps per revolution (step angle) characterize a stepper motor.
• Detent torque defines the maximum torque that can be applied to a de-
energized motor without causing the motor to rotate.
• Holding torque defines the maximum torque with which an energized
motor can be loaded without causing rotary movement.
• Pull-In performance defines the motor's capability to start or stop. This
is the maximum frequency at which the motor can start or stop
instantaneously, with a load applied, without loss of synchronization.
• Pull-Out torque defines the maximum torque when applying an
acceleration/deceleration ramp without loosing steps. It defines the
maximum frequency at which the motor can operate without losing
synchronism.

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Stepper Motor Types
• Permanent-Magnet (PM)
1. PM rotor & electromagnetic coil
• Uni-polar : The windings have center tap The current is not reversed but the change in
magnetic polarity is achieved by operating winding half in turn.
• Bipolar The windings don't have center tap Needs to reverse the polarity of the
applied voltage to the winding. Complex circuit for driving

• Variable Reluctance (VR): No PM, no residual torque

• Hybrid – NEMA Sizing :Combined PM & VR Technology

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A Hybrid Stepper Motor - Stator and
Rotor

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Hybrid Stepper Motor - Construction

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VR Stepper Motor - Construction and
control

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 BLDC Motor

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BLDC - Introduction
• Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors) also known as electronically
commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors that
are powered by a DC electric source via an integrated inverter /
switching power supply
• As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for
commutation; instead, they are electronically commutated
• Advantages of BLDC
1. Better speed versus torque characteristics
2. High dynamic response
3. High efficiency
4. Long operating life
5. Noiseless operation
6. Higher speed ranges
7. Ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher

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BLDC - Construction
• Stator:
1. The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with
windings placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner
periphery. Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction
motor; however, the windings are distributed in a different manner.
2. Most BLDC motors have three stator windings connected in star
fashion.
3. Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to
form an even numbers of poles.
• Rotor: The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from
two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S)
poles.

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BLDC - Construction contd..
• Hall Sensors:
1. Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically.
To rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence.
2. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding will be
energized following the energizing sequence.
3. Rotor position is sensed using Hall effect sensors embedded into thestator.
4. Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the nondriving
end of the motor.
5. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low
signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of
these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined.
• Without Hall Effect Sensor:
1. Any motor winding has a back emf which is proportional to the motor's rpm apart from
the other parameters such as length, radius of rotor, number of winding turns for stator,
rotor magnetic field density.
2. The hall Effect Sensor is eliminated in some motors by sensing the back emf to know
which of the winding is to be commutated.

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BLDC - Construction contd..

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BLDC - Typical Control Block Diagram

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BLDC - Typical Applications in
Automotive
• Diesel Air Valve
• Intake Manifold Tuning Valves (ITV-IMTV)
• Turbo Bypass Valve (TBVA)
• Variable Vane Turbocharger (V V L)
• Waste Gate Valve (VGT)
• DPF Bypass Valve
• Transmission Control
• EGR Bypass Valve
• Back pressure Valve
• Electronic Throttle Control (ETC)

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BLDC Advantage and Disadvantages
• Advantages
1. High efficiency (98%)
2. Variable speed
3. Silent operation
4. Reliable, long life
5. High power/size ratio
6. High start-up torque
• Disadvantages
1. Overall system cost high
2. Complex control design

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Drive Mode - 6-step Mode

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BLDC Motor control design flowchart

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Typical BLDC Actuator - for EGR and
VGT

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Torque Characteristics

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Commutation Sequence

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Thanks
Module 04: Advanced Embedded Electronics

Sub-Module 04: Systems and ECM Interface Circuits

Embedded Systems
• A typical embedded system has:

• A micro-controller to provide the “intelligence”

• Interfacing circuits to connect with the main application
• Real time software – addressed as the “calibration”
• Dedicated hardware for functions whose implementation in software might
be inconvenient
• Test and maintenance hardware called as a “software tool”

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Physical Systems
• A physical system is a device or a collection of devices existing in the real
world.

• The system in general can be considered to be a device or a process that is

acted upon by an input, and generates an output

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Physical Systems
• In order to understand to design a controller for any system it is imperative to:
• Understand the Physical Model
• Develop a Mathematical Model
• Analyze
• Design and Optimize

• Once the process or physical quantity to be controlled is selected, the next step is to apply
various physical laws to develop mathematical equations to describe the system

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Systems
• A system with only one input terminal and only one output terminal is called a single input single
output (SISO) system

• A system with two or more inputs and multiple outputs is called a multi input multi output
(MISO) system

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Systems
• A system is called a continuous time system if it accepts continuous time signals at its input and
generates continuous time signals at its outputs

• A system is called a discrete time system if it accepts discrete time signals as its inputs and
generates discrete time signals at its output.
• All discrete-time signals in a system usually have the same sampling period T

• Discrete data take particular values, while continuous data are not restricted to separate
values. Discrete data are distinct and there is no grey area in between,
while continuous data occupy any value over a continuous data value

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Systems
• A system is called a memoryless system if its output at any given time sample depends only on
the input applied at that time sample and is independent of the input applied before or after
this time sample.
• Most systems have memory

• A system is called a causal or non-anticipatory system if its current output depends only on the
current and past inputs but not on future input
• All physical systems are causal

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State of a Model
• The state of a model of a dynamic system is a set of independent physical quantities, the
specification of which (in the absence of excitation) completely determines the future evolution
of the system

• There may be many choices of variables, yet independent, that can be chosen as the state

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States of the system
• The states of the system at a given time is the information that along with the input can
determine the output

• A system is said to be lumped if its number of state variables is finite or its state is a finite vector

• A system is said to be distributed if its state has infinitely many state variables
• E.g.: Transmission line

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Linear Systems
• Linear systems follow additivity
• Linear systems follow homogeneity
• Linear systems follow superposition property – The net response produced by the simultaneous
application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two individual responses

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Linear Time Invariant Systems
• Time-invariant systems are systems where the output does not depend on when an input
was applied
• If the initial state and the input are the same, no matter what time they are applied, the output
waveform will always be the same
• In addition, LTI systems are also memory systems, invertible, casual, real, and stable. That
means they have memory, they can be inverted, they depend only on current and past
events, they have fully real inputs and outputs, and they produce bounded output for
bounded input

Reality
• Most physical systems are non-linear and time varying

• Some nonlinear equations, can be approximated by linear equations under certain conditions

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Automotive Domain
• Cars are increasingly being provided with more and more control systems.
• Most cars are provided with a system for cruise control.
• More advanced systems like adaptive cruise control are also used
• The system is called adaptive as it keeps the distance to the car in front at a constant value.
• The distance is measured by radar
• Anti-lock braking and traction control are also common features

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ECU Architecture

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Engine Management System
• The engine management system ensures that the operator request is implemented.
• It converts the acceleration / deceleration requests into a corresponding engine output
• Furthermore, it has the responsibility to minimize exhaust emissions, reduce fuel
consumption, provide optimal driveability for all operating conditions.
• It also needs to provide system diagnosis when malfunctions occur.

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Function Based Approach
• In order to meet the objectives, the engine management system is organized in different
functions
• Each function manages a specific engine activity and is in charge to accomplish some
definite target.
• The engine operating conditions are supervised by a finite state machine that defines
engine states and manages the transition between these states

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Basic Functions
• The engine management system was invented for the specific function of fuel injection
management.
• However, with the advent of new fast controllers, they do a wide variety of tasks.

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FUNCTIONAL MAP

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Inputs
• A wide variety of sensors exist in the engine management system
• Throttle Position Sensor
• Temperature and Pressure Sensors
• Flow Sensors
• Speed / Position Sensors
• Oxygen and NOx Sensors

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Outputs
• A wide variety of actuators exist in the engine management system
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation
• Engine Brake
• Variable Valve Timing
• Turbo Wastegate
• Fuel Metering Valve
• Fuel Injectors
• Fuel Return Valve

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Other Interfaces
• The Engine Management System includes
• Starting and Charging System
• Battery
• Alternator
• Starter Motor

• Driver Interface
• Instrument Cluster
• Switches

• Communication – Engineering and Service Tools

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Typical Gasoline DI System

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Diesel Engine System

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Technical Specs of an ECU
• Power Supply : 12 V / 24 V
• Operating Temperature : -40 Deg C to 125 Deg C
• Vibration Level: ~5 g
• Microcontroller: 32 bit
• Clock Frequency: ~128 MHz
• Boost Power Supply: 50 to 85 V
• Analog Inputs: 30 x
• Switch Inputs: 17 x
• Speed Sensors: 4 to 6 x
• Output Drivers: 20 x
• Injector Drivers: 6 x
• Ignition Coil Drivers: 6 x
• CAN: 2 x

10/7/2019 Confidential 23
Sensors Interfacing
• Most sensors require +5 V power
• Sensors that require the power to operate are called active sensors while those don’t need
any power are called passive sensors
• Ex: Thermostat (passive) vs radar (active)
• Active sensors can further be divided into two categories – general and smart
• Smart sensors interface with the ECU on a communication medium like CAN, I2C.

10/7/2019 Confidential 24
Reference Voltage
• Active sensors need the +5 V supply from within the ECU.
• The generic pressure sensor may have Wheatstone bridge
followed by an electronic conditioner
• The supply must be a regulated and stable supply as in most
cases the sensor output is fully dependent on this power quality
• The collective consumption of sensors and power supply
capacity has to be looked at.
• Sensor supplies need to be protected against shorting to battery
ground and positive

10/7/2019 Confidential 25
Sensor Interfacing - Thermistor
• The thermistor is simply interfaced to analog input pin while the pin being pulled up by a fixed resistor
from within ECU
• The pull-up is selected to prevent any damage to the sensor supply due to short with battery positive or
ground
• The pull-up or pull-down is normally a part of ECU board and is not accessible to the user.
• The user might be able to select from certain available set of pull-ups in few ECU settings
• The sensor during its condition of very low resistance has the highest chance of getting damaged.

10/7/2019 Confidential 26
Selection of pull-up / pull-down
• The proper pin selection for the thermistor is done based on looking at the
thermistors resistance, temperature range, resolution and diagnostic thresholds.
• The output of the thermistor is non-linear. The co-relation of the output is done
by having a multi-point 2-D table and thus implement a piece-wise linearization.
• Such calibration table offers flexibility for replacement of sensor.
• Implementing the Steinhart Hart equation or the beta model can also be done,
but it a laborious means of achieving the same result.

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Anti-Aliasing
• Temperatures do not change rapidly, however, pressures do.
• Thermistors therefore can be sampled at lower rates while pressures may be sampled at
higher rates.
• The anti-aliasing theorem states that the sampling frequency must be at least double the
frequency of the change of input so at to reproduce the input faithfully.

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Diagnositcs
• An automotive environment is prone to wiring issues and mis-connections.
• The ECU interface pins can go through a short circuit
• The pins and the connected circuit elements need to be protected against such incidents
• Also the notification of such faults/failures need to be indicated to the operator / driver /
service technician
• Several protection schemes such as PTC over-voltage protection, Zener diodes are
incorporated in the internal circuit of the ECU.

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Digital Inputs
• The digital inputs are normally active low inputs
• Active low inputs are the ones that are activated when pulled low to ground.

• These inputs arise from various single pole elements of the engine management system.
E.g. Cruise Control ON switch
• The microcontroller port pins with internal pull-ups are used to interface these switches.
• The switches can also be interfaced on analog input lines.

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Frequency Inputs
• Why are Frequency inputs used:
• Frequency inputs measure repetitious signals.
• Two different measures can be taken.
• The period (frequency) of the signal
• The duty cycle of the signal

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Frequency Inputs
• Variable Reluctance (VR) sensor
• A toothed wheel pass across the sensor creating an AC signal
• Location is determined by a rapid transition through zero volts.
• Voltage peak varies with the speed of the wheel (higher speed = higher voltage)

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Frequency Inputs
Hall Effect Sensors
The sensor and target can be split by a tone wheel but we typically use the wheel as the
target.

Sensor requires an independent power supply.

Signal is a simple square wave.

The sensor provides an open-collector output that requires a pull-up either in the sensor or
the ECM.

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Frequency Inputs
• Hall Effect Sensor

More robust to noise as it is logic level regardless of speed

10/7/2019 Confidential 34
Frequency Inputs
• Engine Speed/Position
• Hall
• Two sensors, one for speed, one for position – wheels are 60-2 and 12-1 (crank and
cam).
• Losing the crank signal significantly degrades the information available to the ECM.
• Because of the two wheels and the fact that hall sensors can detect lower speeds, we
get faster engine sync and engine starts.

10/7/2019 Confidential 35
Frequency Inputs
• Vehicle Speed

Still typically a VR input (cheaper)

Some applications use a single ended (hall-like) signal that is input on one side
(typically negative) of the VR input

10/7/2019 Confidential 36
Frequency Inputs
• Other Applications
• Most speed applications (fan, etc.) are using hall effect sensors.

• Frequency Throttles
• Some industrial applications use a frequency signal for throttle as opposed to an A/D

10/7/2019 Confidential 37
Crank Configurations
• Crank Sensor
• Number of teeth on wheel
• Width of each tooth, in degrees
• Number of tooth which triggers an event.
• 1st tooth after the missing tooth is number 1.
• NOTE: On 60-2, the first tooth after the missing teeth is number 2
• Hall Effect Sensor
• Rising Edge Trigger
• Falling Edge Trigger
• Entire engine cycle is 720 degrees (2 revolutions for a 4-stroke
engine)
• Angular width of each tooth = 720 / (2 * 60) = 6

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Coolant Temperature Sensor
• Calibration
• Resistance to Deg C characteristics

• Test
• 3-point test
• Ambient room temperature (close to thermometer reading)
• Boiling water (~100 Deg C)
• Ice Water (~ 0 Deg C)

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Intake Air Temperature
• Very prone to ‘Heat Soaking’
• The sensor is exposed to high engine temperatures and so it cannot
faithfully measure the temperature of the air entering the engine
• Placement is very critical
• Can we compensate based on coolant temperature sensor

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Throttle Position Sensor
• Calibration
• Fully Closed Count
• Fully Open Count

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Manifold Air Pressure
• Range
• 0 – 250 kPA (non-boosted systems)
• 0 – 450 kPA (boosted systems)

• Calibration
• Highest ADC count
• Lowest ADC count
• Limp home value

• Test
• Blower
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Output Types and Need for Power Stages
• The ECU outputs are expected to deliver commanded power to certain actuators
• The actuators could be
• On-Off power loads – (relay, valve, injector)
• Continuously variable power loads (motor, regulating valves etc)

• The ECU processor can provide the outputs via port pins but it cannot cater to the current
requirements of these devices
• This calls for power stages referred to as ‘driver’ stage which handles the extra power
needed to drive the actuator
• The drivers depend on the way the load and driver is connected and can be divided into
“high” side and “low” side

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 Digital Methods
Counters used to handle transition

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Basic Theory
• The device you want to activate requires power and
return.
• Therefore, to turn it on and off, you can either connect and
disconnect power, return, or both.
• High side drivers disconnect power and low side drivers
disconnect return.
• Some drivers supply a signal, not power

10/7/2019 Confidential 45
Low Side Driver configuration
• The switch is between the load and the ground.
• Often used for powertrain-related loads such as motors, solenoids, and
heaters
• To turn on the Low Side Driver, the MOSFET ( metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor / metal–oxide–silicon transistor)
driver is pulled low
• Current flows and the load ‘turns-on’

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High Side Driver Configuration
• The switch is between the load and the supply
• To turn the High Side Driver, The MOSFET gate is pulled high
• The drain and gate are assumed to be at the same potential causing Vgs=
Vds.
• The high value of Vds puts the device into saturation region and results
in a small Ioad current.

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Drivers
• Functions
Primary drivers for most modules are the fuels system drivers.

Other drivers either control some secondary control function or an

indicator.
• Secondary control would be something like a fan clutch or engine brake.
• Indicators may be lamps or other devices (e.g. tachometer)

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Topology Choice
High Side Driver Advantages
Nearly the entire vehicle is a return path. Disconnecting a return wire does not guarantee you have eliminated all return paths.

In an automobile, a short-to-ground fault is more likely to occur than a short-to-supply fault, given that grounded sheet metal is
everywhere to be found. For a low-side driver, a short-to-ground condition will turn the load permanently on. With a high-side driver, it
will short the driver output to ground, so the driver will need protection circuitry.

The opposite condition will apply for a short-to-supply fault: the low-side driver will be shorted to the supply and need protection, while
the high-side load will be permanently on.

This differing response is what determines the use of one driver over the other; in a fuel pump with a low-side driver, for example, a
short-to-ground as a result of a crash may turn on the fuel pump with potentially catastrophic consequences.

Providing current recirculation paths when an inductive driver is turned off is easier with high side drivers.

Simplifies wiring harnesses

• Most low side driver implementations require the OEM to wire power to every device.
• Avoiding this requires routing unprotected battery through the ECM.
• The trace for battery has to be big enough to handle the fuse current.

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Topology Choice
• High Side Driver Disadvantages
• High side drivers increase ECM cost.

• For high side drivers, the source voltage when the device is on is battery, for low side drivers,
the source voltage is ground (or very close to it).
• Therefore, high side drivers require a voltage higher than battery for operation.

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Topology Choice
• Low Side Drivers

Devices are typically “in-dash” and power is readily available.

If the low side shorts and the device sticks on, the impact is minimal.

Some OEMs like to use key switch for lamps, others prefer battery.

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Other Choices
• Several other choices remain both for the ECM and the system.
• On/Off or PWM?
• Return to block or return to ECM (high side only)?
• Drive the device directly or drive a relay?
• Current sense required or not?

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On/Off vs. PWM
• Why PWM?
Is a technique for getting analog results with digital means
Actuator requires it, usually because it will draw too much current if left on
continually.

To use a lower voltage actuator (i.e. one designed for 12 volt battery systems) with
higher voltage (i.e. 24 volt battery systems).
• Reduces part numbers
• Simplifies manufacturing process

• Why not PWM?

• Increased radiated emissions
• Additional heat stress caused by recirculation events

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Return Path
• Driver Current Return Paths
• Returning driver current through the ECM requires more return
pins at higher current ratings.

• Returning current through the block has the potential of

increasing ground noise and radiated emissions.
• Excessive block current has been known to damage mechanical engine
components.

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Relay
• Why use a relay?
• The primary reason to use a relay is for high currents that you do not want to
route through the ECM.

• Why not use a relay?

• Complicates wiring
• Durability questionable for higher mileage applications

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Drivers for Control
• PWM Signals

Some PWM drivers are used to convey information, not power.

This is more common with the proliferation of smart actuators.
Either the frequency, or, more commonly, the duty cycle is used to indicate the desired actuator
position.

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Diagnostics
• General
• Drivers should be “self protecting” meaning they should shut themselves off
in the event of a significant fault (e.g. shorting a high side driver to ground).

• The ECM has to detect if this has occurred.

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Diagnostics
• High Side Drivers

Detect open loads (requires a pull-up resistor on output) or a short to battery

when the driver is off
• Cannot distinguish these faults
• Short to battery may be across the FET (field effect transist

Detect shorts to return when driver is “on”

• Driver typically latches off and the short is inferred.

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Diagnostics
• Low Side Drivers

Detect open loads or a short to return when the driver is off

• Cannot distinguish these faults
• Short to return may be across the FET

Detect shorts to power when driver is “on”

• Driver typically latches off and the short is inferred.

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Injectors
• Both the current and voltage
applied to the solenoid injector
has to be precisely controlled.
• A fully configurable, boosted,
peak and hold waveforms are
shown here

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Thanks
Automotive Electronics and Diagnostics Training
Introduction
• Your Name
• # Days, Months or Years at KPIT
• Awareness level @ Automotive Diagnostics
• Area that you are working in
Where do we start
• At Ground Zero
• Let us re-calibrate ourselves

3 October 2019 Confidential 3

Diagnostics
• What is Diagnostics

• Why is it needed

• How does it apply to automotive

3 October 2019 Confidential 4

Catch-Up
• Engine
• Engine Controller
• Sensors and Actuators
• Vehicle
• Different Controllers on Vehicle
• Inter-communication between the controllers
• Communication with external world
• Communication related to diagnostics
• On-Board
• Off-Board

3 October 2019 Confidential 5

Sensors and Actuators
• Sensors – Temperature, Pressure, Speed, Position
• Actuators – Pumps, Motors, Valves, Injectors, Relays
• Failure Modes – In Range, Out of Range
• Vehicle Electrical / Electronic Architecture
• Need for diagnostics
• On Board Diagnostics
• Diagnostic scenarios

3 October 2019 Confidential 6

CAN Network

• Basics
• Seven Layer Model
• Attributes of CAN
• Message Types and Data Frames
• Errors, Confinement and Recovery
• Data Conversion
• SAE J1939 / ISO 14230
• Diagnostic Trouble Codes – SPN/FMI and P-Codes
• Multi-frame messages

3 October 2019 Confidential 7

Gateways and Communication Interfaces
• Controllers on the Vehicle
• Vehicle Diagnostics Architecture
• Telematics
• ASAM Standards

3 October 2019 Confidential 8

UDS Unified Diagnostic Services
• Network Layer Services
• SDU and PDU
• Primitives
• Single Frame and Multi Frame
• Flow Control and Timeouts
• Addressing – Physical and Functional
• Tester Present
• Diagnostic Services
• Programming Flow
• Variant Management
3 October 2019 Confidential 9
ODX Open Diagnostic eXchange

• Introduction
• Tool Chain View – Diagnostic System Architecture
• XML and Schema
• ODX Components
• Variant Management
• Flashing
• Data Management

3 October 2019 Confidential 10

OTX Open Threat Exchange
• Introduction
• Structure and Format
• OTX Data Model
• Components of OTX
• OTX Extensions
• Event Handling
• HMI and Editor
• Integration into Diagnostics workflow
• Guided Diagnostics

3 October 2019 Confidential 11

Thanks
Automotive Electronics and Diagnostics Training
Introduction
• Your Name
• # Days, Months or Years at KPIT
• Awareness level @ Automotive Diagnostics
• Area that you are working in
Where do we start
• At Ground Zero
• Let us re-calibrate ourselves

3 October 2019 Confidential 3

Diagnostics
• What is Diagnostics

• Why is it needed

• How does it apply to automotive

3 October 2019 Confidential 4

Catch-Up
• Engine
• Engine Controller
• Sensors and Actuators
• Vehicle
• Different Controllers on Vehicle
• Inter-communication between the controllers
• Communication with external world
• Communication related to diagnostics
• On-Board
• Off-Board

3 October 2019 Confidential 5

Sensors and Actuators
• Sensors – Temperature, Pressure, Speed, Position
• Actuators – Pumps, Motors, Valves, Injectors, Relays
• Failure Modes – In Range, Out of Range
• Vehicle Electrical / Electronic Architecture
• Need for diagnostics
• On Board Diagnostics
• Diagnostic scenarios

3 October 2019 Confidential 6

CAN Network

• Basics
• Seven Layer Model
• Attributes of CAN
• Message Types and Data Frames
• Errors, Confinement and Recovery
• Data Conversion
• SAE J1939 / ISO 14230
• Diagnostic Trouble Codes – SPN/FMI and P-Codes
• Multi-frame messages

3 October 2019 Confidential 7

Gateways and Communication Interfaces
• Controllers on the Vehicle
• Vehicle Diagnostics Architecture
• Telematics
• ASAM Standards

3 October 2019 Confidential 8

UDS
• Network Layer Services
• SDU and PDU
• Primitives
• Single Frame and Multi Frame
• Flow Control and Timeouts
• Addressing – Physical and Functional
• Tester Present
• Diagnostic Services
• Programming Flow
• Variant Management
3 October 2019 Confidential 9
ODX
• Introduction
• Tool Chain View – Diagnostic System Architecture
• XML and Schema
• ODX Components
• Variant Management
• Flashing
• Data Management

3 October 2019 Confidential 10

OTX
• Introduction
• Structure and Format
• OTX Data Model
• Components of OTX
• OTX Extensions
• Event Handling
• HMI and Editor
• Integration into Diagnostics workflow
• Guided Diagnostics

3 October 2019 Confidential 11

Thanks
Automotive Electronics and Diagnostics

Sub-Module: UDS and Standards

ISO 15031
• ISO 15031 defines Communication between vehicle and external equipment for emissions
related diagnostics
• It benefits many sectors of the automotive industry, including the service technician required to
work on a variety of vehicle types and component supplier providing similar products to several
different vehicle manufacturers

• ISO 15031 consists of seven parts.

• ISO 15031 is based on recommended practices developed by the SAE.

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ISO 15765
• ISO 15765 details Diagnostics on Controller Area Networks for Road Vehicles
• ISO 15765 has been established in order to define common requirements for vehicle diagnostic
systems implemented on a CAN communication link as specified in ISO 11898
• ISO 15765 is based on the Oepn Systems Interconnection (OSI) Basic Reference Model specified
in ISO/IEC 7498 and ISO/IEC 10731

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OSI

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OSI View of UDS

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OSI Model
• The purpose of each layer is to provide services to the layer above.
• The application layer provides services to the diagnostic application.
• The active parts of each layer, implemented in software, hardware or any combination, are called
entities
• In the OSI model, communication takes place between entities of the same layer in deiffernt
nodes.
• Such communicating entities of the same layer are called peer entities

• The services provided by one layer are available at the Service Access Point of that layer. The
layer above can use them by exchanging data parameters.

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ISO 15765
• The application layer services in ISO 15765 are defined in compliance with diagnostic services
defined in ISO 14229-1 and ISO 15031-5
• The network layer services have been defined to be independent of the physical layer
impletemented
• A physical layer is only specified for legislated on-board diagnostics. For all other applications ISO
15765 can be used with any physical layer

• ISO 15765 distinguishes between the services provided by a layer to the layer above it and the
protocol used by the layer to send a message between peer entities of that layer
• This makes the services, reusable also for other types of networks other than CAN.
• The protocol is hidden from the service user and change of protocol will not make the user
confused.

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Diagnostic Architecture
• The diagnostic network contains all clients and servers that communicate with each other
• A diagnostic network can range from a simple point-to-point connection between a client and a
server to a complex distributed network architecture with several physical sub-networks inter-
connected by diagnostic gateways

• All clients and servers of a sub-network are connected to the same physical communication link.
• For ISO 15765 all clients and servers of a sub-network are connected to the same physical CAN
network and are able to communicate with each other directly

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Diagnostic Gateway
• A diagnostic gateway is a node in the network that is physically connected to two or more sub-
networks and has the ability to transfer diagnostic messages between the sub-networks.

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ISO 15765-2
• ISO 15765 specifies an unconfirmed network layer communication protocol for the exchange of
data between network nodes
• If the data to be transferred does not fit into a single CAN frame, a segmentation method is
provided

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Network Layer Services - Communication
• The service interface defines a set of services that are needed to access the functions offered by
the network layer.
• Communication Services
• These services enable the transfer of up to 4095 bytes of data

• N_USData.request – This service is used to request the transfer of data. If necessary the network layer segments the
data
• N_USData_FF.indication – This service is used to signal the beginning of a segmented message reception to the
upper layer
• N_USData.indication – This service is used to provide received data to the higher layers
• N_USData.cconfirm – This service confirms to the higher layers that the requested service has been carried out.

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Network Layer Services - Protocol
• These services enable the dynamic setting of protocol parameters
• N_ChangeParameter.request – This service is used to request the dynamic setting of specific
internal parameters
• N_ChangeParameter.confirm – This service confirms to the upper layer that the request to
change a specific protocol has been carried out

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Network Layer – Internal Operation
• The internal operation of the network layer provides segmentation, transmission with flow
control and reassembly.
• The main purpose of the network layer is to transfer messages that might not fit in a single CAN
frame

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Segmented and Unsegmented Message

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Flow Control
• Flow control is used to adjust the sender to the network layer capabilities of the receiver.
• This flow control scheme allows the use of diagnostic gateways and sub-networks

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Network Layer Services - structure
• All network layer services have the same general structure.
• Three types of primitives are specified

• Service Request Primitive – It is used by higher communication layers or the application to pass
control information and data required to be transmitted to the network layer

• Service Indication Primitive – It is used by the network layer to pass status information and
received data to upper communication layers or the application.

• Service Confirmation Primitive – It is used by the network layer to pass status information to
higher communication layers or the applciation

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Network Layer Services - Structure
• All network layer have the same format.

• The Service Name is the name of the service

• Type is the service primitive
• Parameters A, B, C are the N_SDU (Service Data Unit) – a list of values passed by the service
primitive

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Service Primitive: N_USData.request
• Requests transmission of <MessageData> with <Length> from the sender to the receiver.
• Each time the N_USData.request service is called, the network layer shall signal the completion
of the message transmission to the service user by means of an N_USData.confirm service call

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Service Primitive: N_USData.confirm
• N_USData.confirm service is issued by the network layer.
• This confirms the completion of an N_USData.request service
• It contains the results of the service request

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Service Primitive: N_USData_FF.indication
• The N_USData_FF.indication service is issued by the network layer to indicated to the upper layer
of arrival of a first frame of a segmented message
• This takes places upon reception of the first frame (FF) of a segmented message
• The N_USData_FF.indication service shall always be followed by an N_USData.indication service
call

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Service Primitive: N_USData.indication
• The N_USData.indication service is issued by the network layer to the upper layer.
• The parameters <MessageData> and <Length> and only valid if <N_Result> is negative
• The N_USData.indication is issued after the reception of a single frame message or as an
indication of the completion (or failure) of a segmented message reception.

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Service Primitive: N_ChangeParameters. request
• The service primitive is used to request the change of an internal parameter’s value on the local
protocol entity
• The <Parameter_Value> is assigned to the <Parameter>
• A parameter change is always possible, except after reception of the first frame and unlit the end
of the reception of the corresponding message.

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Service Primitive: N_ChangeParameter. confirm
• The service primitive confirms the completion of a change request

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Service Data Unit – Message Type
• The parameter Mtype is used to identify the type and range of address information parameters
included in a service call.
• If Mtype = diagnostics, then the address information N_AI shall consist of N_SA, N_TA and
N_TAtype
• If Mtype = remote diagnostics, then the address information N_AI shall consist of parameters
N_SA, N_TA, N_TAtype and N_AE

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N_AI – Address Information
• This gives the addressing information and includes:
• N_SA – Source Address
• N_TA – Target Address
• N_Tatype
• N_AE – Optional address extention

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N_Tatype, Network Target Address
• The parameter N_Tatype is an extension parameter. It is used to encode the communication
model.
• Physical addressing gives 1 to 1 communication. It is supported for all types of nework layer
messages
• Functional addressing gives 1 to n communication, It is supported for Single Frame messages

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N_AE, Network Address Extension
• N_AE parameter is used to exted the available address range for larger networks.
• It encoes both sending and receiveing network layer entities of subnets other than the local
network where the communication takes place.
• N_AE is only part of the addressing information if Mtype is set to remote diagnostics

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N_Result
• N_result gives the status relating to the outcome of the service execution.
• If two or more errors are discovered, then the parameter value first found in the list is used
• N_OK – Service execution completed successfully
• N_TIMEOUT_A – The Timer N_Ar or N_As has passed its timeout
• N_TIMEOUT_Bs – The timer N_Bs has passed its time-out value
• N_TIMEOUT_Cr – The timer N_Cr has passed its time-out value
• N_WRONG_SN – This value is issued upon reception of an unexpected sequence number.
• N_INVALID_FS – This value is issued when an unknown FlowStatus value has been received in a
N_PDU

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N_Result
• N_UNEXP_PDU – This is issued upon reception of an unexpected protocol data unit
• N_WFT_OVRN – This is issued upon reception of flow control WAIT frame that exceeds the
maximum counter
• N_BUFFER_OVFLW – This is issued upon reception of a flow control N_PDU with FlowStatus =
OVFLW.
• N_ERROR – This is a general error value. It is issued when an error has been detected by the
network layer which cannot be described by the above

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Result_ChangeParameter
• N_OK – The service execution has completed successfully
• N_RX_ON – The service did not execute since a reception of the message was taking place.
• N_WRONG_PARAMETER – The service did not execute due to an undefined parameter
• N_WRONG_VALUE – The service did not execute due to an out of range parameter value.

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Network Layer Functions
• The network layer protocol performs the following functions:

• Transmisssion/reception of messages up to 4095 data bytes

• Reporting of transmission/reception completion (or failure)

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Single Frame Transmission
• Transmission of messages up to 7 data bytes is performed through single frame structure

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Multiple Frame Transmission
• Transmission of longer messages is performed via segmentation of the message and transmission
of multiple N_PDUs.
• Reception of longer messages is performed via reception of multiple N_PDUs and reassembly of
the received data bytes
• The multiple N_PDUs are called FirstFrame and ConsecutiveFrame

• The receiver of a multiple N_PDU message has the possibility of adapting the transmission
throughput to its capability by means of the flow control mechanism using the FlowControl FC
N_PDU

• All Consecutive Frame N_PDUs are numbered by the sender to help the receiver re-assemble
them in the same order

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Segmentation

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Flow Control
• The receiver can inform the sender about its capabilities by Flow Control. These capabilities are:

• Block Size (BS) – The maximum number of N_PDUs the receiver allows the sender to send before
waiting for an authorization to continue the transmission

• Separation Time Min (Stmin) – The minimum time the sender is to wait between the
transmissions of two consecutive frame N_PDUs

• Flow control allows easier detection of timeout

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Flow Control
• Using Flow Control N_PDUs, the receiver has the possibility of authorizing transmission of the
following CF N_PDUs, to delay transmission or to deny the reception of a segmented message

• FC.CTS – Continue to send

• FC.WAIT – Request to continue to wait
• FC.OVFLW – Buffer overflow, the indication that the number of bytes specified in the first frame
exceeds the number of bytes that can be stored by the receiver

• There is a maximum limit to the number of FC.WAIT a receiver is allowed to send in a row.

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N_PDU
• The SF N_PDU includes a single frame protocol control information SF N_PCI.
• It is used to send out a service data unit that can be transferred via a single service request to the
data link layer, and to transfer unsegmented messages.

• The FF N_PDU includes the first frame protocol control information

• The FF_N_PDU is sent out to identify the first N_PDU of a segmented message.

• The CF N_PDU includes the consecutive frame protocol control information

• The CF N_PDU is sent out with the additional data of a segmented message.

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FC N_PDU
• The FC N_PDU is identified by the flow control protocol control information (FC N_PCI)
• It instructs the sending node to start, stop or resume transmission of CF N_PDUs.
• It is sent by the receiver upon
• Reception of an FF N_PDU
• The last CF N_PDU of a block of consecutive frames
• Pause or abort transmission

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N_PDU Format
• All N_PDU consist of
• Address Information N_AI: It identifies the peer entity using N_SA, N_TA, N_Tatype, N_AE. N_AI identifies the type
of message exchanged, and the recipient and sender between whom data exchange takes place.

• Protocol Control Information N_PCI – The field identifies the type of N_PDU exchanged.

• Data Field N_Data – The N_Data is used to transmit the data <Message Data>. The size of N_Data depends on the
N_PDU type and the address format chosen

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N_PCI
• The size and format of the N_PCI changes with different type of N_PDU

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SF N_PCI

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FF N_PCI

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CF N_PCI
• The SN starts with 0 for all segmented messages. The SN of the first CF is 1. SN wraps around at
15.

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FC N_PCI

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Block Size
• The block size gives the absolute number of CF N_PDUs per block
• If BS = 20 (decimal), then the block will consist of twenty CF N_PDUs

• Only the last block of consecutive frames in a segmented data transmission may have less than
the BS number of frames

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STmin
• The Stmin specifies the minimum time gap allowed between the transmission of consecutive
frame protocol data units

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Network Layer Timing

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Network Layer Timeouts

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Addressing
• The exchange of network layer data is supported by 3 addressing formats: Normal, Extended and
Mixed addressing
• The number of data bytes transported within a single CAN frame depends on the type of
addressing format used

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Normal Addressing
• For each combination of N_SA, N_TA, N_Tatype and Mtype, a unique CAN identifier is assigned.
• N_PCI and N_data is placed in the CAN data field

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Normal Fixed Addressing
• Sub-format of normal addressing for 29 bit CAN identifiers where the CAN identifier will change
based on the Address Information

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Extended Addressing
• For each combination of N_SA, N_Tatype and Mtype, a unique CAN identifier is assigned.
• N_TA is placed in the first byte of the CAN frame data field.
• N_PCI and N_data is placed in the remaining bytes

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Mixed Addressing: 29-bit
• Mixed Addressing is used if Mtype is set to remote diagnostics
• The N_AE becomes the first byte of the CAN frame.

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Mixed Addressing : 11-bit
• For each combination of N_SA, N_TA and N_Tatype, a unique CAN identifier is assigned.
• N_AE is placed in the first byte of the CAN frame data field

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CAN Frame
• The DLC is always set to 8
• If the N_PDU is shorter than 8 bytes, padding of unused data bytes is done.
• The DLC can be optimized by shortening (no padding) for single frame, flow control or last
consecutive frame message
• Depending on the N_PCI value, the receiver determines the minimum data bytes to be seen in
the message. If the CAN frame is smaller, it is ignored.

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ISO 15765-3
• ISO 15765-3 specifies the implementation of a common set of UDS on CAN in road vehicles
• It gives the diagnostic services and server memory programming requirements for all in-vehicle
servers connected to a CAN network and external test equipment
• The services as defined in ISO 14229-1 are used for client-server based systems to perform
functions such as test, inspection, monitoring, diagnosis or programming of on-board vehicle
servers
• It does not specify any requirement for the in-vehicle CAN bus architecture.

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Communication Scenarios
• Physical Communication
• Default Session
• Non-Default Session – session handling required

• Functional Communication
• Default Session
• Non-Default Session – session handling required

• For all cases, the possibility of requesting an enhanced response-timing window by the server via
a negative response message, including a response code 78 hex, is considered

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Default
Session

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Timing
• The timing considers any system network design-dependent delays such as delays introduced by
gateways and bus bandwidth plus a sagety margin.
• This worst-case scenario is the transmission time necessary for one “round trip” from client to
server and back from server to client is dependent upon:
• The number of gateways involved
• CAN frame transmission time
• CAN bus utilization
• CAN device driver implementation

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Round trip Timing

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Session Layer Timing
• The server might change its application layer timings when it is in a non-default session. This is
done in order to achieve a certain performance or to compensate restrictions which might apply
during a non-default diagnostic session.

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Tester Present
• For a client a periodically transmitted functionally addressed TesterPresent (3E) request message
shall be distinguished from a sequentially transmitted physically addressed Tester Present
request message, which is only transmitted in case of the absence of any other diagnostic
request message.

• For the server there is no need to distinguish between TesterPresent message.

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Client Timing

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Server Timing

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Timer Needs – Default session

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Timer Needs – Non-default session

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Physical Communication – default Session

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Physical Communication – Enhanced Timing

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Functionally Addressed Tester Present

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Physically Addressed Tester Present

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Functional Communication – Default Session

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 Minimum Time between request
messages
• The minimum time between request messages transmitted by the client is required in order to
allow for a polling driven service data interpretation in the server
• In the case of physical communication, the client can transmit the next request immediately after
the complete reception of the last response message

• For functionally addressed requests and physically addressed requests with positive response
surpresed, the client no longer knows whether the server is ready.

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Minimum Timing

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Unsolicited Messages
• Unsolicited messages are those transmitted by the server based on a periodic scheduler or a
configured trigger such as change of a DTC status
• Any unsolicited transmitted response message shall not reset the server timer.
• This avoids a diagnostic session keep-alive latch-up effect in the server

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Client Error Handling

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Server Error Handling

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A_PDU and N_PDU

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CAN Identifiers
• The 11 bit CAN identifiers for legislated OBD can also be used for enhanced diagnostics
• If the 11 bit CAN identifiers are re-used then:
• Network layer timing parameters for OBD also apply for enhanced diagnostics
• The DLS shall be set to 8 and the CAN frame shall include eight bytes (with unused bytes padded).
• ISO 15765-4 allows for max. 8 OBD related servers, therefore 11 bit CAN identifier for 8 servers are defined.

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CAN Identifiers
• 29 bit CAN identifiers for legislated OBD can also be used for enhanced diagnostics.

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SAE vs ISO Addressing

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Need for Diagnostic Communication
• Measure and collect the data to ensure that the ECU is able to fulfil its controlling functionality
• Continuous observation of the control unit
• Check reactions of the control unit
• Check its ability to treat inputs
• Check its ability to detect and log errors
• Read out error codes present in the ECU
• Clear Memory after error is fixed
• Read and write configurable parameters
• Protect from stealing/manipulation
• Reprogram the control unit SW

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Diagnostic Services
• Simple Services – These consists of one Request and one Response

• Cyclic Services – The client can configure the server, with one request to provide cyclic response
periodically. This periodic response will continue till it is not stopped by the client (or detected to
be timed out by the server)

• Event Driven Services – The client can configure the server to respond whenever an event occurs.
After one initial response the next response will only happen whenever the event occurs. The
time between responses in not predictable.

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Response Required Handling
• All services, which have a Sub-Function support the Response Required Handling

• All services to read data do not support Response Required Handling.

• A service, which uses just the suppressPosRespMsgIndicationBit of the Sub-Function Byte, must
set the other bits of the Sub-Function Byte to 0.

• For functional requests, some negative responses are always suppressed, regardless of the
suppression bit
• NRC $11 Service Not Supported
• NRC $12 Subfunction Not Supported

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Diagnostic and Communication Management
• $10 DiagnosticSessionControl (DSC)
• $11 ECUReset (ER)
• $27 Security Access (SA)
• $28 CommunicationControl (CC)
• $3E TesterPresent (TP)
• $83 AccessTimingParameter (ATP)
• $84 SecuredDataTransmission (SDT)
• $85 ControlDTCSetting
• $86 ResponseOnEvent
• $87 LinkControl

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DiagnosticSessionControl

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Service $10 – Request Response

Byte 1a 1b 2 3
Request PCI # Bytes DSC Service ID diagnosticSessionType

MESSAGE 02 10 02

Response PCI # Bytes DSC Service ID diagnosticSessionType

MESSAGE 02 50 02

N-Response PCI # Bytes Negative Response ID DSC Service ID NRC Code

MESSAGE 03 7F 10 88

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SessionParameterRecord

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Programming Session
• The Programming Session enables all Services of the ECU that are needed to program the
memory
• The Programming Session will quit if,
• $11 ECUReset is sent by the Tool
• $10 DSC with requeste for defaultSession is sent by the tool
• A Time-out occurs in the ECU

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Extended Diagnostic Session
• Allows the tool to write control values to the ECU and run Input/Output checks and Routines

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Diagnostics of Safety Systems
• Used for safety relevant diagnostic services, like triggering of Airbags

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$11 ECU Reset
• Sub-functions

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$28 Communication Control
• Activate / Deactivate sending and receiving CAN Frames from other ECUs
• Increases bandwidth for flash programming; prevents CAN timeout errors
• Does not deactivated diagnostic CAN channel

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$3E Tester Present

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$84 Secured Data Transmission
• This service encapsulates another service
• Security SubLayer of the transmitter encodes the encapsulated service
• Security SubLayer of the receiver decodes the encapsulated service

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$85 ControlDTCSetting
• Activate / Deactivate storing of errors into error memory
• Used during flash programming and development

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$ 86 Response on Event
• Configures the ECU to send a response without a request in case of a pre-defined event
• The following services can be configured to Respond on Event
• ReadDataByIdentifier ($22)
• ReadDTCInformation ($19)
• RoutineControl ($31)
• InputOutputControlByIdentifier ($2F)

• The activation of the ResponseOnEvent is controlled by $86

• It can be activated in any Session
• It does not need Tester Present Messages
• It has lower priority compared to any on-going service process

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Response on Event

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$87 Link Control
• Configures communication speed, if the medium is configurable

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Data Transmission
• $22 ReadDataByIdentifier
• $23 ReadMemoryByAddress
• $24 ReadScalingDataByIdentifier
• $2A ReadDataByPeriodicIdentifier
• $2C DynamicallyDefineDataIdentifier
• $2E WriteDataByIdentifier
• $3D WriteMemoryByAddress

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$22 ReadDataByIdentifier
• ECU parameters are given Id’s which are 2 bytes in length
• ECU information can be requested by using multiple identifers at the same time

• Pre-Defined Identifier Allocations:

• F100 to F19F - > KWP 2000, Claibration Data, ODX File Identifier
• F2xx -> Periodic Data Identifier
• F3xx -> Dynamically Defined Data Identifier
• F4xx – F8xx -> OBD Identifier

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$23 ReadMemoryByAddress
• The tool requests a memory address and the number of bytes
• The ECU responds with the block data

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$2A ReadDataByPeriodicIdentifier
• ECU sends diagnostic data periodically without additional requests
• ECU data is referenced by periodicDataIdentifier with one byte length
• Tool can request several data by more than one Identifier using only one Request

• Transmission Modes:
• $1 Slow
• $2 Medium
• $3 Fast
• $4 stopSending

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Periodic Transmission - Fast
• For fast transmission, the ECU changes the format of the response message
• The response message is sent using a separate CAN-ID without PCI-Bytes
• i.e. All 8 bytes can be used to transmit data

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$3D WriteMemoryByAddress
• The tool sends a memory address and number of bytes and the data to be written
• The ECU writes this data into the memory at the specified address

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$2C DynamicallyDefineDataID
• The tool requests one or more memory addresses and length (and/or data IDs)
• The ECU orders the requested memory parts to a dynamic dataid
• By requesting that dynamic ID internal data can be read out with low CPU overload
• DynamicallyDefinedDataID can be erased

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Stored Data Transmission
• $14 ClearDiagnosticInformation
• $19 ReadDTCInformation

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$19 ReadDTCInformation
• Error memory queries, by different filtering criteria
• The filtering criteria is the sub-function

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DTC Status Bit

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$14 ClearDiagnosticInformation
• Clears one, a group or all of the stored errors from the error memory

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InputOutputControl
• $2F InputOutputControlByIdentfier

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$2F InputOutputControl
• Can directly control the actuator signals
• Access to actuators is application specific

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Remote Activation of Routines
• $31 RoutineControl

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$31 RoutineControl
• Controls routines, as erasing memory, calculate checksum, undertake testing
• Control option is a sub-function

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Upload Download
• $34 RequestDownload
• $35 RequestUpload
• $36 TransferData
• $37 RequestTransferExit

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$34 RequestDownload
• The tool specifies an address and a length, but no data
• Specifies compressing methods
• The ECU starts a downloading session

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$35 RequestUpload
• The tool specifies an address and a length
• Specifies compressing methods
• ECU Initializes uploading session

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$36 Transfer Data
• Transfers the data bytes, with the help of sequence number, until the amount of data is reached

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$37 RequestTransferExit
• Terminates downloading/uploading

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Programming Environment

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Programming Sequence
• Switch ECU On
• Read Identification
• Switch to Programming Mode
• Security Access
• Do Variant-Coding
• Write Programming Date
• Reset of ECU

8/12/2018 Confidential 120

Programming Flow
• The server is in defaultSession
• Under this state the tool can read the identification of the ECU
• This is done by reading the systemSupplierECUHardwareNumber using $22 ReadDataByIdentifier

• The response received (typically ASCII string) is checked by the tool against a reference value.

• If the match is successful, this surely is the ECU that needs to be flashed.
• The tool generates a DSC for programming mode

8/12/2018 Confidential 121

Programming Flow
• Once successful response for the DSC is received from the ECU, the tool sends a $27
SecurityAccess to the ECU
• During SecurityAccess, a seed is requested by the Tool.
• The ECU sends a response with the SEED
• This SEED is used by the tool to generate a key using the security algorithm
• The calculated key is send again to the ECU
• If the calculation is correct, the ECU gives another positive response
• If the ECU is firmly in Programming Mode, it sends a sequence of zeros

• Once this SecurityAccess is achieved, the secured data can be sent

8/12/2018 Confidential 122

Programming Flow
• The tool raises a RequestDownload with details of the MemoryAddress, Compression Method
and Memory Size
• Upon a positive response, it starts TransferData. The data block size is derived from Response to
RequestDownload
• Upon completion of the download it RequestTransferExit where-in it may ask an optional
checksum check

8/12/2018 Confidential 123

Programming Flow
• Once the download has been completed, the tool has to program the Variant Code field in the
ECU
• This field is a bit-mapped 16 byte field which indicates what features are supported by the
vehicle / model variant
• The tool uses service $3D to WriteMemoryByAddress
• Post Variant Coding, the tool writes the programming date with the help of $2E
WriteDataByIdentifier
• A positive response from the ECU is determined as the completion of programming

• At the end of programming, the tool resets the ECU using $11ECUReset with the ResetType $81
(End of Programming)

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Programming Flow

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Programming Flow

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Programming Flow

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Programming Flow

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Programming Flow

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Programming Flow

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Pre-Programming Flow

8/12/2018 Confidential 131

Post Programming Flow

8/12/2018 Confidential 132

Thanks
Module 02: Engine and Vehicle Basics

Sub-Module 04: Vehicle Basics

Vehicle Basics - Drivetrain
Vehicle
• A vehicle is a complex machine with several systems functioning simultaneously.
• Every vehicle is powered by an engine and most passenger cars use an internal combustion
engine that runs on gasoline (petrol).
• Engine produces the power and torque that is then transferred to the wheels to drive them.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 3

Subsystems of the Vehicle
• Powertrain: Powertrain of a vehicle encompasses the complete set of components that generate
power and deliver it to the wheels.

• Drivetrain: Drivetrain consists of the parts of the powertrain excluding the engine and
transmission. It is the part of the powertrain, after the transmission, that changes depending on
whether the vehicle is front wheel, rear wheel or four wheel drive.

• The separation of Powertrain and Drivetrain is ambiguous in most texts.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 4

Driveline or Drivetrain
• The driveline or drivetrain is a series of components that connect the motion of the engine to the
wheels of the car

• The driveline can provide forward (or backward) motion at the wheel.
• The driveline is composed of:
• Driveshaft or Propeller Shaft
• Transmission
• Clutch
• Torque Converter
• Axle Half Shafts

October 7, 2019 Confidential 5

Drivetrain

October 7, 2019 Confidential 6

Driveshaft
• The engine is connected to a metallic drive shaft.
• The drive shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation

• Drive shafts connect different components in the drivetrain

• For most vehicles that have a clutch and transmission mounted directly on the engine, the main
longitudinal shaft is leading to the final drive in the rear axle.
• In other cases, this is mostly referred to as the propeller shaft.
• When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 7

Transmissions
• The transmission attaches to the back of the engine
• it transfers power from the engine to the drive wheels.
• it allows the vehicle to operate under a wide range of speeds and the engine to operate under a
narrow range of speeds simultaneously.
• it uses gears to make more effective uses of the engine’s torque and keep the engine speed in a small
operating range.
• In the low gears the engine turns much faster in relation to the drive wheels, while in high gears
the engine may turn slower than the drive wheels.
• Without a transmission, the vehicle would be limited to a single gear ratio that would be selected
for the vehicle’s top speed. At vehicle launch there would be almost no acceleration and at top
speed the engine would be near the red-line.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 8

Transmission

October 7, 2019 Confidential 9

Transmission
• The responsibility of the transmission is to match the engine’s speed to the power requirements
of the car which are a function of vehicle speed.

• Transmission does this job of establishing this connection through a series of gears, referred to as
Gearbox

• Transmission may be manual or automated

• Engine delivers different power and torque levels at different speeds.

• Engine power is reconditioned by the transmission to the wheel power

October 7, 2019 Confidential 10

Transmission
• The transmission consists of an input shaft which is connected to the engine, and an output
shaft
• The gear ratio is the ratio of the angular velocity of the input gear to the angular velocity of the
output gear
• As the ‘engaged’ gear is changed, the gear ratio offered by the transmission changes
• The ratio of the torques is called as mechanical advantage

October 7, 2019 Confidential 11

Transmission Fluid
• Transmission fluids clean, cools, lubricates, transmits force, transmits pressure and protects the
transmission

October 7, 2019 Confidential 12

Transmission Types
• There are two types of transmissions - manual and automatic.
• The manual transmission (with its clutch) and the automatic transmission (plus its torque
converter) accomplish the same thing in different ways.
• Manual transmissions require the operator to shift gears manually using a stick and clutch.
• Automatic transmissions change gears automatically using a torque converter instead of a clutch.
• The clutch or torque converter (for an automatic) applies or releases torque from the
transmission input shaft.
• The Automated Manual Transmission uses computer controls to perform clutch-less automated
gear shifts.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 13

Clutch
• A Clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages the transmission
• In a simplistic view, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts.

• In a Manual Transmission, disengagement of engine and transmission is required every time the
gear is to the be changed.
• This disengagement is achieved by depressing the clutch pedal.

• Note: The transmission does not stop rotating during a gear change, there is no torque
transmitted through it.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 14

Torque Converter
• The torque converter connects, multiplies and interrupts the flow of engine torque into the
transmission.
• The torque converter takes the place of a mechanical clutch in vehicles with automatic
transmission
• It allows the load to be separated from the power source

October 7, 2019 Confidential 15

Axle
• Axle is a central shaft for rotating wheel.
• The Axle serves to transmit driving torque to the wheel as well as to maintain the position of the
wheels relative to each other.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 16

Final Drive
• The final drive is the last in the set of components which deliver torque to the wheels.
• It incorporates the differential
• The differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel
• This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is traveling outside of the turning
curve to roll farther and faster than the other
• The average rotational speed of the two driving wheel equals the input rotational speed of the
drive shaft.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 17

Vehicle Basics – Other Subsystems
Chassis
• Chassis is the base frame of a car
• The chassis provides the strength to support the vehicular components and payload placed upon
it.

• Parts of the Chassis and Parts connecting to the chassis

• Frame
• Suspension
• Steering
• Tyres / Wheels
• Vehicle Body

October 7, 2019 Confidential 19

Chassis
• The suspension system forms a critical element of the chassis. It contains springs, shock
absorbers and other components that allow the vehicle to pass over uneven terrain without the
shock reaching the passengers
• The steering mechanism is an integral portion of the chassis, as it provides the operator with the
ability to change direction.
• The tyres grip the road surface to provide traction that enables the vehicle to accelerate, brake
and make turns without skidding
• The body of the vehicle encloses the mechanical components and the passenger compartment

October 7, 2019 Confidential 20

Chassis Frame
• Frame is the main structure of the chassis. All other components fasten to it.
• The Frame may be developed separately from the body or as an integrated unit.
• Most common design practice is to develop the frame separately. This is most common
technique and still used in most full-size care and cargo vehicles.
• The frame is designed to support the weight of the body and absorb all the loads imposed by the
terrain.
• The body is bolted to the frame at a few points.
• The points are carefully chosen in order to distribute the loads

October 7, 2019 Confidential 21

Components of the Frame
• Frame provides supports for springs, suspensions, radiators, transmissions, bumpers, shock
absorbers, fuel tanks etc.

• Side Members – Heaviest part of the frame.

• Cross Members – prevents weaving and twisting of the frame
• Gusset Plates – Angular pieces used for additional reinforcement.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 22

Integrated Frame and Body
• Combines the frame and body into a single one-piece structure
• Components are formed, casted or welded together
• The panels are located and oriented so as to result a uniformly stressed structure

October 7, 2019 Confidential 23

Suspension System
• The suspension maintains the relationship between the wheels and the frame. The suspension
system interacts with the steering system to provide vehicle control
• The suspension system absorbs the energy from road irregularities and helps to maintain vehicle
stability.
• The suspension system includes springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to
its wheels.

• Most suspensions use passive springs to absorb impacts and dampers (shock absorbers) to
control spring motions
• The designs of the front and rear suspensions may be different

• Note: Tyres absorbs most of the shocks caused by road components

October 7, 2019 Confidential 24

Springs and Shock Absorbers

October 7, 2019 Confidential 25

Suspension - Working
• The sprung mass is the mass of the vehicle supported on the springs
• The unsprung mass is the mass between the road and the suspension springs
• The stiffness of the springs affects how the sprung mass responds to the car as the unsprung
mass changes.

• Springs do the job of absorbing energy, but take a long time to dissipate it. This job is
undertaken by the damper or shock absorber

• The damper controls unwanted spring motion and slows down the magnitude of vibratory
motion by converting part of the kinetic energy into heat that is dissipated in a hydraulic fluid.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 26

Steering System
• The steering system transmits the input from the steering wheel to the steering gear and other
components to control the car’s direction.
• The steering allows the vehicle to accelerate, brake and make turns without skidding.

• The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a steering wheel

• For the car to turn smoothly, each wheel follows a different curvature.
• The inside wheels need to turn more as compared to the outer wheels
• The geometry of steering linkage makes this possible.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 27

Steering System
• Rack-and-pinion steering is the most commonly used arrangement.
• A rack-and-pinion gearset i.e. a gear set that converts rotational movement into longitudinal
movement is used to shift the steering shaft on the rack.
• Turning steering wheel to the ‘right’ turns the pinion to the ‘right’ and moves the rack towards
the ‘right’, thereby making the distance to the inner wheel shorter, and that to the outer wheel
longer
• On most cars it takes 3 to 4 complete revolutions of the steering wheel to traverse the complete
Rack length of the gear set

October 7, 2019 Confidential 28

Steering System

October 7, 2019 Confidential 29

Power Steering
• Power steering reduces the effort required in turning the vehicle.
• A hydraulic power steering system uses hydraulic pressure to assist the motion of turning the
wheel.
• An electric power steering system uses an electric motor to achieve the same.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 30

Brake Systems
• When the operator depress the brake pedal, the car transmits the force from the foot to its
brakes through a fluid.
• The force is multiplied in two ways – mechanical advantage (leverage) and hydraulic force
multiplication.
• The brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the
road using friction also.
• The lever system is designed in such a way that it can multiply the force from the leg several
times before any force is transmitted to the brake fluid.
• The hydraulic multiplication uses force transmission through a fluid to multiply the intensity of
the force.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 31

Brake Types
• Car’s brakes are one of the most important safety features.
• Brakes are usually either Disc or Drum
• Disc brakes use a spinning disc which is pinched in between the brake pads mounted on calipers
to slow the motion of the car.
• Drum brakes use shoes that push outward to contact the inside of a spinning drum
• Some cars contain one type of brake on the front and the other type for the rear wheels.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 32

Brake System

October 7, 2019 Confidential 33

Brakes - Operation
• When the brake pedal is pushed, the force generates hydraulic pressure in the master cylinder.
• This pressure flows through the hydraulic lines and hoses to the wheel cylinders and calipers,
forcing the shoes against the drums and the pads against the rotors.
• The friction generated slows the vehicle and tis relative to the amount of the force applied.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 34

Electrical System
• A car’s electrical system is powered by a rechargeable battery
• This battery is charged by the engine itself (while acting as a generator)
• The battery power is used to start the car, providing the initial motion of the engine and
powering items like fuel pump, Air conditioner compressor and the starter motor.
• The battery is also used to power accessories like headlights, dashboard lights and other
convenience items so that these can be powered on while the engine is shutdown.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 35

Battery
• Battery is the primary source of electrical energy
• It stores chemicals that produce an electrical pressure.
• This electrochemical reaction changes chemical energy to electrical energy.
• Battery energy is used to operate lighting and accessory systems
• Battery energy is used to operate the starter motor and to provide current to the ignition system
during cranking
• Battery energy is used when the electrical load requirements exceed the supply from the
charging system
• Battery also serves the purpose of a voltage stabilizer.
• Wet-Charged Battery -> The lead-acid battery is filled with electrolyte and charged when it is
built. During storage, a slow chemical reaction will cause auto-discharge.
• Automotive batteries are built to reduce internal heat and water loss.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 36

Automotive Charging Systems
• Car batteries can’t use AC power therefore the alternator output is fed through diodes which
convert the AC to DC power
• As the engine rotates, the alternator pulley, the rotor spins past three stationary stator windings,
surrounding a fixed iron core that makes up the stator.
• This is three phase current. The coil windings are evenly spaced at intervals of 120 deg around
the iron shaft.
• The alternating magnetic field from the rotor produces an alternating current in the stator.
• The diodes are used to block and direct the current.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 37

Dashboard / Instrument Cluster
• Dashboard is a display unit that informs the driver about the engine and vehicle parameters.

• Speedometer and Fuel Gauge are key elements

• Tachometer displays engine speed in RPM
• Low Oil Pressure and High Coolant Temperature are indicated by lights.
• Faults (Diagnostic Lamps) are also present on most new instrument clusters

October 7, 2019 Confidential 38

Lighting System
• The lighting system provides night-time vision, signals and alerts to other drivers
• It also supplies light for viewing the dashboard and vehicle’s interior

October 7, 2019 Confidential 39

Climate Control
• Though often considered as a comfort and convenience item, the climate control is a basic
requirement.
• It primarily involves Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
• The vehicles travelling across various climatic conditions and the climate changes are the reasons
why we need HVAC in the vehicle. This adds to comfort and luxury.
• The other needs of such a system on large scale is for transport of perishable goods, medicine,
patients etc.
• Our scope is to understand cabin HVAC and passenger HVAC

October 7, 2019 Confidential 40

Hybrid Powertrains
• Hybrid vehicles have more than one power sources in the drivetrain
• Hybrids are classified by the division of power between the sources

• If both the sources may operate in parallel, simultaneously delivering power at all times, it is
called a parallel hybrid
• If one of the source is only use as an augmenting source, and not delivering power at all times, it
is called series hybrid

October 7, 2019 Confidential 41

Parallel Hybrid
• Both the internal combustion engine and electric motor are coupled.
• For the supplied torques to add, the speeds at the coupling must be identical

• Parallel hybrids can be further categorized depending upon how balanced the different portions
are at providing the motive power.
• Parallel hybrids rely on regenerative braking and recharging provided by the internal combustion
engine, they are more efficient on the highways

• E.g.: Honda Insight

October 7, 2019 Confidential 42

Regenerative Braking
• Usually the braking in a vehicle is achieved by frictional means. This causes a lot of
wasteful energy in terms of thermal losses
• The kinetic energy of the vehicle can be converted into another form in order to
slow down the vehicle
• Regenerative Braking has been used on railways for many decades

• On a hybrid vehicle, when braking is to be achieved:

• The motor turns into a generator
• It thereby recovers the potential and kinetic energy through its conversion to
electrical energy and stores the charge in the battery.
• Most road vehicles only have power on some wheels (e.g.: FWD – front wheel
drive). Regenerative braking can only draw power from the these wheels.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 43

Series Hybrid
• Series Hybrid vehicles use electric transmission
• The power is directly supplied to the wheels by means of one or more electric motors
• The combustion engine turns a generator which also acts as an engine starter
• The battery bank requirement of a series hybrid is significantly higher than that of parallel hybrid.
The battery bank acts as the energy storing and buffering device

• Series Hybrid also incorporate regenerative braking

• They can be plugged into the electric mains system to recharge the battery bank
• They have super-capacitors to assist the battery bank

October 7, 2019 Confidential 44

Motor at the Wheels
• Many series hybrid and electric vehicles use an electric motor directly driving the wheel
• This eliminates the conventional elements of the drivetrain – gearbox, transmission shafts,
differential etc.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 45

Series – Parallel Hybrid
• Series – Parallel hybrids allow two ways of delivering power to the wheels viz – the traditional
mechanical and the electrical.

• This system allows the decoupling of the power supplied by the engine

October 7, 2019 Confidential 46

Micro Hybrid
• Incorporates ‘stop-start’ systems that saves fuel and reduces emissions by shutting engine power
off under most circumstances when vehicle is stopped, braking or coasting

• Batteries or ultra-capacitors are used to recover kinetic energy otherwise wasted when braking,
known as ‘regenerative braking’

• Has limited benefits of Hybrid

October 7, 2019 Confidential 47

Mild Hybrid
• The Combustion Engine is dominant supplier to motive power
• They are parallel systems with start-stop only
• Limited benefit of hybridization
• The motor acts a power booster and provides engine assist.
• Uses regenerative braking system
• The electric drive motor cannot propel the vehicle on its own
• Saves fuel and emissions by shutting engine power off under most circumstances
• Less expensive than full hybrid systems

October 7, 2019 Confidential 48

Full Hybrid
• It can run on just the engine, or just the batteries or a combination of both
• E.g.: Toyota Prius
• Uses a large battery pack
• Has split power paths to deliver the combustion engine and electrical power to the wheels.
• Utilizes all the advantages of hybrid technology
• Capable of moving under electric power only. It can drive off without the engine running
• Electric launch thereby providing acceleration from a complete stop
• Uses regenerative braking and start-stop features

October 7, 2019 Confidential 49

Efficiency Improvement
• Engine stop combined with regenerative braking are the main reasons why most hybrids achieve
better fuel economy in city/urban driving

• The high-voltage integrated starter/generator of a hybrid can spin the engine at speeds in
excess of 900 RPM. This provides an almost instantaneous restart

October 7, 2019 Confidential 50

Plug-in Hybrids
• Uses electric motor as the dominant source of power
• They are full hybrids, able to run in electric-only mode
• They have larger batteries and the ability to recharge from the power grid
• It can be plugged into an electrical outlet to be charged

• E.g.: Chevrolet Volt

October 7, 2019 Confidential 51

Hybrid Operation Modes

October 7, 2019 Confidential 52

Electric Vehicles
• Electric vehicles use one or more electric motors for propulsion of the vehicle
• These vehicles do not have an internal combustion engine
• Usually Electric Vehicles employ a 3-phase AC motor as AC motors can deliver higher power

• The DC electricity from the battery is fed into an inverter where it is converted into alternating
current

• Some applications like forklifts, small electric cars still employ DC motors.

October 7, 2019 Confidential 53

Battery Systems
• Most hybrid and electric vehicles use lithium ion batteries
• Lithium ion batteries have higher energy density, longer life span (nearly 3 times traditional lead
acid batteries)

• However, proper charging, discharging and balancing of the lithium ion batteries is critical

October 7, 2019 Confidential 54

Thanks