Approaches to

Sustainable Development Unit 2

Change, Modernisation and Development
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Social Change: Concept, Characteristics and Causes
2.3 Perspective of Social Change
2.4 Modernisation: Concept and Features
2.5 Perspectives on Modernisation
2.6 Critics of Modernisation Theories
2.7 Development: Conditions and Barriers
2.8 Observations About Recent Development Experience
2.9 Conclusion
2.10 Further Reading

Learning Objectives
This unit will help you analyse:
• the various concepts of change, modernisation and development;
• perspectives of change, modernisation and development;
• conditions and barriers of change, modernisation and development; and
• developmental experiences of India.

2.1 Introduction
In the earlier unit of this block we have discussed development from the
perspective of progress, evolution and growth. In this unit we shall discuss
development from the perspective of change and modernisation. In the earlier
unit, you must have noticed that along with the processes of evolution,
progress and growth we have also touched upon change and modernisation
linked to the issues of development in human society. In this unit we will
specifically learn in greater detail how the processes of change and
modernisation have been linked to the question of development.

This unit begins with a discussion on the major characteristic features of

social change and its causes. Sociologists and anthropologists have perceived
the process of change from diverse perspectives. We have presented a glimpse
of these perspectives on change here. In comparison to change, modernisation
is a relatively new concept. It is also a new process. Besides describing features
and perspectives of modernisation we have also presented a critique of this
concept. The last section of this unit deals with the process of development,
various conditions that facilitate and hinder the process of development. This
unit also presents a few developmental experiences.

2.2 Social Change: Concept, Characteristics and

Causes
One of the central concern of the sociology of development is change. In
societies of all times there is change affecting every realm of life — social,
economic, cultural, technological, demographic, ecological and so on. Social
scientists have underlined social change in terms of a change in relationships,
organisation, culture, institution, structure and functioning of the social system.
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According to MacIver and Page (1949), social change is a change in social References
relationship. It is a process responsive to many types of changes, to changes
in man-made conditions of living, to changes in attitudes and beliefs of men
and to changes that go beyond human control to the biological and physical
nature of things. To Lundberg, “Social change refers to any modification in
established patterns of inert-human relationships and standards of conduct.”
In a similar vein, Judson R. Landis (1960) writes, “Social change refers to
change in the strucure and functioning of the social relationships of society.”
Koenig feels “Social change refers to the modifications which occur in the life
patterns of people.” According to M.E. Jones, “Social change is a term used
to describe variations in or modifications of any aspect of social processes,
social patterns, social interaction or social organisation.”

By social change, Kingsley Davis (1949) meant only such alterations that affect
the organisation, structure and functions of society. Robert A. Nisbet (1969)
views social change as a succession of differences in time within a persisting
identity. To John J. Macionis (1997) social change is “the transformation of
culture and social institutions over time.”

There are few identifiable characters of social change. Some of them are as
follows: that social change happens everywhere, but the rate of change varies
from place to place; that social change is sometimes intentional but often
unplanned; that social change may generate controversy; that some changes
matter more than others do. For example, the invention of personal computers
was more important than, say, patch dolls (Macionis 1997).

Causes of Social Change

Social change is caused by various factors. Let us highlight some of these
causes here.

i) Cultural Change: A large part of change in society is caused by change in

culture. Culture is a system that constantly loses and gains components.
Invention, discovery and diffusion are considered to be the main sources
of cultural change. Inventions produce new products, ideas, and social
patterns. It is a new combination or a new use of existing knowledge.
Inventions may be classified into material (telephone, aeroplane) and
social inventions (alphabet, language, government, etc.). Each invention
is new in form, function and meaning and has long-term possibilities of
impact.

Discovery is finding something that has never been found before, or

finding something new in something that already exists. A discovery adds
something new to the culture and becomes a factor in social change only
when it is put to use.

Diffusion is a process of the spreading of ideas, culture and objects to

other societies. It operates both within societies and between societies
involving trading, migration, and mass communication. It is indeed a two
way process.

ii) Ideas and Change: New ideas and modification of old ideas in a new
context bring wide-scale changes in society. For example, Max Weber
established that rationalisation of religious ideas brought about phenomenal
change in Protestant world.

iii) Demographic Change: Demographic change is caused by an increase in

birth and decline in death, and migration of populations. Change occurs
from the demographic transition in society.

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Approaches to iv) Conflict and Change: Social change is also caused by tension and conflict.
Sustainable Development Structural strain, deprivation, cultural revitalisation have been the major
causes of conflict. Again social division based on class, caste, gender,
ethnicity, estate, etc. have also been important sources of conflict in
society.

v) Social Movements and Change: Social movements are organised efforts of

groups of people to bring about deliberate change in the values, norms,
institutions, culture relationships and traditions of the society. They also
generate new identities and a new perspective.

Reflection and Action 2.1

Social change is caused by so many broad social processes like urbanisation,
industrialisation, modernisation, westernisation, globalisation, spread of education
and literacy, enactment of new laws, penetration of mass media and
communication networks and so on. Many of these process are interrelated.
Select anyone of these social processes and try to explain its impact on change
in your society.

2.3 Perspective of Social Change

In the previous unit, we have discussed the perspectives on developments in
greater detail. Change represents a broad canvas or contour for development,
progress, transformation, growth, modernisation and so on. We have specifically
explained these processes in the previous unit. Let us now examine briefly
how these perspectives have been used to explain change.

i) Evolutionary Perspective
In the second half of the nineteenth century, the concept of evolution assumed
a central place in explanations of all forms of human development in both the
social and biological sciences for example, Morgan's three epochs of humanity
i.e., savagery, barbarism and civilisation and Auguste Comte’s ideas of human
intellect. Comte argues, human intellect passing through three historical phases
of sophistication: the theological, the metaphysical and the positive. Spencer’s
view is that of human societies passing through a course of natural
development, from relatively simple patterns of organisation to more complex
structures, characterised by an increasing specialisation of parts.

ii) The Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective can best be understood in terms of tension and
conflict between groups and individuals and here change is viewed as an
intrinsic process in society. To Karl Marx, social changes take place based on
the antagonistic class relations based on ownership of the means of production;
between the haves and the have-nots and that this class struggle culminates
into a revolutionary change in society with its progression from ancient to
feudal and finally from feudal to capitalist stage of development in society.
According to Coser, conflict is an inevitable part of the socialisation process
and no social groups can be completely harmonious as individuals have a
predisposition for love as well as hate. Thus conflict acts as a creative force
that stimulates change in society, constructive or destructive.

While Karl Marx has identified class and class conflict based on unequal
distribution of material resources, Daharendorf has identified the same in
terms of unequal distribution of authority. According to Dahrendorf, all groups
in society are divided into those who have authority and those who do not
and conflict arises because of unequal distribution of authority in society. This
conflict on unequal distribution of authority leads to change in society.

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iii) The Structural-Functional Perspective References

To structural-functional theorists, society consists of interrelated parts that

work together for the purpose of maintaining internal balance. It perceives
roles as locating individuals in social positions, and providing them with
articulated sets of expectations specifying the rights and duties of occupants.
This perspective is oriented towards order and stability and preservation of
the status quo. Let us examine how various scholars have perceived change
in this perspective.

Durkheim has observed change in terms of change in the nature of division of

labour in society. He believed that the change in labour from traditional society
to modern society was the cause for social change. According to Talcott Parsons,
society is a system surrounded by three other systems — personality, the
organism and culture. There is social equilibrium when the boundaries of the
three systems are maintained, and social change results from boundary breaking.
Ogburn's theory reasons that societies operate as homogeneous mechanisms
and that changes that upset the equilibrium in one part tends to produce
compensating changes to restore that equilibrium. To him all aspects of culture,
i.e., material or non-material do not change at an equal rate. This creates the
phenomenon of cultural lag that ultimately leads to change in society.

iv) Social-Psychological Perspective

These theories posit that activities of people constitute the essence of change
in society and modifications in the behaviour can facilitate change and play
an essential role in social development.

Max Weber thought that modernity was replacing traditional views with a
rational way of thinking. In pre-industrial societies traditional views obstructed
change, things were the way they were because that is what everyone believed
and no one questioned it. In modern societies, things were questioned and
answers were calculated.

According to Everette E.Hagen, traditional societies are characterised by fixed

status levels and the personalities of the members are authoritarian, uncreative
and noninnovational. On the contrary, in modern society, the predominant
personality type is innovational, characterised by attributes such as creativity,
curiosity and openness to experience. Change takes place when members
experience what he terms withdrawal of status respect. This is nothing but
disregard for one's role in society or for one's beliefs and aspirations.

David McClelland focused his study on what he called need for achievement,
symbolized by 'n' achievement. According to him, the greater the development
of the 'n' factor the greater the economic development in any society.
Consequently, there are certain behaviour characteristics exhibited by people
with this 'n' factor, such as individualism, energetic innovative activity, drive
for success and so on. In simple words, individual economic achievement
produces economic growth.

Reflection and Action 2.2

What do we sociologically mean by change? Compare and contrast between the
evolutionary and structural functionalist views on social change.

2.4 Modernisation: Concept and Features

Modernisation is a conceptual framework that articulated a common set of
assumptions about the nature of developed societies and their ability to
transform a world perceived as both materially and culturally deficient.
Specifically, Modernisation theorists posited a sharp distinction between
traditional (read poor) and modern (read Western) societies. They took for
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Approaches to granted that economic development, from traditional to modern, proceeded
Sustainable Development along a single, straight, unambiguous line. Modernisation advocates expected
that contact with vital modern societies would accelerate progress in stagnant
traditional societies.

a) Concept of “Modernisation”
According to scholars, the process of modernisation sums up the changes that
combine to convert an agricultural or underdeveloped society with a weak
state into an industrialised society with a relatively efficient, active government.
The modernisation process embraces changes that leads up to this
industrialisation and urbanisation.

According to Wilbert Moore, “modernisation is a ‘total’ transformation of a

traditional or pre-modern society into the types of technology and associated
social organisation that characterizes the advanced, economically prosperous
and relatively stable nations of the Western World”. Similarly, Daniel Lerner
defined modernisation as “the process of social change in which development
is the economic component”.

In his major work The Passing of Traditional Society (1958), Daniel Lerner
examined the process of modernisation in several Middle East countries, carried
out a sample survey in other underdeveloped societies and supplemented all
this with his observations of village society.

Lerner’s premise is that Modernisation is a global process occurring in a similar

manner the world over, and the role of indices of development like mass
media, urbanisation, increase in literacy, etc. are responsible for the emergence
of a new economic order. According to Lerner, modernity is result of not
merely institutional changes in society but also due to changes in the personality
of people. He had illustrated this with his account of the grocer and the chef
in the village of Balgat situated in Turkey.

For Lerner one of the crucial aspects of modernisation is the development of

a “mobile personality” which is characterised by rationality and empathy.
Empathy is the capacity to see oneself in the other person’s situation, and
this enables people to operate efficiently in a changing world. Modernisation,
then, is characterised by a high degree of literacy, urbanism, media participation
and empathy. To him, compared to the “traditional” individuals, the “modern
individual” are happier, better informed and relatively young, and the people
placed in the “transitional” category are inclined to be discontented and liable
to extremism, especially their progress is blocked by a lack of suitable political
institutions.
But Lerner was aware of the fact that although the people placed in the
“modern” category seemed happier, there were difficulties in development,
for example, strains may be put on the government, there are problems of
social control, etc. Similarly, there are personal problems at an individual level,
for example, individuals placed in the “transitional” category may have to
adjust traditional Arab and Muslim beliefs to a “modern” setting.

b) Features of Modernisation
Based on this line of thinking, the main featurse of modernisation may be
summed up as follows:

i) It emphasises a high degree of structural differentiation and specialisation.

ii) It is based on a mode of production that has come to be known as the

capitalist mode of production. It is implied from this that social order is
constituted around two important classes — Capitalist, which owns the
means of production, and the Working Class, which sells its labour in this
process.
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iii) It is essentially a wage labour economy. It highlights the growth of a References
market economy in which both buyers and sellers are seen as individuals
capable of engaging in a rational choice and operating within a framework
of voluntarism.

iv) It highlights the growth of bureaucratic institutions, which themselves

are constructed on principles of rationality and role differentiation. It is
these bureaucratic organisations that are seen as being the foundations
of this theory. The entire gamut of institutions that maintains and regulates
social order are seen as bureaucratic.

v) It emphasises the growth of a political system based on the principle of

right as crystallised within the notion of state and mediated through a
set of constitutional principles.

vi) The powers of the state are absolute and there is a democratic process
based on the principle of political representation and adult franchise.

vii) This process of democratisation of society has led to the existence of

various interest groups within the political process who represent various
competing ideologies that highlight the different ways in which the affairs
of the state are to be managed.

viii) Modernisation process also emphasises the growth of individualism, wherein

the individual and individual rights are seen as being at the center of all
social, economic and political development.

ix) Finally, the modernisation processes also emphasise the idea of social
progress and through the process of democratisation it is possible for
societies to achieve higher levels of individual and social emancipation.

2.5 Perspectives On Modernisation

From the sociological point of view, the process of modernisation has yielded
a vast amount of writing. There is no unified perspective on modernisation.
We will analyse the following perspectives:

a) The Ideal-Typical
b) The Diffusionist
c) The Psychological
d) The Marxist

The first three perspectives have dominated American thought and received
immense support and patronage all over, especially in the nineteen fifties and
sixties. The fourth approach has emerged as a challenge to the other three
approaches and offers a critique of their main tenets.

Similarly, the Marxist perspective has also contested the other four perspectives.
a) The Ideal-Typical Perspective
This approach has manifested itself in two major variants, namely:
i) The Pattern Variable Perspective
ii) Historical Stage Perspective
i) The Pattern Variable Perspective
This perspective is derived from Max Weber’s concept of “ideal type” which
was later systematised by Talcott Parson. According to this perspective,
characteristics of development and underdevelopment must be identified and

33
Approaches to then programmes and schemes of development should be made whereby
Sustainable Development underdeveloped countries discard the pattern variables of underdevelopment
and adopt those of development.

Inspired by the work of Talcott Parsons, Smelser elucidated that the

modernisation process was made up of four sub-processes:

i) The modernisation of technology, leading to a change from simple

traditionalised techniques to the application of scientific knowledge;

ii) The commercialisation of agriculture, which is characterised by the move

from subsistence to commercial farming, leading to a specialisation in
cash-crop production and the development of wage-labour;

iii) Industrialisation, which depicts the transition from the use of human and
animal power to machine power;

iv) Urbanisation, which brings about the movement from farm and village to
the large urban centers.

These processes sometimes occur simultaneously and sometimes at different

times. For example, in many colonial situations, agriculture becomes
commercialised without industrialisation. Nevertheless, these four processes
affect the social structure of traditional society in similar ways.

Firstly, as a result of these changes taking place simultaneously or at different

rates, traditional societies became more structurally differentiated. For Smelser,
a developed economy and society is characterised by a highly differentiated
structure, whilst an underdeveloped one is relatively lacking in differentiation.
By “differentiation” Smelser meant the process by which more specialised and
more autonomous social units were established. He saw this as occurring in
several different spheres of traditional society, in the economy, the family, the
political system and religious institutions.
So, structural differentiation is the process whereby one social role or
organisation differentiates into two or more roles or organisations which
function more effectively in the new historical circumstances. The new social
units are structurally distinct from each other, but taken together are
functionally equivalent to the original unit.
Secondly, as these differentiated units merge into larger units of the modern
type, new relationships, which are not based on kinship, develop. This, Smelser
calls, the process of integration.
Thirdly, Smelser shows that through such differentiation, social disturbances,
such as mass hysteria, outbursts of violence, religious and political movements
may occur, which reflect uneven processes of change. This can lead to conflict
between the old and new orders of society. In other words, it produces what
Durkheim called “anomie” or normlessness — a state of conflicting norms in
society and a culture of discontent, where people are unable to realise their
aspirations and may turn to violence, crime and other anti-social behaviour or
to self-destructive acts such as suicide. As Weber also showed, at the religious
level the process of secularisation causes disenchantment, fragmentation
between competing or partial world-views, social and private worlds become
meaningless and there is a sense of despair and hopelessness. One of the
reactions to modernisation has been the emergence of fundamentalist
movements that reject modern values and preach a return to traditional ones.

ii) Historical Stage Perspective

In this perspective apart from identification of the gap between characteristics
of development and underdevelopment, it also specifies the intermediate
stages and their characteristics. This perspective is mainly associated with
Rostow and his economic model developed in 1960.
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Walt Rostow was an economic historian who served as an adviser to the References
American government. His book, entitled The Stages of Economic Growth: A
Non-Communist Manifesto (1960) was pre-capitalist and neo-evolutionary in
nature and derived from the idea of an earlier evolutionary theory that change
and development take place according to a set of ordered sequences.

According to Rostow, the processes of change are simpler and self-sustaining.

Economic growth could be achieved by following a five-stage model of growth.
He suggested that “all societies can be placed in one of five categories, or
stages of economic growth”.

The first stage; The Traditional Society: The essential feature of this society
is that output is limited because of the inaccessibility of science and
technology. Values are generally “fatalistic”, and political power is non-
centralised. Large number of people are employed in agriculture, which has
very low productivity because of the factors mentioned above. In such a
society, family and clan groupings are emphasized in the social organisation.

The second stage; The Preconditions for Take-Off: This second stage of growth
is one of transition. A traditional society does not move directly into the
process of industrialisation; first certain preliminaries need to take place.
There are clusters of new ideas favouring economic progress arising and
therefore new levels of education, entrepreneurship, and institutions capable
of mobilising capital like banks, etc. Investment increases, especially in transport,
communications and raw materials, with a general direction towards commercial
expansion. But, in accordance with Rostow, traditional social structures and
production techniques remain the same. There is the presence of a “dual
society”.

The third stage; The Take-Off: In this stage finally the old, traditional order
and resistances are overcome. New forces, which trigger economic growth,
expand and dominate the society. Agriculture is commercialised, there is a
growth in productivity because that is necessary if the demand emanating
from expanding urban centers is to be met. New political groups representing
new economic groups push the industrial economy to new heights. In Britain,
Canada and the United States, the proximate stimulus for take-off was mainly,
though not entirely, technological. The take-off period began in Britain after
1783, in France and in United Sates around 1840, in Russia in about 1890 and
in countries like India and China around 1950.

The fourth stage; The Drive to Maturity: In this stage, the growing economy
drives to extend modern technology in all its economic activities. Between 10
and 20 per cent of gross domestic product is invested and the economy takes
its place in the international order. Technology becomes more complex, refined
and there is a move away from heavy industry. Now production is not the
outcome of social necessity but of the need of maximising profits to survive
in a competitive capitalist market.

The fifth stage; Mass Consumption: In this final stage, the leading economic
sectors specialise in durable consumer goods and services. At this stage,
economic growth makes sure that basic needs are satisfied and more resources
are allocated for social welfare and social security. The emergence of the
welfare state is an example. Durable consumer goods and services are diffused
on a mass basis.

Rostow thought of his theory as a dynamic one i.e. “that deals not only
with economic factors but also with social decisions and policies of
governments”.

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Approaches to
Sustainable Development Reflection and Action 2.3
What do you mean by modernisation? How is the ideal-typical perspective on
modernisation different from historical stage perspective as suggested by
Rostow?

b) The Diffusionist Perspective

This approach views development as a process in which there is a diffusion of
cultural elements from the developed to the underdeveloped countries. The
underlying assumption is that the underdeveloped countries cannot overcome
their backwardness without assistance from the developed countries. There
is diffusion of capital, technology, knowledge, skills, institutions including values
and so on. These scholars perceive this aid as a sacrifice on the part of the
developed countries for the benefit of the backward and suffering
underdeveloped countries. If still a society does not reach the level of modernity
and development as projected by them, then it is blamed on the inherent
weaknesses present in the underdeveloped-backward societies, like
demographic factors, presence of traditional institutions, beliefs, values, etc.

c) The Psychological Perspective

This approach is mainly associated with McClelland, Kunkel, Hagen and others.
According to McClelland as mentioned earlier in this unit, a society with a high
level of achievement will produce energetic entrepreneurs who, in turn, will
produce more rapid economic development. This is because a high level of
achievement among people makes them behave in ways which help them fulfill
their entrepreneurial roles successfully. Therefore, the crucial factor for
economic and cultural development, according to this approach, is the presence
of achievement motivation among members. This leads to planned and
concentrated growth and development.

d) The Marxian Perspective

This approach accepts the fundamentals of the Marxist philosophical and
sociological postulates. According to this approach, the underdevelopment of
some countries and the development of others is linked to the emergence of
the modern capitalist system on a global scale. So the causes of under
development and the problems arising out of this are blamed on the growth
of capitalism.

According to this theory, the relationship between the developed capitalist

countries and the underdeveloped countries is not one of harmony and
cooperation, instead there is a subtle and indirect subjugation of the latter
under the guise of “aid”. It is argued that the developed world is transforming
the underdeveloped societies into their neo-colonial dependencies and the
entire image of “aid”, “assistance”, “support” and diffusion of skills, techniques,
capital and modernised institutions and values is false and deceptive. The aid
itself is seen as the basic obstacle to overcome backwardness.

Followers of this approach further state that the policies and schemes for
development pursued by the ruling class of the advanced capitalist countries
are based on a theory of development which relies on strengthening and
furthering the interests of the propertied class and the rich.

Therefore it is postulated that a policy of development will only be successful

if it is based on achieving the reliance of the working class.

2.6 Critics of Modernisation Theories

In analysing the assets of the modernisation theories, it should be understood
36 that this school of thought emerged in the early years of the 1950s, and began
to disappear in the 1970s when belief in it started to wane. In the light of References
this, it could be presupposed that the weaknesses of modernisation theories
outnumber its strengths; otherwise the theories would still be relevant today.

a) The Strengths
The main quality of the modernisation theory is its simplicity — the objective
is already visible in the image of the West, and the path to follow is laid out
by the history of Western evolution. All that remains is for the traditional
society to recognise what is needed, from examination of other “take-offs”
to modernity, for their own culture to evolve. Having already achieved their
goal, the modern societies can assist in the evolution of the traditional society
(although in reality this is far from the truth), by reference to their own
history, and so essentially modernisation becomes a form of mimicking — a
case of “what works for them should work for us”. The same concept was
already covered in the term “Westernisation” (effectively referring to the
mimicking of the West), but the word “Modernisation” has far less geocentric
connotations, and as a result gains much more affection from developing
societies who are keen to retain some sense of their own history.

b) The Weaknesses
However, the strengths of the modernisation theory also lead to its weaknesses.
A few of them are presented below:

i) The straightforward approach of advancing a society by way of itself evolving

internally is, though easy to grasp and as such having strong exterior
appeal, far too basic to incorporate into the world system we see today.
The very fact that there are modernised societies to “look up to” entails
that a communication and possible co-operation between North and South
already exists, and that there are therefore links and ties already in place
— not necessarily to the extent that dependency theorists would go,
arguing that the South cannot grow without the severing off the North’s
stranglehold, but nonetheless significant ties in the organisation of society,
which mean that the target society cannot be solely regarded as an internal
entity; there is little hope of avoiding international factors in today’s
global village.

To resolve this, some thinkers have developed the theory of diffusionism

(already dealt with earlier), which bears many of the characteristics of
modernisation, but accepts the diffusion of ideas, products, and workforce
between both modernised and traditional societies.

A culture can be changed sub-consciously and indeed overnight, in ways

that may not be intended or in accordance with planned evolution.
Modernisation may be revolutionary in that it replaces the traditional with
the modern, but it must also be considered that revolutions can take
some time — they are not an instantaneous event.

ii) Another criticism put forth is that while the developing countries struggle
to update its social, political, and economic structures to those of the
developed countries, it is extremely likely that the modernised country
will continue to grow at the same or possibly faster rate that the developing
country will find if difficult to catch up.

Though global evolutionary equality is not a particular goal of the

modernisation theory, it is surely one of the aims of development as a
whole, and something that is worth pursuing. If this “closing of the gap”
cannot be easily achieved by the performance of an established theory,
such as seems to be the case with modernisation, then it is clearly not
a comprehensive cure for the problem of development.
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Approaches to iii) It is also argued that since the modernisation theory is typically a Western
Sustainable Development phenomenon, its roots obviously must lie around capitalist society — the
developing world is to be a mirror image of the civilised world which
generally embraces capitalism. For example, it is automatically assumed by
thinkers like Rostow that this is the correct way for an underdeveloped
society to develop, without considering the implications or alternatives
(See Critique of Rostow).

iv) Rostow has been criticised by many on the basis of the teleological
approach. Teleological approach is one where the purpose, which is not
explicitly intended by anyone, is fulfilled while the process of fulfillment
is presented as an inevitable sequence of events. In Rostow’s model,
policies are the result of development and not vise versa, and this is
unacceptable to many, as policies of a state should be chosen and not just
merely adopted. It is felt by many scholars that the characteristics of
stages identified by Rostow might overlap or spill into the other stages.
For example, the pre-conditions stage things may continue in the take-off
stage and could also get carried further beyond this stage. Critics feel that
Rostow plays down all the obstacles and never discusses them. Therefore,
it is felt by many that his approach is conceptually vague and empirically
superficial. In the take–off stage, it is felt that merely a shift from agriculture
to other sectors is not enough. For example, while Denmark, Canada and
France attained this shift, in other countries like Russia, Sweden, Germany,
etc. it did not take place to the extent conceived by Rostow. Similarly, it
has also been pointed out by experts that Rostow failed to take into
consideration other aspects, like the “bumps, crashlandings and nosedive
crashes” in his take-off stage.

Rostow also failed to consider that an economy could reach the fifth stage
without going through all the stages or a particular stage. For instance, it
has been pointed out that countries like Canada and Australia entered the
stage of mass consumption even before reaching the stage of maturity.
This was happening, in recent times, with the oil rich countries also.
There are limits to a particular country’s growth. As there might be instances
when a particular country should be regarded as “fully developed” even
though it might not have reached the standards of the Western countries
like the U.S.A, because it might have exhausted all its natural resources,
manpower and capital, which set the limit of growth. With respect to the
less developed countries, it is felt that Rostow did not take into account
crucial factors like unemployment, underemployment, poverty, lack of
infrastructure, nature of the government, etc.

v) The most well known reaction to theories of modernisation is that of its

antithesis, the Theory of Dependency. The dependency theory takes a far
more global view and postulates that the difficulties in development are
not due solely to the internal workings of the country or region in question,
but have more to do with the global structures imposed by the developed
onto the less developed. This is best illustrated by Andre Gunder Frank’s
conceptualisation of international relations as a chain of “metropolis-
satellite” relationships. Frank (of the socialist tradition) suggests that there
is an unseen hierarchical structure to world relations: the chain begins
with the first metropolis (usually attributed to the USA) that has no
satellites i.e., that has no strong dependencies on any other region and
continues downwards; the next layer consists of still strong metropolises,
but still require the USA or other well-developed Western societies in
some way; until much further down we reach the ultimate satellite, which
is dependent on everything above it for existence. Frank argues that
these dependence links are both the key and the problem when an inability
to develop arises. The sanctions imposed, often consciously, by the
metropolises to which the satellite is dependent, strip the freedom of the
38
 satellite society to evolve and grow, because all of their output is effectively References
consumed by the upper society.

This theory is actually visible in reality, with the situation revolving around
aid to the Third World, where the interest rates and terms are so harshly
imposed that the recipient country will always be at the mercy of the
donor. Frank feels that it is the dismantling of these dependency relations
that is the solution to the problem of development: notably, though, this
is a very socialist perspective, since the release of such restrictions allows
for much freer and potentially diverse global system, one which does not
fit well with traditional capitalist characteristics.

The connection this has with modernisation theory is simple: both have
equal merits, even though they are completely opposed in attributes, but
the question of which is most suitable is dependent on the belief of the
observer — those brought up and embroiled in a capitalist society, and
who believe in the benefits of capitalism, may be more likely to prefer
modernisation theory. On the other hand, a neo-Marxist will almost certainly
stick with theories of dependency. Clearly it is only the completely impartial
spectator that can truly judge the pros and cons of both concepts.

vi) Finally, it has been pointed out that modernisation theory itself has
produced nothing truly visible yet. This is not because there has been no
development in the past 50 years. There has been evolution related to
both fields of thought, but the theories themselves are so indistinct and
vague. Modernisation theory does not paint a very precise picture of
what should be happening, and more particularly, how it should be
occurring. As a motivational aid, this theory is an excellent boost to the
drive of a developing society, but it is not the solution. What is, remains
to be seen.

Reflection and Action 2.4

Write a critique of modernisation based on your understanding of the dependency
theory of development.

2.7 Development: Conditions and Barriers

Now that we have covered the concepts of social change, modernisation and
the theories of modernisation, let us move on to the last sub topic of this
unit, i.e., development.

There is no definite definition of development. It is inescapadly a normative

term, which at times has meant economic growth, structural economic change,
autonomous industrialisation, capitalism or socialism, self-actualisation, and
individual, national, regional and cultural self-reliance. Notwithstanding such
variations there has been a large agreement on the fact that human beings are
at the center of development and that economic growth is a means to an end,
i.e., human development.

Development is a function of society’s capacity to organise human energies

and productive resources to respond to opportunities and challenges. Scholars
often trace the emergence of higher, more complex, more productive levels of
social organisation through the stages of nomadic hunting, rural agrarian, urban,
commercial, industrial and post-industrial societies. And in the process try to
examine ways by which new activities were introduced by pioneers, imitated,
resisted, accepted, organised, institutionalised and assimilated into a culture.
Organisational development takes place on a foundation of four levels of
infrastructure — physical, social, mental and psychological. All these four types
of resources contribute to development, of which only the most material are
inherently limited in nature. The productivity of resources increases enormously 39
Approaches to as the level of organisation and input of knowledge rises. The human resource
Sustainable Development is recognised as the driving force and primary determinant of development.

The evolution of social institutions acts as a powerful stimulas for development

by increasing the frequency, intensity and efficiency of social interactions.
This evolution has moved through three successive but overlapping stages of
development — physical, vital, and mental – which can be described in terms
of the type of organisation predominant during that stage.

Box 2.1: Role of Urbanisation, Money and Internet in Development

Cities till today are physical organisations where people, activities, fields of life,
resources and infrastructure are accumulated at high levels of concentration and
interact in complex ways. The growth of population and urban population density
increases the intensity of these interactions, creating the critical mass needed
for the emergence of markets and in the process generates sufficient demand
to spur mechanisation of production.

Money plays a parallel role at the social level as a medium for urbanisation and
multiplies economic activities by several orders of magnitude. The establishment
of a money economy frees individuals from dependence on land as an essential
resource for production and frees commerce from the double coincidence needed
for barter trade. Money increases the frequency and speed of transactions in
virtually every field of activity by making it possible for people to convert the
fruits of their labour into a common currency that can be exchanged for any
products or services. Money also provides incentives for people to produce more
than they can consume, releasing greater energy and creativity. It serves as a
medium for conservation and storage of what each person produces and permits
easy transfer over any distance, thereby overcoming limitations imposed by
time and space and dramatically increases the efficiency of transactions.

The internet plays a similar role at the mental level of information and knowledge
and acts as a medium to organise globalisation. Today, the internet is increasing
the frequency, speed and efficiency of information exchange in every field —
commercial, industrial, educational, scientific, political, religious, recreational,
etc. The Internet also overcomes the limits of time and space by enabling
instantaneous access to information around the world. It increases enormously
the number, intricacy and complexity of interactions made possible between
individuals, organisations, facts, activities and fields of knowledge. It is acting
as an organised medium for bringing all existing social organisations into greater
contact to release the maximum energy of society and thus lead to unprecedented
levels of social productivity and development.

i) Suggested Conditions For Development

Surplus energy, awareness of opportunities and the aspiration for advancement
are pre-conditions that prepare society for new development initiatives. This
is not a linear process. The three factors interact with one another in complex
ways to generate a growing pressure and ground swell of new activities.
Accomplishment at a previous level helps release energy and aspiration for
further accomplishment. Energy makes for greater alertness and awareness.
Awareness of what others are doing evokes greater aspirations and provokes
energetic responses. The process spirals back on itself, constantly reinforcing
the forward momentum, while at the same time each new level of achievement
brings a certain measure of satisfaction and security that relieve the pressure
for further effort. Alternations between rising urge and rising satisfaction are
one reason for the modulating rhythm of progress and stagnation that is often
observed.

When these three factors are present in requisite measure, the society is
subconsciously prepared for change. Let us try to understand each of them.

40
a) Energy References

Excess energy is an essential condition for development. The onset and speed
of physical and biological reactions depends on seed crystals, catalysts, essential
nutrients, the frequency and intensity of interaction between elements, and
conducive environmental conditions. So also, the onset and speed of social
development depends on the seeding of new ideas in society, awareness of
new opportunities, social aspirations and attitudes to change, the catalytic
role of individuals, the presence of essential resources and instruments, the
frequency and intensity of social interactions, social preparedness and support
for new activities.

Development is an expression of social creativity. It requires immense

investment of creative energy for society to experiment with new modes of
activity, take the risks associated with change, break the active resistance
and passive inertia of fixed habits, raise standards of functioning to higher
levels, acquire new skills and build higher order organisations. Moving from
one level of social organisation to another requires the accumulation of surplus
energy as in the conversion of matter from a liquid to a gaseous state.
Development is the result of surplus energy moving vertically and being organised
at a higher level, rather than merely being spent in horizontal expansion at
the same level. The higher-level organisation is able to utilise the energy more
productively.

Indomitable energy has been an outstanding trait of great political leaders

such as Napoleon, Churchill and Gandhi and business leaders such as Andrew
Carnegie, Henry Ford, and Tom Watson of IBM. Inventor Thomas Alva Edison
was known to work for days on end without sleep in the process of developing
1,100 patentable inventions and founding the General Electric Company.
Organisations that are growing rapidly share the same characteristic, which is
apparent even to casual visitors to high tech companies in Silicon Valley.
Energy is highly visible in progressive urban centers around the globe, from
New York and London to Hong Kong and Tokyo. It is, therefore, not surprising
that this characteristic is found abundant in societies that have achieved high
levels of development or that it becomes increasingly pervasive as societies
enter the take-off phase.

The importance of surplus energy is most dramatically illustrated by two

conditions under which it is unable to accumulate or express itself – war and
dictatorship. War destroys infrastructure and interferes with production and
trade. It physically saps the energy and resources of a country. The threat of
war keeps those energies perpetually directed towards self-defense, rather
than self-development. Dictatorship, on the other hand, can spur development
efforts up to a point, using the threat or pressure of coercion to channel
initiative in desired directions. But dictatorship also blocks the free emergence
of new ideas and fresh initiatives, which are the seeds of social innovation.
It can ensure obedience to authority but does not spur entrepreneurship and
innovation. The end of feudalism in Western Europe was an important
contributor to the onset of the mercantile era and the founding of the great
European commercial empires. The further transition from monarchy to
democracy stabilised the internal order and provided the social foundations
for the Industrial Revolution. It stimulated innovation by encouraging the free
exchange of ideas and provided incentives for greater individual effort by
legally safeguarding property from arbitrary confiscation.

b) Awareness
Surplus social energy collects as potential beneath the surface, accumulating
until it acquires sufficient force to burst out in new activities. But the
mobilisation of this energy for action depends on fulfillment of a second
essential condition — awareness of new development opportunities and
41
Approaches to challenges. Societies that are fully consumed by the struggle for survival have
Sustainable Development little time or inclination to direct their attention outward to observe what
other societies are accomplishing or forward to envision new possibilities.
When life reaches a certain level of stable comfort, societies become
increasingly interested in and aware of what is going on in the world around
them. This awareness may also be thrust on a society by the unwanted intrusion
of an external influence. The influx of English manufactured goods into the
pre-industrial economies of Europe and the arrival of a modern armed American
fleet in Tokyo harbor in the 19th century both had the effect of awakening
societies to the opportunities and challenges of development and stimulating
them to respond.

The increasing pace of development is directly linked to an increase in the

speed and reliability of information about what is taking place in other parts
of the country, region and world due to improvements in communication and
transportation. The proliferation of books and newspapers following the
invention and diffusion of the printing press, and the growth of international
shipping following the invention of navigation aids beginning in the 15th century,
the growth of railways, telegraph, and telephones in the 19th century, and the
impact of radio, film, television, computers and satellite technology in the 20th
century have exponentially multiplied the dissemination of information and
the general level of social awareness. Today more than 60,000 newspapers are
published around the globe, including 8000 dailies, with a combined circulation
of 500 million and an estimated readership of 1.5 billion people.

c) Aspiration
Society must also feel a strong aspiration or felt need for achievement at a
higher level that will spur efforts to convert a perceived possibility into a
material reality. Social development is an expression of social will seeking to
elevate the performance of the collective. As society becomes more conscious
of the external environment and its own internal potentials, its aspiration and
will for progress increases. The greater the knowledge of its potentials, the
greater the aspiration.

Failures to respond to opportunities arising out of a sense of social superiority

or social inferiority are expressions of a common principle. People respond to
the example of those with whom they identify socially. When there is awareness
of a developmental achievement by one belonging to the same social and
cultural context, it can evoke a powerful urge for accomplishment in society.
When the achievement is by one who lies outside the context, it is often
ignored. Thus, the adoption of new crops and cultivation practices by a wealthy
farmer may not lead to similar behavior by smaller farmers in the same
community. Age, social status, class, caste, wealth, occupation and other
factors help define social identity. But this trend seems to drastically change
in the contemporary period.

There was a time when different societies, classes and groups within societies
differed widely in the extent to which they manifested an aspiration for
development. This is no longer true. Over the past five decades, both awareness
of the possibility and the release of the aspiration for development have been
spreading rapidly from one country and level of society to another. Harlan
Cleveland coined the phrase “revolution of rising expectations” to describe
this phenomenon which he observed in Eastern Asia in the early 1950s. Since
the end of colonialism and the diffusion of democracy this revolution has
circled the globe and ignited a clamor for education, higher levels of
consumption and opportunities for advancement among billions of people. The
universal awakening of this urge for progress is another compelling reason why
the speed of development is increasing so rapidly.

42
This principle has important implications for planned development efforts. It References
implies that efforts by government to initiate development will only be
successful in areas where the necessary social urge and preparedness already
exist. Many well-conceived development initiatives fail to catch on or go awry
because the leaders try to accomplish what the population has not yet come
to aspire for. In these instances, the planned initiative can only contribute to
preparing the society for readiness at some future date, but will not generate
immediate results.

ii) Barriers to Development

Consequently, there are certain barriers to development. Observation of social
progress reveals three recurring types of obstacles to development – limited
perception, outdated attitudes and anachronistic behaviors. Let us briefly
look at each of them.

a) Perceptual Walls and Apparent Dead Ends

One of the most striking characteristics of development discernible in all periods,
countries and fields of activity has been the inability of society to envision
or foresee its own future destiny. This attribute is usually accompanied by the
contrary tendency to perceive opportunities as insurmountable obstacles.
Innumerable times in history, humanity has come face to face with what it
believed was a dead end to progress, only to discover sooner or later a way
around or through the dead end to open up a wider field of opportunities.

Today, powerful perceptual barriers exist with regard to employment, technology,

trade, environment, corruption, inflation and population that represent very
real barriers to development the world over. Malthus, the great demographer
was not the only one to foresee imminent doom where in fact there was
enormous opportunity. In 1950 Holland’s population exceeded 5 million, reaching
a density that many believed approached the ultimate limits that this tiny
landmass could support. Today the Netherlands has 15 million people, almost
three times the population density, yet it ranks among the most prosperous
nations in the world and is a major food exporter. In the mid 1960s, India
suffered from two successive years of drought and was on the verge of severe
famine. An expert team sent to India by the Food and Agriculture Organisation
of United Nations estimated that the country’s food grain production would
rise only by a maximum of 10% before 1970. Many of our Indian scientists
shared this pessimistic view. Actually grain production rose 50 percent during
this period and doubled within a decade to make our country self-sufficient
in foodgrains. Had our leaders shared the view of the experts, the Green
Revolution may never have been attempted!

Errors in assessment of future possibilities occur when we make projections

of future performance on the basis of historical trends, even though changing
circumstances have radically altered the environment. Looking forward, we
often see apparently insurmountable obstacles to future progress. Looking
backwards, we discover continuity and progress. History has shown time and
again that there are no dead ends, only people who are unable to see the
opportunities and solutions concealed behind the immediate obstacles.

b) Outmoded Attitudes
The most persistent obstacles to human development are not physical barriers,
but out-dated attitudes. Fifteenth century China possessed a navy unparalleled
in size, skills and technology, but their expeditions led only to dead ends. The
purpose of these expeditions was to display the splendor and prowess of the
Chinese emperors. They obstinately resisted foreign ways of life and discouraged
trade. The Chinese developed a traditional immunity to world experience. A
Great Wall of the mind separated China from the rest of the planet for centuries.
Fully equipped with technology, intelligence and national resources to become 43
Approaches to great discoverers, their attitude doomed them to become the discovered. But
Sustainable Development with the end of cold war and opening up of economies and rapid globalisation
in the past two decades forced Chineese society to have more intraction with
world community and also for outsiders to have more accessibility to Chineese
society.

Another example would be the fact that the science of medicine developed
very slowly in Europe due to the reluctance of physicians to share their
successful remedies, until the establishment of the Royal Society of Physicians
in the 18th century led to more open exchange of information, support for
research and medical education.

One of the deepest and most widespread of human prejudices has been faith
in the unaided, unmediated human senses. When the telescope was invented
for seeing at a distance, prudent people were reluctant to allow the firsthand
evidence of their sight to be overruled by some dubious novel device. The
eminent geographer Cremonini refused to waste his time looking through
Galileo’s contraption just to see what “no one but Galileo had seen.... and
besides, looking through those spectacles gives me a headache”.

Distrust of the new was, for long, an obstacle to the development of science.
Today outmoded attitudes bar social advancement in every field. The expansion
of world trade after 1950 has been a tremendous force for stimulating job
creation and raising living standards around the world. Yet, fear and resistance
to expansion of trade persists among Americans and Canadians to the North
American Free Trade Association, among Europeans to closer economic and
monetary union, and among people in every country to freer international
trade under the World Trade Organisation.

c) Anachronisms
Development is also retarded by a plethora of anachronisms which have no
other reason than the momentum of past habits that refuse to die. High rates
of childbirth have been traditionally practiced by the poor all over the world
to compensate for high rates of infant mortality. Yet even after the introduction
of modern medical technology in developing countries drastically reduced infant
mortality rates in the 1950s, rates of child birth remained at high levels and
have taken decades to decline to a degree commensurate with improved
infant survival rates. Traditional behaviors have been slow to change until the
population became more educated.

Gold was originally a popular form for saving personal wealth and a hedge
against inflation in many countries prior to the establishment of reliable banking
systems. The safety of banks and the higher returns available from other forms
of investment have gradually diminished the importance of gold as a form of
savings. But till today in many Asian countries, India being in the forefront,
the traditional habit of saving and paying dowry in the form of gold jewellery
has continued unabated, even after more secure and financially attractive
forms of savings became widely available. In our country we possess nearly
30,000 metric tons of gold valued at $300 billion, an amount roughly twice the
value of the public deposits held by the Indian banks. Because the gold has
to be imported, this form of savings removes liquidity from the national economy
and prevents the reinvestment of personal savings in productive activities
within the country. At a time when hundreds of billions of dollars are desperately
needed for investment in roads, power plants and telecommunications
infrastructure, an anachronistic habit forces the country to depend on foreign
investors while we continue to sit on a huge hoard of untapped wealth.

We end with another example, UNDP has calculated that $40 billion a year
approximately would be sufficient to eradicate global poverty within ten years.
44 Yet long after the end of the Cold War and at a time when there is not even
a serious potential enemy in sight, world military expenditure remains at $850 References
billion a year. The war is over, but a costly, wasteful, unproductive anachronism
persists.

Reflection and Action 2.5

Observe the overall economic condition of a particular community (caste, religious,
tribal, etc.) living in your neighborhood. Now based on your observation write
a note on the causes of their socio-economic well being or deprivation in the
society.

2.8 Observations About Recent Development

Experience
From the perspective of 10,000 years of history, human progress over the past
200 years has been extraordinary and the achievements of the past five decades
are nothing short of miraculous. In two centuries social productivity has
increased to the extent that the global community is now able to sustain a
population 12 times as large as in 1800. From a rural-based, agrarian society in
which less than three percent of the people lived in towns and cities, the
human community has evolved into an urban-centered, industrial society in
which the urban population now exceeds 40 per cent of the total. This change
has brought with it and aggravated a host of problems — overcrowding, pollution,
crime, etc.— but it has also brought political freedom, economic security,
education and modern conveniences to billions of people.

What is more remarkable is that this social movement continues to expand and
accelerate. The 1997, UNDP Human Development Report observes that over
the past 50 years the world has made greater progress in eradicating poverty
than during the previous 500. Around the globe, life expectancy is climbing,
infant mortality is declining, epidemic diseases are receding, famine is becoming
extinct and education is becoming more widespread. Since 1950, average per
capita income has trebled, in spite of unprecedented population growth, and
average real per capita consumption in developing countries has doubled.
These achievements raise the possibility and the hope that unprecedented
levels of prosperity could soon spread to all humanity.

These accomplishments still leave more than one billion people in poverty. But
there is growing evidence to suggest that today’s least developed countries
could match and perhaps even exceed the achievements of the most advanced
industrial nations within a much shorter time than it took for the original
achievements. Beginning in 1780, it took the United Kingdom 58 years to
double output per capita. The United States did it in 47 years, beginning in
1839. Japan accomplished the feat in only 24 years, beginning in the 1880s.
But after the Second World War, Indonesia did it in 17 years, South Korea in
11, and China in 10. From 1960 to 1990 real per capita standards of living based
on purchasing power parity multiplied twelve-fold in South Korea, seven-fold
in Japan, more than six-fold in Egypt and Portugal, and well above five-fold in
Indonesia and Thailand.

While the possibilities for increasing the velocity and expanding the scope of
development to all countries are encouraging, it is by no means clear how
quickly or to what extent they will be realised. Nor is there a consensus
regarding the policies, strategies and actions most conducive for that realisation.
Countries and regions are distinguished by vast differences in performance
that are not easily explained or eliminated.

Among developing countries, between 1965 and 1990 per capita GDP rose by
5.5 per cent annually in high performing East Asian countries compared to less
than 2 per cent in South Asia and about 0.25 per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa.
45
Approaches to Similarly, if one looks at the experience in Eastern Europe since 1990, one will
Sustainable Development see that the transition strategies implemented by 25 East European countries
were unable to prevent widespread economic decline and social distress.
Production in all 25 countries fell significantly, from a minimum of 18 per cent
in Poland to 45 per cent in Russia, 60 per cent in Ukraine and 75 per cent in
Armenia. Even in East Germany, where the German government and industry
have pumped in more than $1.1 trillion since reunification, the expected
results have not been achieved. Unemployment in East Germany has grown
from very low levels to more than 25 per cent, while productivity remains at
one-fifth, the level prevalent in the western part of the country.

So there are many questions regarding strategy and wide disparities in

performance all over the world. The experience of the past two centuries has
given rise to at least five major categories of development theory. Applying
these theories to explain the development of 23 countries during the period
1850-1914, Morris and Adelman found that each major theory adequately explains
the experience of a range of countries and periods, but none of the theories
applies universally to the 19th century experience of all the countries. These
findings suggest the need for a more comprehensive approach. Realisation of
this need had prompted the then Secretary-General of the United Nations,
Boutros Boutros-Ghali, to call for thoughtful reflection on development “as the
most important intellectual challenge of the coming years”.

Reflection and Action 2.6

Look into the latest Human Development Report (UN) or Human Development
Report of any of the states of India. Based on your reading develop a chart
showing the changes that have taken place in various indicators of human
development in our country or in a state in recent years.

2.9 Conclusion
Development today is not merely an economic phenomenon. It encompasses
more than the financial side of people's lives. Development should be perceived
as a multi-dimensional process involving the reorganisation and reorientation
of the entire economic and social system. In addition to improvements in
institutional, social and administrative structures as well as in popular attitudes
and, in many cases, even customs and beliefs. To conclude, development must
be conceived as a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social
structures, popular attitudes and national institutions, as well as the
acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the
eradication of absolute poverty.

Development is a process. This process has been taking place in societies

since time immemorial, but it has acquired greater intensity and velocity
during the past five hundred years and has accelerated rapidly over the past
five decades. In the broadest terms applicable to all societies and historical
periods, development can be defined as an upward directional movement of
society from lesser to greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity,
complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and accomplishment.
To highlight all these issues, we have discussed in this unit the concepts and
perspectives of change and modernisation, criticism of the perspective of
modernisation, scope, conditions and barriers of development. We have also
presented a few developmental experiences in this unit.

2.10 Further Reading

Desai, A.R. (ed.) 1971. Essays on Modernisation of Underdeveloped Societies.
Vol 1. Thacker and Co. Ltd.: Mumbai

Dube, S.C. 1988. Modernisation and Development. Sage Publication: New Delhi
46