Chapter

 1:  
 
An  Overview  of  Computers  and  
Programming  Languages  
 

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 Objec=ves  
•  In  this  chapter,  you  will:  
–  Learn  about  different  types  of  computers  
–  Explore  hardware  and  soEware  
–  Learn  about  the  language  of  a  computer  
–  Learn  about  the  evolu=on  of  programming  
languages  
–  Examine  high-­‐level  programming  languages  

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 Objec=ves  (cont’d.)  
–  Discover  what  a  compiler  is  and  what  it  does  
–  Examine  a  C++  program  
–  Explore  how  a  C++  program  is  processed  
–  Learn  what  an  algorithm  is  and  explore  problem-­‐
solving  techniques  
–  Become  aware  of  structured  design  and  object-­‐
oriented  design  programming  methodologies  
–  Become  aware  of  Standard  C++  and  ANSI/ISO  
Standard  C++  

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 Introduc=on  
•  Without  soEware,  the  computer  is  useless  
•  SoEware  is  developed  with  programming  
languages  
–  C++  is  a  programming  language  
•  C++  suited  for  a  wide  variety  of  programming  
tasks  
 

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 A  Brief  Overview  of  the  History  of  
Computers  
•  Early  calcula=on  devices  
–  Abacus,  Pascaline  
–  Leibniz  device  
–  Jacquard’s  weaving  looms  
–  Babbage  machines:  difference  and  analy=c  
engines  
–  Hollerith  machine  

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 A  Brief  Overview  of  the  History  of  
Computers  (cont’d.)  
•  Early  computer-­‐like  machines  
–  Mark  I  
–  ENIAC  
–  Von  Neumann  architecture  
–  UNIVAC  
–  Transistors  and  microprocessors  

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 A  Brief  Overview  of  the  History  of  
Computers  (cont’d.)  
•  Categories  of  computers  
–  Mainframe  computers  
–  Midsize  computers  
–  Micro  computers  (personal  computers)  

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 Elements  of  a  Computer  System  
•  Hardware  
•  CPU  
•  Main  memory  
•  Secondary  storage  
•  Input/Output  devices  
•  SoEware  

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[email protected]  
 Hardware  
•  CPU  
•  Main  memory:  RAM  
•  Input/output  devices  
•  Secondary  storage  

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[email protected]  
 Central  Processing  Unit  and  Main  
Memory  
•  Central  processing  unit  
–  Brain  of  the  computer  
–  Most  expensive  piece  of  hardware  
–  Carries  out  arithme=c  and  logical  opera=ons  

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 Central  Processing  Unit  and  Main  
Memory  (cont’d.)  

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 Central  Processing  Unit  and  Main  
Memory  (cont’d.)  
•  Random  access  memory  
–  Directly  connected  to  the  CPU    
•  All  programs  must  be  loaded  into  main  
memory  before  they  can  be  executed  
•  All  data  must  be  brought  into  main  memory  
before  it  can  be  manipulated    
•  When  computer  power  is  turned  off,  
everything  in  main  memory  is  lost  

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 Central  Processing  Unit  and  Main  
Memory  (cont’d.)  
•  Main  memory  is  an  ordered  sequence  of  
memory  cells  
–  Each  cell  has  a  unique  loca=on  in  main  memory,  
called  the  address  of  the  cell  
•  Each  cell  can  contain  either  a  programming  
instruc=on  or  data  

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 Secondary  Storage  
•  Secondary  storage:  device  that  stores  
informa=on  permanently  
•  Examples  of  secondary  storage:  
–  Hard  disks    
–  Flash  drives  
–  Floppy  disks  
–  Zip  disks  
–  CD-­‐ROMs  
–  Tapes  

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 Input/Output  Devices  
•  Input  devices  feed  data  and  programs  into  
computers  
–  Keyboard    
–  Mouse    
–  Secondary  storage  
•  Output  devices    
       display  results  
–  Monitor  
–  Printer  
–  Secondary  storage  

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 SoEware  
•  SoEware:  programs  that  do  specific  tasks  
•  System  programs  control  the  computer  
–  Opera=ng  system  monitors  the  overall  ac=vity  of  the  
computer  and  provides  services  such  as:  
•  Memory  management  
•  Input/output  ac=vi=es  
•  Storage  management  

•  Applica=on  programs  perform  a  specific  task  

–  Word  processors  
–  Spreadsheets  
–  Games  

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 The  Language  of  a  Computer  
•  Analog  signals:  con=nuous  wave  forms  
•  Digital  signals:  sequences  of  0s  and  1s  
•  Machine  language:  language  of  a  computer;  a  
sequence  of  0s  and  1s  
•  Binary  digit  (bit):  the  digit  0  or  1      
•  Binary  code  (binary  number):  a  sequence  of  0s    
 and  1s    

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 The  Language  of  a  Computer  (cont’d.)  
•  Byte:  
–  A  sequence  of  eight  bits  
•  Kilobyte  (KB):  210  bytes  =  1024  bytes  
•  ASCII  (American  Standard  Code  for  
Informa=on  Interchange)    
–  128  characters  
–  A  is  encoded  as  1000001  (66th  character)  
–  3  is  encoded  as  0110011    

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 The  Language  of  a  Computer  (cont’d.)  
•  EBCDIC  
–  Used  by  IBM  
–  256  characters  
•  Unicode    
–  65536  characters  
–  Two  bytes  are  needed  to  store  a  character  

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 The  Evolu=on  of  Programming  
Languages  
•  Early  computers  were  programmed  in  
machine  language    
•  To  calculate  wages = rate * hours  in  
machine  language:  
 100100 010001 //Load
100110 010010 //Multiply
100010 010011 //Store
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 The  Evolu=on  of  Programming  
Languages  (cont’d.)  
•  Assembly  language  instruc=ons  are  mnemonic    
•  Assembler:  translates  a  program  wriien  in  
assembly  language  into  machine  language  

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 The  Evolu=on  of  Programming  
Languages  (cont’d.)  
•  Using  assembly  language  instruc=ons,  wages
= rate • hours  can  be  wriien  as:  
 LOAD rate
MULT hour
STOR wages    

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 The  Evolu=on  of  Programming  
Languages  (cont’d.)  
•  High-­‐level  languages  include  Basic,  FORTRAN,  
COBOL,  Pascal,  C,  C++,  C#,  and  Java  
•  Compiler:  translates  a  program  wriien  in  a  
high-­‐level  language  into  machine  language  
•  The  equa=on  wages = rate • hours
can  be  wriien  in  C++  as:    
 wages = rate * hours;

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 Processing  a  C++  Program  
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "My first C++ program." << endl;
return 0;
}    
 
Sample  Run:    
My first C++ program.

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 Processing  a  C++  Program  (cont’d.)  
•  To  execute  a  C++  program:  
–  Use  an  editor  to  create  a  source  program  in  C++  
–  Preprocessor  direc=ves  begin  with  #  and  are  
processed  by  the  preprocessor  
–  Use  the  compiler  to:  
•  Check  that  the  program  obeys  the  language  rules  
•  Translate  into  machine  language  (object  program)  

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 Processing  a  C++  Program  (cont’d.)  
•  To  execute  a  C++  program  (cont'd.):  
–  Linker:    
•  Combines  object  program  with  other  programs  
provided  by  the  SDK  to  create  executable  code  
•  Library:  contains  prewriien  code  you  can  use  
–  Loader:    
•  Loads  executable  program  into  main  memory  
–  The  last  step  is  to  execute  the  program  
•  Some  IDEs  do  all  this  with  a  Build  or  Rebuild  
command  
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 Processing  a  C++  Program  (cont’d.)  

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 Programming  with  the  Problem  
Analysis–Coding–Execu=on  Cycle  
•  Algorithm:    
–  Step-­‐by-­‐step  problem-­‐
solving  process  
–  Solu=on  achieved  in  finite  
amount  of  =me  
•  Programming  is  a  process  
of  problem  solving  

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 The  Problem  Analysis–Coding–
Execu=on  Cycle  (cont’d.)  
•  Step  1:  Analyze  the  problem  
–  Outline  the  problem  and  its  requirements  
–  Design  steps  (algorithm)  to  solve  the  problem  
•  Step  2:  Implement  the  algorithm  
–  Implement  the  algorithm  in  code  
–  Verify  that  the  algorithm  works  
•  Step  3:  Maintenance  
–  Use  and  modify  the  program  if  the  problem  
domain  changes  

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 The  Problem  Analysis–Coding–
Execu=on  Cycle  (cont’d.)  
•  Thoroughly  understand  the  problem  and  all  requirements  
–  Does  program  require  user  interac=on?  
–  Does  program  manipulate  data?    
–  What  is  the  output?  

•  If  the  problem  is  complex,  divide  it  into  subproblems  

–  Analyze  and  design  algorithms  for  each  subproblem  

•  Check  the  correctness  of  algorithm  

–  Can  test  using  sample  data  
–  Some  mathema=cal  analysis  might  be  required  

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 The  Problem  Analysis–Coding–
Execu=on  Cycle  (cont’d.)  
•  Once  the  algorithm  is  designed  and  
correctness  verified  
–  Write  the  equivalent  code  in  high-­‐level  language  
•  Enter  the  program  using  text  editor  

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 The  Problem  Analysis–Coding–
Execu=on  Cycle  (cont’d.)  
•  Run  code  through  compiler    
•  If  compiler  generates  errors    
–  Look  at  code  and  remove  errors  
–  Run  code  again  through  compiler    
•  If  there  are  no  syntax  errors  
–  Compiler  generates  equivalent  machine  code  
•  Linker  links  machine  code  with  system  
resources  
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 The  Problem  Analysis–Coding–
Execu=on  Cycle  (cont’d.)  
•  Once  compiled  and  linked,  loader  can  place  
program  into  main  memory  for  execu=on  
•  The  final  step  is  to  execute  the  program  
•  Compiler  guarantees  that  the  program  follows  
the  rules  of  the  language  
–  Does  not  guarantee  that  the  program  will  run  
correctly    

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 Example  1-­‐1  
•  Design  an  algorithm  to  find  the  perimeter  and  
area  of  a  rectangle  
•  The  perimeter  and  area  of  the  rectangle  are  
given  by  the  following  formulas:  
 
 perimeter = 2 * (length +
width)
area = length * width
 
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 Example  1-­‐1  (cont’d.)  
•  Algorithm:  
–  Get  length  of  the  rectangle  
–  Get  width  of  the  rectangle  
–  Find  the  perimeter  using  the  following  equa=on:  
   perimeter = 2 * (length + width)
–  Find  the  area  using  the  following  equa=on:  
   area = length * width

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 Example  1-­‐5  
•  Calculate  each  student’s  grade  
–  10  students  in  a  class;  each  student  has  taken  five  
tests;  each  test  is  worth  100  points  
•  Design  algorithms  to:    
–  Calculate  the  grade  for  each  student  and  class  
average  
–  Find  the  average  test  score  
–  Determine  the  grade  
•  Data:  students’  names;  test  scores  

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 Example  1-­‐5  (cont’d.)  
•  Algorithm  to  determine  the  average  test  
score:  
–  Get  the  five  test  scores  
–  Add  the  five  test  scores  
•  Suppose  sum  stands  for  the  sum  of  the  test  scores  
–  Suppose  average  stands  for  the  average  test  
score:    
•  average = sum / 5;

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 Example  1-­‐5  (cont’d.)  
•  Algorithm  to  determine  the  grade:  
 if average is greater than or equal to 90
grade = A
otherwise
if average is greater than or equal to 80 and less than 90
grade = B
otherwise
if average is greater than or equal to 70 and less than 80
grade = C
otherwise
if average is greater than or equal to 60 and less than 70
grade = D
otherwise
grade = F
 

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 Example  1-­‐5  (cont’d.)  
•  Main  algorithm  is  as  follows:    
–  totalAverage  =  0;  
–  Repeat  the  following  for  each  student:  
•  Get  student’s  name  
•  Use  the  algorithm  to  find  the  average  test  score  
•  Use  the  algorithm  to  find  the  grade  
•  Update  totalAverage  by  adding  current  student’s  
average  test  score  
–  Determine  the  class  average  as  follows:  
•  classAverage = totalAverage / 10

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 Programming  Methodologies  
•  Two  popular  approaches  to  programming  
design  
–  Structured  
–  Object-­‐oriented  

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 Structured  Programming  
•  Structured  design:    
–  Dividing  a  problem  into  smaller  subproblems  
•  Structured  programming:  
–  Implemen=ng  a  structured  design  
•  The  structured  design  approach  is  also  called:  
–  Top-­‐down  (or  boiom-­‐up)  design  
–  Stepwise  refinement  
–  Modular  programming  

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 Object-­‐Oriented  Programming  
•  Object-­‐oriented  design  (OOD)  
–  Iden=fy  components  called  objects  
–  Determine  how  objects  interact  with  each  other  
•  Specify  relevant  data  and  possible  opera=ons  
to  be  performed  on  that  data  
•  Each  object  consists  of  data  and  opera=ons  on  
that  data  

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 Object-­‐Oriented  Programming  
(cont’d.)  
•  An  object  combines  data  and  opera=ons  on  
the  data  into  a  single  unit  
•  A  programming  language  that  implements  
OOD  is  called  an  object-­‐oriented  programming  
(OOP)  language  
•  Must  learn  how  to  represent  data  in  computer  
memory,  how  to  manipulate  data,  and  how  to  
implement  opera=ons    

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 Object-­‐Oriented  Programming  
(cont’d.)  
•  Write  algorithms  and  implement  them  in  a  
programming  language  
•  Use  func=ons  to  implement  algorithms  
•  Learn  how  to  combine  data  and  opera=ons  on  
the  data  into  a  single  unit  called  an  object  
•  C++  was  designed  to  implement  OOD  
•  OOD  is  used  with  structured  design  

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 ANSI/ISO  Standard  C++  
•  C++  evolved  from  C    
•  C++  designed  by  Bjarne  Stroustrup  at  Bell  
Laboratories  in  early  1980s  
–  Many  different  C++  compilers  were  available  
•  C++  programs  were  not  always  portable  from  
one  compiler  to  another  
•  In  mid-­‐1998,  ANSI/ISO  C++  language  standards  
were  approved  

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 Summary  
•  Computer:  electronic  device  that  can  perform  
arithme=c  and  logical  opera=ons  
•  Computer  system  has  hardware/soEware  
–  Central  processing  unit  (CPU):  brain  
–  Primary  storage  (MM)  is  vola=le;  secondary  
storage  (e.g.,  disk)  is  permanent  
–  Opera=ng  system  monitors  overall  ac=vity  of  the  
computer  and  provides  services  
–  Various  kinds  of  languages  

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 Summary  (cont’d.)  
•  Compiler:  translates  high-­‐level  language  into  
machine  code  
•  Algorithm:  step-­‐by-­‐step  problem-­‐solving  
process;  solu=on  in  finite  amount  of  =me  
•  Problem-­‐solving  process  has  three  steps:  
–  Analyze  problem  and  design  an  algorithm  
–  Implement  the  algorithm  in  code  
–  Maintain  the  program  

Programming
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 Summary  (cont’d.)  
•  Structured  design:    
–  Problem  is  divided  into  smaller  subproblems  
–  Each  subproblem  is  solved  
–  Combine  solu=ons  to  all  subproblems  
•  Object-­‐oriented  design  (OOD):  a  program  is  a  
collec=on  of  interac=ng  objects  
–  Object:  data  and  opera=ons  on  those  data  

Programming Fundamentals with Selasie A. Brown [email protected]   49

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