Math 3560 HW Set 9

Kara

November 5, 2013

(14.1) The conjugacy classes of D5 are {e}, {r, r4 }, {r2 , r3 }, {s, rs, rs , r3 s, r4 s}.

(14.4) Conjugacy classes in S6 are formed by permutations of the same cycle structure.
There are exactly 11 cycle structures in S6 and all permutations with a given structure
form one conjugacy class. Here, there is a list of representatives of 11 possible cycle struc-
tures:
e, (12), (123), (1234), (12345), (123456), (12)(34), (123)(45), (123)(456), (1234)(56), (12)(34)(56).
Using the algorithm in the book(pages 76, 77), we find g = (156423) satisfying the equation
g(123)(456)g −1 = (531)(264). This g is odd. But this is not the only element satifying
the equation above. Note that (531)(264) = (264)(531) and h = (126)(345) is even and
satisfies h(123)(456)h−1 = (264)(531).(use the same algorithm for (264)(531)).

We can easily find h ∈ S8 conjugating α = (12345)(678) to β = (43786)(215), for example

h = (14856237). This h is odd, but it is not enough to claim that α and β are not conjugate
in A8 . There might be other elements conjugating α to β, maybe not all of them are odd.
In fact all of them will be odd - but this is not trivial and requires a proof.
Assume there is g ∈ A8 such that

gαg −1 = β = hαh−1 where h = (14856237).

This means h−1 gα = αh−1 g i.e. h−1 g, which is an odd permutation being a product of an
even and an odd permutations, commutes with α. Now, we will show that any permutation
which commutes with α must be even. This will give us a contradiction which means that
α and β cannot be conjugate in A8 . Assume that γ commutes with α: γα = αγ i.e.
γαγ −1 = α Note that:
α(γ(6)) = γαγ −1 (γ(6)) = γα(6) = γ(7),
α(γ(7)) = γαγ −1 (γ(7)) = γα(7) = γ(8),
α(γ(8)) = γαγ −1 (γ(8)) = γα(8) = γ(6).
Thus (γ(6), γ(7), γ(8)) is a 3-cycle in α. We have exactly one 3-cycle in α, (678) = (786) =

1
(867). Therefore γ(6) can be 6,7 or 8. If γ(6) = 7, then (γ(6), γ(7), γ(8)) = (786) which
means γ contains the 3-cycle (678). If γ(6) = 8, then (γ(6), γ(7), γ(8)) = (867) which
implies that γ contains the 3-cycle (687) = (678)2 . The remaining case corresponds to the
case where γ contains e = (678)3 . So, we see that γ contains a 3-cycle which is a power of
(678). A similar argument gives that γ also contains a 5-cycle which is a power of (12345).
Henece, γ is an even permutation since powers of 3-cycles and 5-cycles are even(so is their
product).
(14.5)
To prove. The 3-cycles in A5 form a single conjugacy class.

Proof. Let x, y be 3-cycles in A5 . The 3-cycles in S5 form a single conjugacy class. There-
fore, there exists g ∈ S5 such that gxg −1 = y. If g is even, then we are done, so suppose g
is odd. Without loss of generality, suppose x = (123). Then (45)x(45) = x because x and
(45) are disjoint. Therefore, letting h = g(45),

hxh−1 = g(45)(123)(45)g −1 = g(123)g −1 = gxg −1 = y.

Furthermore, since g and (45) are odd, h is even. Hence, x is conjugate to y.

(14.6) Let S be a set of 8 elements, and suppose {Ui } is a partition of S such that {Ui }
has three sets, two of which have 3 elements and the third of which has 2 elements. An
element, σ, of S8 preserves the partition if for all j ∈ S, j ∈ Ui if and only if σ(j) ∈ Ui .
Then there are 2 · 2 · 1 = 4 elements of S8 which preserve a given partition.
The number of elements of S8 with cyclic structure (12)(345)(678) is equal to the product
of the number of ways to partition a set of 8 into a set of
2 and two sets of 3 and the
number of elements which preserve a partition. There are 82 ways to choose the set of 2,
and from the remaining 6 elements, there are 63 ways to choose another set of 3. However,

since we do not distinguish between the two sets of 3, there are 12 63 ways to partition a

set of 6 into two sets of 3. Therefore, there are

   
8 1 6
4· · = 1120
2 2 3
elements of S8 with cyclic structure (12)(345)(678). (12 . . . n − 1) ∈ An , so s(12 . . . n − 1) =
(12 . . . n − 1)s, which implies s(n) = n and s(i + 1) = s(i) + 1 mod n − 1 for 1 ≤ i < n.
Thus, s = (12 . . . n − 1)s(1)−1 . Noting that An−1 can be viewed as a subgroup of An , we
can use the same argument to s how s = e.
(14.11) Denote by Fj matrix obtained from I by multiplying j-th row by −1, and by
Eij matrix obtained from I by switching i-th and j-th row. Both of this operations will
change determinant of I by multiplying it by −1. Thus all these matrices have nonzero
determinant, so they are invertible.

2
We are to find center of GLn (R). Call it Z. If a matrix A is in Z then in particular it
commutes with all the matrices Fj , Eij . As usual denote (i, j)-th entry of A by aij . Note
that A Fj is matrix A with j-th column multiplied by −1, while Fj A is matrix A with j-th
row multiplied by −1. Therefore A Fj = Fj A gives that for all k 6= j, −akj = akj . Varying
j we get that A must be a diagonal matrix.
Now notice that A Eij is matrix A with i and j-th columns switched, while Eij A is matrix
A with i and j-th row switched. Analyzing the (i, j)-th entry in A Eij and in Eij A gives
us equation aii = ajj . Again, varying i, j we obtain that, to commute with all the matrices
Fj , Eij , our matrix A needs to be diagonal, with same entry on diagonal, that is A = aI for
some a 6= 0 (as we want A to be in GLn (R)). Such matrices commute with every element
of GLn (R). Therefore we have proved that center of GLn (R) is {a I | a ∈ R \ {0}}.

(15.3) The order of the quaternion group Q is 8 and the order of any subgroup of Q divides
8. Hence, the orders of possible non-proper subgroups of Q are 2 and 4. The only element
of Q of order 2 is -1, and all the other elements except the identity have order 4. Hence,
H = {1, −1} is the only subgroup of Q with 2 elements. Since both 1 and -1 commute
with every element of Q, xH = Hx for every x ∈ Q. Thus, H is normal by Theorem 15.3.
All the other subgroups of Q with 4 elements are also normal by Theorem 15.4 since the
index of such a subgroup in Q is equal to 2.

(15.6)
To prove. If H, K are normal subgroups of a group, and H ∩ K = {e}, then hk = kh for
all h ∈ H, k ∈ K.

Proof. Since H and K are normal, kH = Hk and hK = Kh for all h ∈ H, k ∈ K. Then

there exist h0 ∈ H, k 0 ∈ K such that

kh = h0 k, hk −1 = k 0 h.

This implies
khk −1 = h0 , khk −1 = kk 0 h,
so combining these, we have h0 = kk 0 h, or equivalently, h0 h−1 = kk 0 . However, h0 h−1 ∈ H,
kk 0 ∈ K, and H ∩ K = {e}. Therefore, h0 h−1 = e, so h0 = h, which implies kh = hk, as
desired.

(15.12) A proper normal subgroup of A4 is {e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), } (see page 80
in the book).
The commutators are:
(12345)−1 (345)−1 (12345)(345) = (245)

3
(12)(34)−1 (345)−1 (12)(34)(345) = (354)
Let H be a normal subgroup of A5 . It can contain only even elements so only 5-cycles,
3-cycles, or composition of disjoint transpositions. If it contains a 5-cycle, then we can
relabel elements if needed and assume this 5-cycle is a = (12345). Note that a−1 also is in
H, and any cojungate of a is in H, and products of these. Therefore its commutator with
(345) needs to be in H. Our computations show that it is a 3-cycle. Thus if H contains
5-cycle, it needs to contain a 3-cycle as well. Similarly, if H contains composition of disjoint
transpositions, we can assume that it is (12)(34) and use above computations to deduce H
contains a 3-cycle - the commutator of (12)(34) and (345).
In A5 , 3-cycles forms one conjugacy class, therefore H needs to contain all 3-cycles. From
theorem 6.5 we know that 3-cycles generate all A5 . Thus H = A5 .