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Hybrid Rocket Propulsion Development and Application

Article · January 2009

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 Hybrid Rocket Propulsion Development and Application

Paweł Surmacz, Grzegorz Rarata

Institute of Aviation, Al. Krakowska 110/114, 02-256 Warsaw, Poland

Abstract

Nowadays, the satellite technology development becomes very intensive. Progress in the
satellite technology requires many desirable features from the rocket propulsion. One of the
most important is reduction of the overall transport cost, with reference to one kilogram of
payload. Rocket engines are being used not only for launch vehicles. The application includes
also satellite manoeuvring and orbit transfer, space probe and lander propulsion. There is a
very interesting new transport area called space tourism.

In order to make the Space widely accessible, it is necessary to reduce the development,
production and utilization cost of space transportation systems. It must also not influence the
safety level. Features including high performance, storability, non-toxicity and safety of
rocket propellants are required. There are also many other features essential for a rocket
engine. Among them the most important are restart ability and throttling ability. These
features cannot be reached by a solid rocket motor. Although a liquid rocket engine might be
both restartable and throttle able, it is complicated and very expensive to develop.

Hybrid rocket propulsion is being considered in several specific areas of space

transportation. Those applications are: microsatelites (manoeuvring and orbit transfer), lunar
and planetary landers, suborbital and orbital tourism vehicles. Some of these applications
have been already approved and are still being developed. The most positive qualities of a
hybrid propulsion are: simplicity, safety, stop and restart ability, throttling ability. Hybrid
propellants are mostly storable and non-toxic. What is more, fuel and oxidiser are separated
and stored in different phases, which positively affects on the safety level.

The purpose of this study is to make an overview about the hybrid rocket propulsion
including the history of research and technology development as well as recent application
and future tendencies. Commonly used fuels and oxidisers are presented. The problem of low
regresion rate in a hybrid rocket motor is explained. There are also results of the own research
presented in the article.
 1. The overviev of a hybrid rocket motor

In opposite to other rocket propulsion systems, a hybrid motor utilizes propellants which
are stored in separate phases. In general, solid fuel and liquid oxidiser are used. The opposite
configuration is called a reversed hybrid. The fuel - usually a polymer - is stored in a case.
The fuel cross section shape is usually a ring or a star, depending on the required thrust [5].
Combustion chamber is placed in the internal port of a fuel grain. The inner fuel surface melts
and vaporizes as a result of the convection and radiation heat transfer. Liquid oxidiser is
injected into the chamber in which combustion occurs. It is worth to mention that the injector
plate in a hybrid is much simpler than in a liquid rocket engine because there is only one
liquid propellant. The mixture formation and combustion process takes place in the close area
of the fuel inner surface. A hybrid motor scheme is presented at Fig.1.

Fig. 1. Hybrid rocket motor scheme

A hybrid motor requires an additional vessel, in which afterburning process occurs. It is

called a post-combustion chamber. This chamber is essential because of the fact that there is
not enough time and space in the inner port for complete combustion [5].

The thrust device is a convergent-divergent nozzle. Liquid oxidiser feed systems might be
pressurizing as well as turbopump.

2. History of the hybrid rocket technology development

A hybrid motor was used for the first time in 1933 in GIRD-9 Soviet small rocket built by
M.K. Tikhonravov. The engine was fed by liquid oxygen and semi-liquid gasoline. It was a
breakthrough in the rocket technology. GIRD-9 utilized the first hybrid rocket motor in the
world and was the first soviet rocket which used liquid oxygen. The first launch took place
near Moscow in August, 17 1933. GIRD-9 reached 400 meters of altitude. In 1934 the rocket
reached 1500 meters with 500 N of thrust and 15 seconds of burn time [15].

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 Between 1937 and 1939 Germans conducted some work on hybrids. I. G. Farben tested
hybrid motors that utilized coal with nitrous oxide. At the same time H. Oberth researched
hybrids using liquid oxygen with tar-wood-saltpetre mixture. Experimental work on hybrids
was also conducted in 1930’s and 1940’s in the United States. The Californian Rocket Society
tested engines utilizing coal and gaseous oxygen. In 1947 the Pacific Rocket Society tested
propellant configuration consisted of wood and liquid oxygen.

The next step in the hybrid rocket history was the research on using polyethylene and 90%
hydrogen peroxide by General Electric. At the same time the Rocket Missile Research
Society, California made the first test of a hybrid with spontaneous ignition. The mixture of
acids with asphalt and potassium chloride was used. In 1950’s Europe also joined the research
and development of the hybrid technology. French ONERA launched its first hybrid rocket on
April, 25 1964 with 10 kN of thrust. Until 1967 French LEX hybrid rockets were able to reach
100 km. Between 1965 and 1971 Sweden conducted many launches of FLGMOTOR
sounding hybrid rockets. 20 kg payload was launched on 80 km altitude [16].

From 1979 to 1983 the USA realized the flying target drone programme. Propulsion
systems of Sandpiper, HAST and Firebolt vehicles were based on hybrid rocket motors, being
developed by the United Technologies Corp. since 1961. Propellants utilized by these engines
were plexiglas and oxygen. Between 1981 and 1985 Starstruck Inc. developed the sea-
launched Dolphin sounding rocket. The lift-off thrust of the hybrid booster was 175 kN. The
engine utilized HTPB and liquid oxygen. The Dolphin’s launch was performed on August, 3
1984. It was another breakthrough in the rocket technology: the first flight of a privately
developed large launch vehicle in the USA and the first flight of a large hybrid rocket [16].

From 1974 to 1987 German DLR Lampoldshausen was conducting research on hybrids
utilizing many possible propellant configurations: nitrogen tetroxide, red fuming nitric acid,
hydrogen peroxide and polymer fuels, also with additives (aluminium, magnesium) [17].
The James C. Benett – the founder of Starstruck – co-founded American Rocket Company
(AMROC) in 1985. The organisation designed, built and tested hybrid rocket motors up to
324 kN of thrust. In 1995 AMROC folded. Four years later SpaceDev acquired rights to
AMROC’s hybrid technology and still continues its development.

In 1995 NASA and DARPA started HPDP (Hybrid Propulsion Demonstration Program).
The largest hybrid rocket motor was designed, built and tested. The engine produced 1,1 MN
of thrust for 15 seconds. Under HPDP program several versions of Hyperion rocket were
built. Hybrid motors were based on HTPB/N2O technology. These were first hybrid rocket

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flights realised for NASA. Hyperion 1A was launched four times reaching 36 km each. In
Hyperion 2 project it is considered to apply a hybrid motor producing 890 kN of thrust. The
rocket is expected to reach the altitude about 150 km [16].
In 2002 Lockheed successfully launched its own, developed earlier, HYSR hybrid rocket.
The engine utilized HTPB/LOX propellant configuration with 300 kN of thrust. Other
achievements comes to SpaceDev.

3. Hybrid propulsion advantages. Comparing to liquids and solids

Commercial use of launchers is limited by its high cost. 1 kg of payload to 800 km SSO is
now a few dozen of thousands USD. The low level of interest of commercial users causes the
higher cost of a single launch. It is a difficult state in which many elements take part. One of
the most important is the propulsion system and its features: simplicity, performance,
propellants, reliability and safety. Nowadays the environmental impact also becomes
important.

Considering all these aspects it worth to take note of the hybrid rocket propulsion. It was
so far thought not very promising, especially in Europe. However, hybrid rocket motor has
many potential advantages over solid and liquid rocket propulsion systems. Table 1 contains
the most important good aspects comparing to solids and liquids.
Table 1. Advantages of hybrids over other types of rocket propulsion [3], [4], [6]

Advantages over

Feature Liquids Solids

 Mechanically simpler  Chemically simpler (including

System  Less liquids – simpler injection, fuel preparation process)
feed and control systems  Restartable, throttle able
 Reduced fire hazard  Reduced explosion hazard
Safety  Less prone to hard starts  Zero TNT equivalent
 Able to stop
 Higher propellant density  Higher performance
Performance  Possible to improve performance
by the addition of metals
 Comparable with RP-1/LOX  Does not need any toxic and
Environment
harmful propellant

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 It is thought that hybrids cannot replace traditional solid and liquid propulsion for launch
vehicles. However they can fill the niche for application of the rocket propulsion [3].

4. Hybrid propellants

The first hybrid fuel ever used was semi-solid gasoline, prepared by dissolving rosin in
gasoline. There were also applied wood and coal at early works on hybrids. It was both
monolithic fir wood and tar-wood-saltpetre mixture. Chemical industry development made
possible to use polymers: polyethylene and plexiglas as hybrid fuels. However the most
common is HTPB (hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene). It is a synthetic rubber. Excellent
mechanical properties enables HTPB to use as a hybrid fuel and a binder for solid propellant.

Hybrid fuel may contain the addition of metal powder in order to improve performance.
The most common is aluminium. What is more, the fine aluminium (2 – 50 µm) influences on
the solid fuel regression rate. Other possible additives are catalysts, plasticisers and stabilisers
[12].

Hydrocarbons might be also used as hybrid fuels. Light hydrocarbon mixture, e.g. petrol is
normally at liquid phase. However it could be frozen and used as a solid fuel grain in a hybrid
rocket motor. It makes possible to reach higher than usual fuel regression rates. However this
solution causes many difficulties in the storage process because of the low freezing point of
light hydrocarbons. Considering hydrocarbons it is also possible to use paraffin as the hybrid
fuel [7]. The principal is the same as in case of the frozen petrol. However, paraffin is solid
even in the ambient temperature which simplifies the storage process.

The most commonly used liquid oxidiser is liquid oxygen. It is also possible to apply for
hybrid motors. LOX is a high performance oxidiser. The specific impulse reachable by the
LOX/hydrocarbons is over 3000 m/s. Table 2 presents performance possible to reach by
several hybrid propellant compositions in comparison with liquid oxygen and kerosene.
However liquid oxygen has several disadvantages for hybrid application. First of all, it is
cryogenic. What is more, a pyrotechnic ignition device is required. The igniter can be used
only once. It means that a hybrid motor cannot be restartable. The alternative is the gaseous
ignition. However it complicates the system significantly. Moreover, the liquid oxygen should
be vaporised before the mixture forms. The experience shows that incomplete oxygen
vaporisation before the combustion port causes the intensification of the low-frequency
combustion instabilities [5].

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Table 2. Hybrid propellant performance compared to LOX/RP-1 composition

Specific Density
Oxidiser Fuel O/F impulse impulse
m/s kg/m2s
LOX RP-1 2,5 3450 3,55*106
H2O2 98% HTBP 6,6 3200 4,34*106
H2O2 98% PE 7,2 3100 4,21*106
LOX HTPB 2,5 3450 3,63*106
N2O HTPB 8,5 3050 2,54*106

The alternative for liquid oxygen is nitrous oxide (N2O). It is also cryogenic liquid.
However its critical temperature equals 36,6 OC. It allows to store nitrous oxide in liquid
phase at the ambient temperature. At 20 OC the N2O vapour pressure is 5,85 MPa. This feature
makes possible to eliminate additional pressurization devices in the oxidiser feed system.
Vapour pressure line is shown at Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Nitrous oxide vapour pressure

From storable oxidisers – nitrogen compounds, there are several others which can be
applied for hybrids. These are: red fuming nitric acid and nitrogen tetroxide. The highly
interesting liquid oxidiser for the hybrid application is hydrogen peroxide. It is transparent
liquid, which density equals 1463 kg/m3. As a rocket propellant there is used 80 – 98% H2O2
(so called High Test Peroxide). Hydrogen peroxide decomposes both catalytically and
thermally on water vapour and oxygen [2]. The decomposition adiabatic temperature of HTP
ranges from 900 to 1100 K, depending on concentration. It is highly above ignition
temperatures of polymeric hybrid fuels. It means that utilization of hydrogen peroxide makes

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possible to eliminate additional ignition devices. Furthermore, hydrogen peroxide itself as
well as its decomposition products are environmentally friendly.

5. Development tasks. The mechanism of combustion in a hybrid rocket motor

Two major groups of the hybrid technology development issues can be classified on: non-
technical and technical. One of the technical tasks is the combustion instability, which follows
all kinds of rocket engines. However in this case the phenomenon is specific. Solid fuel must
vaporize and form mixture with the oxidiser. Instabilities occur while the combustion
products obstruct the oxidiser inflow and mixture formation. It causes temporary decrement in
temperature and chamber pressure.

Fig. 3. A simplified model describing the hybrid motor combustion

As a result, less amount of the exhaust stops blocking the mixture formation and the
combustion occurs normally. It makes temperature and pressure higher. These are high
amplitude (even 50% of the chamber pressure), low frequency oscillations. They are possible
to expand into the oxidiser feed system [5].

Fig. 4. Pressure oscillations as a result of combustion instabilities in a hybrid rocket motor

Another issue is the low fuel regression rate in a hybrid rocket motor. The surface reaction
intensity, in opposite with solid propellant motor, is negligible. As a result, the heat flow from
hot gas to the fuel surface is poor. It makes the fuel vaporization intensity small, which means

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that the fuel regression rate is lower than solid propellant (in which fuel and oxidiser are
premixed). As a result the fuel mass flow in a hybrid per surface area is low.

From many mathematical models describing the hybrid fuel regression law, the most
useful for engineering evaluations is one created by Marxman in 1965 [12]:

r  aG n x m . (1)

This formula characterizes the internal port radius derivative as a function of the oxidiser
mass flux (G) and the axial coordinate (x). It is also the fuel regression rate formula. Ballistic
coefficients: a, n, m are determined from experiments. For pure polymer fuels these
parameters depend only on the fuel-oxidiser composition, not the chamber pressure. Pressure
dependency appears only in case of metal and solid oxidiser addition. In general, the axial
coordinate factor is omitted (m = 0). The Marxman’s formula is now simplified to:

r  aG n . (2)

Several examples of experimentally determined ballistic coefficients and fuel regression

rates for nitrous oxide are showed in table 2. Regression rate is in mm/s and oxidiser mass
flux in g/cm2/s.
Table 3. Ballistic coefficients for polymer fuels and nitrous oxide [9]

Fuel a n Range r [mm/s]

Polyethylene 0,104 0,352 0,35 – 0,7

Plexiglas 0,111 0,377 0,4 – 0,8

HTPB 0,198 0,310 0,6 – 1,0

Parafine 0,488 0,62 0,5 – 4,5

It is possible to omit the low regression rate issue in hybrid motors by increasing the fuel
surface area. One of the known methods is just to shape the internal port (Fig. 5). However
the surface area obtained by this way might not be sufficient to reach the demanded fuel mass
flow. The other way is to use the multi-port fuel grain (Fig. 6). It enables to create the surface
area higher than in the case of a single port. However there are three main disadvantages of
this method: complicated fuel preparation and forming process, oxidiser distribution into
individual ports and poor fuel grain integrity (especially at the end of burn).

8
 Fig. 5. Examples of internal port shaping in order to increase the fuel surface area

Fig. 6. Examples of the fuel multi-port shaping

Increasing fuel burning rate is possible by adding a small amount of solid oxidiser into the
fuel grain. It enables to activate surface reactions and, as a result, to increase heat flow from
the hot gas into the fuel surface. Near-surface fuel zone temperature rises as well as its
vaporisation intensity. There is also expected the lower level of combustion instabilities. It
makes also the burning rate pressure dependent [6].

It is experimentally verified that the addition of metal particles (magnesium, aluminium)

helps to increase the fuel burning rate. The phenomenon is based on the radiation heat transfer
from the hot gas to the fuel grain surface. Metal particles absorb more radiation heat than pure
polymers. The smaller particles the higher influence on the fuel burning rate. Metal causes the
burning rate pressure dependent. Small particles (less than 5µm) make the fuel preparation
difficult. Radiation heat transfer also rises by the addition (about 3% by mass) of soot. In this
case there is no pressure dependency of the burning rate.

According to formula (1) the fuel burning rate depends on the oxidiser mass flux. It is
possible to increase it locally by using a swirl injector. The disadvantage is the system
complexity. Moreover it is has not been experimentally verified [6].

In 1997 at the Stanford University, the Liquid Layer Hybrid Combustion Theory was
published. Application of this theory is directed into low melting temperature hydrocarbon
fuels, especially paraffin. While combustion occurs, the fuel melts and creates a liquid film on
the surface. Dynamic pressure causes the film burst [3]. Single droplets separate from the
liquid film and vaporize. This mechanism is schematically presented at Fig. 7.

9
 Fig. 7. Liquid Layer Hybrid Combustion Theory

According to experiments already performed, low melting temperature hydrocarbons give

higher regression rates than polymers. Considering paraffin, which melting temperature is
69OC, three times higher than HTPB regression rate was reached. There were also tests
performed using light cryogenic hydrocarbons.
The non-technical issues contain the low level of the hybrid technology development and
difficulty in competition with highly developed solid and liquid rocket propulsion. The most
important space enterprises expecting profit, prefer to apply existing and approved solutions,
which are in general much more reliable. What is more, the number of specialists from hybrid
area is very small comparing to another types of rocket engines.

One of possible solutions of all those non-technical issues might be might be education
and training on the area of the hybrid rocket technology. It should be directed especially into
young scientists, engineers and students. It is also really important to realize that hybrid
rocket motors cannot eliminate solids and liquids from the access to space but can only fill
specific needs for cheap, simple, safe and environmentally-friendly rocket propulsion.

6. Recent research and development of the hybrid rocket technology

In 2003 SpaceDev, which acquired AMROC’s rights to its hybrid rocket technology,
developed propulsion system for Space Ship One. The new era of hybrid propulsion began.
The opportunity for commercial application of hybrids appeared. Space (suborbital in this
case) tourism is something new. This area demands the high reliability and safety level.
However the vehicle propulsion system should be unexpensive. Hybrid rocket motor met all
these requirements. SpaceDev representative claims that the overall design and development
process of the Space Ship One propulsion system took just one year with one million USD
budget [14]. It seems not much for a rocket engine. Space Ship One is so far the only vehicle
built and tested for suborbital tourism. In 2004 Scaled Composites – the enterprise which
created Space Ship One – won the Ansari X Prize.

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 American hybrid technology developer also claims that the future of space flights are
small and medium innovative enterprises cooperating with each other [14].

In 2004 the idea of a new reusable orbiter came. Dream Chaser is expected to utilize
hybrid rocket propulsion. Three years later SpaceDev announced that the boosting rocket for
Dream Chaser will be Atlas V.
SpaceDev designed, built and tested Manoeuvring and orbital Transfer Vehicle for Air
Force Research Lab. This vehicle is designed for small satellites both for attitude and control
as well as for changing the elliptical orbit into circular. The system is based on a HTPB/N2O
hybrid motor. Small engines for attitude and control use cold nitrous oxide.

Fig. 8. A scheme of the Manoeuvring and orbital Transfer Vehicle

In 2007 the lunar lander test was successfully performed. This vehicle is propelled by four
hybrid motors. Its development took three years. All engines are throttle able.
The great successful work of a medium enterprise – SpaceDev – shows that it is worth to
research and develop the hybrid rocket technology. One of the most important task is to find
the proper application for hybrids. Current experience shows that the most promising areas
are: space tourism, unmanned lunar and planetary landers, orbital manoeuvre and attitude
control. Upper stages are also being consedered.

7. Hybrid technology research in Poland. Warsaw University of Technology and Institute

of Aviation.

In 2007 at the Warsaw University of Technology, the Institute of Heat Engineering, the
research work on a hybrid rocket motor was conducted. One of the main goals was to

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experimentally verify the own hybrid concept. It was based on the application of a fuel grain
containing HTPB, aluminium and ammonium nitrate. According to the idea, polymer served
mainly as a binder and its amount was minimized just to make the preparation process
possible. The main fuel was 2 µm aluminium powder. The amount of Al was 30 – 50% by
mass. The fuel grain contained about 10% of additives: plasticiser, catalyst. Ammonium
nitrate was added in order to initiate surface reactions and – as a result – increase the amount
of heat transfer to the fuel grain [8]. The assumed effect of this work was to increase the fuel
burning rate and decrease the amplitude of combustion instabilities [13].

a) b)
Fig. 9. Hybrid motor fire test (a) and solid propellant used during tests (b)

The target oxidise was the rocket grade hydrogen peroxide (HTP). However it is still
unavailable in Poland. HTP imported from Germany is too expensive. The research work was
started from the application of gaseous oxygen. Then several tests with 60% hydrogen
peroxide (the maximum available in Poland) were performed. As it was expected these tests
failed. Rocket grade hydrogen peroxide should be higher than 80% [19]. Hybrid rocket fire
tests with gaseous oxygen were successful. Sample results are presented on Fig. 10.

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 a) b)
Fig. 10. Test results of a hybrid motor test: thrust (a) and chamber pressure (b)

Institute of Aviation also joins to the hybrid rocket technology research and development.
Concepts and ideas are being created in order to choose the development way, which
includes: propulsion application, propellants, design concepts, cooperation and research plans.

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