IT

Session 8:

How is it important ,types of e-commerce

Importance :

 E-commerce provides opportunities for companies to expand

worldwide at a small cost, increase market share and reduce costs.
 Many small businesses are able to operate and compete in market
spaces once dominated by larger companies.
 Electronic commerce: Process of buying, selling, transferring, or
exchanging products, services, or information via computer
networks, including the Internet.
 E-business: Process of buying, selling, transferring, or exchanging
products, services, or information via computer networks, including
the Internet. The electronic servicing of customers, collaboration
with business partners, and performance of transactions within an
organization.

Types of E-Commerce:
 Business-to-consumer (B2C): Electronic transactions where the
sellers are organizations and the buyers are individuals.
 Business-to-business (B2B): Electronic transactions where both
the sellers and the buyers are organizations.
 Consumer-to-consumer (C2C): The selling of products or
services between individuals.
 Example: eBay, auctions, classified ads
 Business-to-employee (B2E): The provision of information and
services from an organization to its employees via electronic
means.
 Discounted insurance, travel packages, and tickets to events
on the corporate intranet. Sell company products to
employees at a discount.
 E-government: The government's use of Internet technology in
general and e-commerce in particular to deliver information and
public services to citizens and business partners and suppliers.
o G2C EC or G2B EC
Example of G2C EC is electronic benefits transfer in
which governments transfer benefits such as
employment insurance or Canada Pension Plan
payments directly to recipients’ banks accounts.
 Mobile commerce (m-commerce): Buying and selling goods that
is conducted entirely in a wireless environment.
o Using cell phones to shop over the Internet.

Business model: Method by which a company generates revenue

to sustain itself.
o On-line direct marketing: Sell directly to customers. Efficient
for digital products and services. Allows customization.
o Electronic tendering system: Request quotes from suppliers.
o Name-your-own-price: Customers decide how much they are
willing to pay.
o Find-the-best-price: Customers specify a need; an
intermediary compares providers and shows the lowest price.
Customers must accept the offer in a short time or may lose
the deal.
o Affiliate marketing: Vendors ask partner to place logos on
partner’s site. Vendor commissions the partners if the logo is
used and product is purchased.
o Viral marketing: Receivers send information about your
product to their friends.
o Group purchasing: Small buyers aggregate demand to get a
large volume, then the group conducts tendering or
negotiates a low price.
Find more on www.studymaterial.ca

o On-line auctions: Companies run auctions of various types on

the Internet. C2C is very popular.

o Product customization: Customers use the Internet to self-

configure products or services. Sellers then price them and fulfill them quickly (build-to-order).
o Electronic marketplaces and exchanges: Transactions are
conducted efficiently in electronic marketplaces.

o Bartering on-line: Intermediary administer on-line exchanges

of surplus products and/or company receives “points” for its
contribution, and the points may be used to purchase other
needed items.
o Deep discounters: Company offers deep price discounts.
Appeals to customers who consider only price in their
purchasing decisions.
o Membership: Only members can use the services provided,
including access to certain information, conducting trades,
etc.

Electronic Payments:
x Electronic payment systems: System for paying for goods and
services through electronic means.
o Include: electronic checks, credit cards, purchasing cards,
electronic cash (like York u card)

pros:

- Instant settlement
- Distance is ok
- Decrease cost of processing
- Data entry improved
- More customer data (air miles)

Cons

- Security issues with lost funds

- Fraud purchases hard to identify
- Costs could be more than benefits
- Lack of skilled presence

Radio-frequency identification technology (RFID): A wireless

technology that allows manufacturers to attach tags with antennas
and computer chips on goods and then track their movement
through radio signals.
- To prevent theft
- Track shipment

o Active RFID tags:

Use internal batteries for power and they broadcast
radio waves to a reader. More expensive due to
batteries than passive RFID tags and can be read over
greater distances. 25 feet away
à Used for more expensive items

o Passive RFID tags:

Rely entirely on readers for their power. They are less

expensive than active tags and can be read only up to 6
meters.
à Used for less expensive items

internet of things:
the interconnection via the Internet of computing devices embedded in everyday
objects, enabling them to send and receive data.

Examples of objects that can fall into the scope of Internet of Things include connected security
systems, thermostats, cars, electronic appliances, lights in household and commercial
environments, alarm clocks, speaker systems, vending machines and more.  
Businesses can leverage IoT applications to automate safety tasks (for example, notify
authorities when a fire extinguisher in the building is blocked) to performing real-world A/B
testing using networked cameras and sensors to detect how customers engage with products.

Wireless Technologies:
x Include devices
o Example: Smart phones

x Transmission media
o Example: Microwave, satellite, radio

x Wireless Devices:
o Wireless application protocol (WAP): The standard that

enables wireless devices with tiny display screens, low-

bandwidth connections, and minimal memory to access web-
based information and services.

o Microbrowsers: Internet browsers with a small file size that

can work within the low-memory constraints of wireless
devices and the low bandwidths of wireless networks.

o Short message service (SMS): A service provided to digital

cellphones that can send and receive short text messages (up
to 160 characters in length).

o Downside to smartphones:
Individuals are able to copy and pass on confidential
information.
à Potential solution is cell phone jamming devises.

- Password need to be hard

- Change passwords
- Use anti-malware
CH 6

Various types of Computer Network (from smallest to largest)

- Personal Area Networks (PANs): short-range networks, typically a few meters that are used for
communication among devices close to one person. They can be wired or wireless.

- Local Area Networks (LANs): connects two or more devices in a limited geographical region,
usually within the same building so that every device on the network can communicate with
every other device. Most LANs today use Ethernet.
Many LANs have a file server or a network server. The server typically contains various software
and data for the network.

- Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): relatively large computer networks that cover a
metropolitan area.

- Wide Area Networks (WANs): network that covers a large geographical area. WANs typically
connect multiple LANs. WANs also contain routers.
Router: a communications processor that routes messages from a LAN to the Internet, across
several connected LANs or across the Internet.

Compare and contrast the two major types of networks.

The two major types of networks are local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks
(WANs). LANs
encompass a limited geographical area and are usually composed of one communications
medium. In
contrast, WANs encompass a broad geographical area and are usually composed of multiple
communications media.

Bandwidth: The transmission capacity of a network, stated in bits per second.

Bandwidth is becoming faster and cheaper which in return is making voice and data
communications
faster.

Computer Network: A system that connects computers and other devices via communications
media so that data and information can be transmitted among them.
Networks have three objectives: speed, distance, and cost. Organizations typically must select
two of the three.

All of these networks are interconnected to form an enterprise network.

Enterprise Network: An organization's network composed of interconnected multiple
LANs and WANs.
Enterprise networks usually have a backbone network.
What transmission media should our organization use?

Twisted-pair wire, the most prevalent form of communications wiring, consists of strands of
copper wire twisted in pairs. It is relatively inexpensive to purchase, widely available, and easy
to work with.
However, it is relatively slow for transmitting data, it is subject to interference from other
electrical sources, and it can be easily tapped by unintended receivers.

Coaxial cable consists of insulated copper wire. It is much less susceptible to electrical
interference than is twisted-pair wire and it can carry much more data. However, coaxial cable
is more expensive and more difficult to work with than twisted-pair wire. It is also somewhat
inflexible.

Fibre-optic cables consist of thousands of very thin filaments of glass fibres that transmit
information via light pulses generated by lasers. Fibre-optic cables are significantly smaller and
lighter than traditional cable media. They can also transmit far more data, and they provide
greater security from interference and tapping. Fibre-optic cable is often used as the backbone
for a network, whereas twisted-pair wire and coaxial cable connect the backbone to individual
devices on the network.

Communication Channel: pathway for communicating data from one location to another.
It is composed of two types of media: cable (twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, or fibre-optic
cable) and
broadcast (microwave, satellite, radio, or infrared)
Wireline media or cable media use physical wires or cables to transmit data and information.

 Methods used to access the Internet (Table 6.8, p. 164):

Dial-up : Dial-up refers to an Internet connection that is established using a modem. ...
When a user initiates a dial-up connection, the modem dials a phone number of an
Internet Service Provider (ISP) that is designated to receive dial-up calls.

Digital subscriber line (DSL) : DSL is a wireline transmission technology that transmits data faster
over traditional copper telephone lines already installed to homes and businesses. 


Cable modem: Cable modem service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the same
coaxial cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV set.

Most cable modems are external devices that have two connections: one to the cable wall outlet, the
other to a computer. 
 
Satellite: Just as satellites orbiting the earth provide necessary links for telephone and television
service, they can also provide links for broadband. Satellite broadband is another form of wireless
broadband, and is also useful for serving remote or sparsely populated areas.


 Wireless: Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the Internet using a radio link
between the customer’s location and the service provider’s facility. Wireless broadband can be
mobile or fixed.
 Wireless technologies using longer-range directional equipment provide broadband service
in remote or sparsely populated areas where DSL or cable modem service would be costly to
provide


Fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) : Fiber optic technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light
and sends the light through transparent glass fibers about the diameter of a human hair. Fiber
transmits data at speeds far exceeding current DSL or cable modem speeds. The actual speed you
experience will vary depending on a variety of factors, such as how close to your computer the
service provider brings the fiber and how the service provider configures the service, including the
amount of bandwidth used. T

Internet applications of discovery, communication, collaboration

Discovery involves browsing and information retrieval and provides users the ability to view
information in databases, download it, and/or process it. Discovery tools include search
engines, directories, and portals. Discovery tools enable business users to efficiently find
needed information.

- Search engine
- Translation to many languages

Portals:

- Commercial portals
- Affinity portals
- Corporate portals
- Industry- wide portals

Communication : Networks provide fast, inexpensive communications, via email, call centres,
chat rooms, voice communications, and blogs. Communications tools provide business users
with a seamless interface among team members, colleagues, business partners, and customers.
Telecommuting is the process whereby knowledge workers can work anywhere and anytime.
Telecommuting provides flexibility for employees, with many benefits and some drawbacks.
Collaboration : Collaboration is the mutual efforts by two or more entities (individuals, groups,
or companies) who work together to accomplish tasks. Collaboration is enabled by workflow
systems. Collaboration tools enable business users to collaborate with colleagues, business
partners, and customers.

- Google docs
- A way for everyone to contribute without being together

Social Networking: websites allow users to upload their content to the Web in the form of text
(for example, blogs), voice (for example, podcasts), images, and videos (for example,
videocasts).
• Network and community building – eg. employees can interact with coworkers,
making social and business oriented connections
• Social collaboration, publishing, views and feedback
• Social intelligence and analytics
 Example: IBM connects 426,000 employees in 170 countries for work and social

Two types:

PUBLIC : facebook
Private : back-end

- Make social and business connections

- Social collaboration
- Understand social advertising (CRM , Market research )

Risks :

 Invasion of privacy
 Violation of intellectual property and copyright
 Employees’ reluctance to participate
 Data leakage of personal information or corporate strategic information
 Poor or biased quality of users’ generated content
 Cyberbullying/cyberstalking and employee harassment
Session 9

TPS Transaction Processing Systems : An information system that supports the monitoring,
collection, storage, processing, and distribution of data from the organization’s
basic business transactions.
- Processes transaction data from business events.
- Example: When a cashier swipes a product for you to purchase, it records the
transaction, typically in real time.
- Have to handle large volume and large variations in volume (peak
times) efficiently.
- Must avoid errors and downtime, record results accurately and
securely, and maintain privacy and security.

- Process: First data are collected by people or sensors and are entered
into the computer via an input device.
Source data automation (try to automate the process as much as possible)

-System processes data in one of two ways:

1) Batch processing: The use of a transaction processing
system to process data in batches at fixed periodic
intervals.
à Collects data from transactions as they occur
placing them in groups or batches. Then
processes the batches periodically (say, every night).

2) On-line processing: AKA Real-time transaction

processing—Processing where transactions are
processed on-line as soon as they occur.
à By means of on-line technologies and in real time.

Management of TPS

- Protect from errors within an update

- Inconsistencies from single component failure
- Process for cancellation
- Audit trail (for maintaining security and for recovering lost transactions)

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)

- Designed to correct a lack of communication among the functional
area information systems.
- Nearly all ERP systems are transaction processing systems, but not all.
- Integrates all functional areas of the organization.
o Oracle, SAP
- ERP AND FAIS are pretty much the same but ERP just integrates each individual FAIS

Benefits :

- Precise and timely

- Better decision making
- Unifies technology

Cons :

- Complex
- Costs (training)
- Loss of strategies

Functional Area Information System (FAIS)

A system that provides information to managers (usually mid-level)
in the functional areas, in order to support managerial tasks of
planning, organizing, and controlling operations.
- Supports the activities within a specific functional area.
o System for processing payroll.

See saad’s notes for accounting, finance,…

Who uses the reports and why?

Routine reports: Reports produced at scheduled intervals.

- Range from hourly quality control reports to daily reports on
absenteeism rates.

Ad-hoc (on-demand) reports: Non-routine reports that often

contain special information that is not included in routine reports.
- Drill-down reports: Reports that show a greater level of
detail than is included in routine reports.
- Key-indicator reports: Reports that summarize the
performance of critical activities.
Chief financial officer might want to monitor cash flow
and cash on hand.
- Comparative reports: Reports that compare performances
of different business units or time periods.

Exception reports: Reports that include only information that

exceeds certain threshold standards.
o First creates performance standards.
o Next, sets up system to monitor performance
o Next, compare actual performance with the standards, and
identify predefined exceptions.
o Managers are alerted to the exceptions via exception reports.
Exception reports save managers’ time and help them
focus on problem areas.

What distinguishes a transaction processing system TPS vs FAIS VS ERP . explain the
differences and provide examples of these systems

TPS provides the boundaries FAIS . entry point, real-time record. for ex scan register (scan)
ERP makes FAIS clearer and improves communication flow . for ex SAP
FAIS provide info to managers within department . for ex System for payroll.

Session 10

Customer touch points (single view of customer) : Any interaction between a customer and
an organization.
Examples: Telephone, direct mailings, physical interactions,
e-mail, websites, smart phones, internet, computer, sales
representative, field service technician, service center, call
center.
Examples :
- traditional : telephone
- additional : email

Customer relationship management (CRM) is a technology for managing all your

company's relationships and interactions with customers and potential customers.
The goal is simple: Improve business relationships. A CRM system helps companies
stay connected to customers, streamline processes, and improve profitability.

Operational CRM :

Customer-facing CRM applications: Areas where customers directly interact with the
organization, including customer service and support, sales force automation, marketing, and
campaign management. FOR EXAMPLE sales people helping a customer who came
Customer-touching CRM applications: AKA electronic CRM (e-CRM) applications. Applications
and technologies with which customers interact and typically help themselves.
- Search and comparison capabilities:
Comparison websites, or on-line stores and malls offer search and comparison capabilities.

Benefits of operational CRM :

- Personalized marketing
- Improve sales

Analytical CRM :

Customer relationship management systems that analyze customer behavior and perceptions in
order to provide actionable business intelligence.
- Typically provide information on customer request and transactions,
as well as on customer responses to an organization’s marketing,
sales and service initiatives.
- Create statistical models of customer behavior and the value of
customer relationships over time, as well as forecasts of customer
acquisition, retention, and loss.
- Important technologies in analytical CRM systems include data
warehouses, data mining, decision support, and other business
intelligence technologies.
o Once analysis is complete, information is delivered to the
organization in the form of reports and digital dashboards.

- Analyzes customer data for a variety of purposes:

o Designing and executing targeted marketing campaigns
o Increasing customer acquisition, cross-selling, and up-selling
o Providing input into decisions relating to products and
services (e.g., pricing, and product development)
o Providing financial forecasting and customer profitability
analysis.

Supply chain management : Manage information flows between and among stages in a supply
chain to maximize supply chain efficiency and effectiveness. Help organizations plan, schedule,
control, and optimize supply chain from the acquisition of raw materials to the receipt of
finished goods by customers.

Components : plan, source, make, deliver, return

 - Process oriented , dealing with buyer and suppliers
- Multiple organizations involved
PROBLEM OF SUPPLY CHAIN
Bullwhip effect :
• Push model and forecasting errors leading to excess inventory and a reluctance along
the supply chain to share information

- Sales low
- Large wholesale order
- Larger manufacturer order
- Larger supplier order

Solutions to Bullwhip effect:

 Use the pull model = make-to order (for the bullwhip effect)
 Vertical integration or effective supplier management systems
 Effective inventory management, including just-in-time inventory systems or vendor-
managed inventory
 Sharing information, such as demand forecasts, perhaps with vendor-managed
inventory (VMI)
EXAMPLES!
Examples of supply chain activities include farming, refining, design,
manufacturing, packaging, and transportation. Because global supply chains are
both logistically and technologically complicated, there are now global supply
chain management specialists and firms who oversee the process for many
different retail companies.

Generic Supply Chain

The generic supply chain begins with the sourcing and extraction of raw materials. The
raw materials are then taken by a logistics to a supplier, which acts as the wholesaler.
Through logistics, the materials are taken to a manufacturer, or probably various
manufacturers who refine and process them into a finished product.

Afterward, it goes to a distributor that wholesales the finished product, which is next
delivered to a retailer. The retailer sells the product in a store to consumers. Once the
consumers buy it, it completes the cycle, but it’s their demand that then goes back and
drives the production of more raw materials, and the cycle continues.

Electronic data interchange (EDI): Communication standard that enables business partners to
exchange routine documents, such as purchasing orders, electronically.
Benefits:
- Minimizes data entry errors (each entry checked by computer), length of the message
may be shorter and the messages are secured, EDI reduces cycle time, increases
productivity, enhances customer service, and minimizes paper usage and storage.

Drawbacks:
- Involves a significant initial investment
- Ongoing operating costs are high, due to the use of expensive, private VANs.
- Traditional EDI system is inflexible
- Difficult to make quick changes, such as adding business partners.

- Long start-up period

- Business processes must sometimes be restructured to fit EDI requirements

- Many EDI standards in use today

- As a result, one company might have to use several standards in order to communicate
with different business partners.

Session 11

Data analysis :
On-line analytical processing (OLAP): Performing complex, multi-dimensional analyses of data
stored in a database or data warehouse.
Data mining: The process of searching for valuable business information in a large database,
data warehouse, or data mart.
- Performs two basic operations:
Predicting trends and behaviors

à Can use data from past promotional mailings to identify people who are most likely to
respond favorably to future mailings.
- Identifying previously unknown patterns
à Analyze retail sales data to discover seemingly
unrelated products that are often purchased
together.
à Detecting fraudulent credit card transactions

EXAMPLES OF TOOLS FOR DATA MINING:

- DSS
- DATA VISUALIZATION TECH
- DIGITAL DASHBOARDS
- VIRTUAL REALITY
Business Intelligence (BI): Information systems that provide computer- based support for
complex, non- routine decisions, primarily for middle managers and knowledge workers.
- One specific use of BI applications consists in monitoring and managing an organizations
performance according to key performance indicators such as revenue, return on
investment, overhead, and operational costs.

Artificial intelligence (AI): A subfield of computer science concerned with studying the thought
processes of humans and representing the effects of those processes via machines.

o Behavior by a machine that, if performed by a human being, would be considered intelligent.

Intelligence includes learning or understanding from experience, making sense of ambiguous

or contradictory messages, and responding quickly and successfully to new situations.

- Preserve knowledge
- Duplication / dissemination
- Cost of knowledge
- Documentability

o Turing test: A test for artificial intelligence in which a human

interviewer, conversing with both an unseen human being
and an unseen computer, cannot determine which is which;
named for English mathematician Alan Turing.

Digital dashboards and improved decision making :

All managers and executives (executive dashboards)
- Support all managers of the organization. They provide rapid access to timely
information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports. Tailored
dashboards to executive needs are called executive dashboards.
- Rapid exception reporting
- Drill down to detail
- Summarized through graphs
- Speed up decision making

- Rapid exception reporting capability

- Drill down into detail easily
- Summary view provided by means of graphical displays
- Help speed decision-making and analysis for corporate performance management
(Section 12.4)

Disadvantages:

 Extremely costly initial development cost; increases with complexity of data structures
  Will not be used by executive or senior management unless very user-friendly and easy
to use
 Costly to maintain

Decision support systems (DSS): System that combines models and data in an attempt to solve
semi- structured and some unstructured problems.

Advantages :

- Rapid analysis of multiple tools

- Risk analysis
- Integrated with source data
- Supports group work
- Faster decision making

Disadvantage

- Timely
- Faulty associations
- Difficult to re-use
- Used as an alternative to human decision making

Smaller organisations: excel sheet

Larger organisations : data mining, BI competitive , org wide

Fuzzy logic:
Precisely defines imprecise concepts to consider “grey” areas in decision making (e.g. Google
search)
Session 12

Information systems planning process

IT Strategic Plan
- A set of long-range goals that describe the IT infrastructure and
identify the major IT initiatives needed to achieve the organization’s
goals.
- Must meet 3 objectives:
o Must be aligned with the organization’s strategic plan

o Must provide for an IT architecture that enables users,

applications and databases to be seamlessly networked and
integrated.
o Must efficiently allocate IS development resources among
competing projects so the projects can be completed on time
and within budget and have the required functionality.

 IT Steering Committee provides oversight, approval, performance measures,

assessment
 IS operational plan sets out projects to be worked on in the short to medium term

IT Operational Plan
x Such plan consists of a clear set of projects that the IS department
and the functional area managers will execute in support of the IT
strategic plan.

x Consists of:
o Mission – The mission of the IS function (derived from the IT
strategy)
o IS environment – A summary of the information needs of the
functional areas and of the organization as a whole.
o Objectives of the IS function – The best current estimate of
the goals of the IS function.
o Constraints on the IS function – Technological, financial,
personnel, and other resource limitations on the IS function.
o The application portfolio – A prioritized inventory of present
applications and a detailed plan of projects to be developed or
continued during the current year.
o Resource allocation and project management: A listing of who
is going to do what, how, and when.

IT planning is crucial when developing a new product or service, such as the

drug-dispensing kiosks.

Information Technology Architecture

x A high-level map or plan of the information assets in an
organization.
o A guide for current operations and a blueprint for future
directions.
o Analogous to an architecture of a house. Shows how all
aspects of information technology in an organization fit
together.

SDLC with supporting tools

The Traditional System Development Life Cycle:
x Systems development life cycle (SDLC): Traditional structured
framework, used for large IT projects, that consists of sequential
processes by which information systems are developed.
o Consists of six processes:
Systems investigations
à Addresses the business problem
à Main task is the feasibility study
à Three basic solutions to any business problem
include:
x Do nothing
x Modify or enhance the exiting system
x Develop a new system
à Feasibility study: Investigation that gauges the
probability of success of a proposed project and
provides a rough assessment of the project's
feasibility.
x Provides a rough estimate in the technical,
economic, and behavioral feasibility.

à After feasibility study is conducted a GO or NO-GO

decision is reached by the IT Steering Committee.

Find more on www.studymaterial.ca

x IT steering committee: A committee,

composed of a group of managers and staff
representing various organizational units,
set up to establish IT priorities and to
ensure that the management information
systems function is meeting the needs of
the enterprise.

Systems analysis: The examination of the business

problem that the organization plans to solve with an
information system.
à Most difficult aspect is identifying what
requirements need to be met.
à When requirements are suffice it proceeds to the
next step

Systems design: Specifications that describe how the

new system will provide a solution to the business
problem.
à Specifies the following:
x System outputs, inputs, and user interfaces
x Hardware, software, databases,
telecommunications, personnel, and
procedures
x A blueprint of how these components are
integrated

à Once specs are agreed upon, it should be frozen.

x Scope creep: The addition of functions to
an information system after the project has
begun.
Programming and testing
à Programming: The translation of a system's
design specifications into computer code.
x Lengthy and time consuming
à The translation of a system's design specifications
into computer code.

Implementation: The process of converting from an

old computer system to a new one.
Find more on www.studymaterial.ca

à Three major conversion strategies:

x Direct conversion: Implementation
process in which the old system is cut off
and the new system is turned on at a
certain point in time.
x Pilot conversion: Implementation process
that introduces the new system in one part
of the organization on a trial basis; when
the new system is working properly, it is
introduced in other parts of the
organization.
x Phased conversion: Implementation
process that introduces components of the
new system in stages, until the entire new
system is operational.
Operation and maintenance
à Operates until needs replacement
à Maintenance includes debugging, updating, and
adding new functions.

o Systems analysts: IS professionals who specialize in

analyzing and designing information systems.
o Programmers: IS professionals who modify existing
computer programs or write new computer programs to
satisfy user requirements.
o Technical specialists: Experts on a certain type of
technology, such as databases or telecommunications.
o Systems stakeholders: All people who are affected by
changes in information systems.

Prototyping: An approach that defines an initial list of user

requirements, builds a prototype system, and then improves the
system in several iterations based on users' feedback.

Joint application design (JAD): A group- based tool for collecting

user requirements and creating system designs.

Computer-aided software engineering (CASE): Development

approach that uses specialized tools to automate many of the tasks
in the systems development life cycle; upper CASE tools automate
the early stages of the life cycle, and lower CASE tools automate
the later stages.
knnk