S J P N Trust's Electrical

Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic

Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

MODULE-1
Introduction:
A system is an arrangement of or a combination of different physical components connected
or related in such a manner so as to form an entire unit to attain a certain objective.
Control system is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a manner so as to
regulate, director command itself to achieve a certain objective
Any control system consists of three essential components namely input, system and output.
The input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a system from an external energy source. A system
is the arrangement of physical components and output is the actual response obtained from the
system. The control system may be one of the following type.
1) man made
2) natural and / or biological and
3) hybrid consisting of man made and natural or biological.
Requirements of good control system are accuracy, sensitivity, noise, stability, bandwidth, speed,
oscillations

Types of control systems

Control systems are classified into two general categories based upon the control action
which is responsible to activate the system to produce the output viz.
1) Open loop control system in which the control action is independent of the out put.

2) Closed loop control system in which the control action is some how dependent upon the
output and are generally called as feedback control systems.

Open Loop System

It is a system in which control action is independent of output. To each reference input there
is a corresponding output which depends upon the system and its operating conditions. The
accuracy of the system depends on the calibration of the system. In the presence of noise or
disturbances open loop control will not perform satisfactorily.

Example: Automatic hand driver, automatic washing machine, bread toaster, electric lift, traffic
signals, coffee server, theatre lamp etc.
Advantages of open loop system:
1. They are simple in construction and design.
2. They are economic.
3. Easy for maintenance.
4. Not much problem of stability.
5. Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
Disadvantages of open loop system
1. Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of calibration.
2. Inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System
3. To maintain quality and accuracy, recalibration of controller is necessary from time to time.

A closed loop control system:

Is a system in which the control action depends on the output. In closed loop control system the
actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the feed back signal (out
put signal or its function) is fed to the controller.
The elements of closed loop system are command, reference input, error detector, control element
controlled system and feedback element.

Elements of closed loop system are:

1. Command : The command is the externally produced input and independent of the feedback
control system.
2. Reference Input Element: It is used to produce the standard signals proportional to the
command.
3. Error Detector : The error detector receives the measured signal and compare it with
reference input. The difference of two signals produces error signal.
4. Control Element : This regulates the output according to the signal obtained from error
detector.
5. Controlled System : This represents what we are controlling by feedback loop.
6. Feedback Element : This element feedback the output to the error detector for comparison
with the reference input.

Example: Automatic electric iron, servo voltage stabilizer, sun-seeker solar system, water level
controller, human perspiration system.

Advantages of closed loop system:

1. Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected.
2. It senses changes -in output due to environmental or parametric change, internal disturbance
etc. and corrects the same.
3. Reduce effect of non-linearities.
4. High bandwidth.
5. Facilitates automation.

Disadvantages

1. Complicated in design and maintenance costlier.

2. System may become unstable.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

Concepts of feedback:
Feedback system is that in which part of output is feeded back to input. In feedback system
corrective action starts only after the output has been affected.

Requirements of good control system :

Requirements of good control system are,
1. Accuracy
2. Sensitivity
3. Noise
4. Stability
5. Bandwidth
6. Speed
7. Oscillations

Types of controllers:
An automatic controller compares the actual value of the system output with the reference
input (desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will reduce the
deviation to zero or a small value. The manner in which the automatic controller produces the control
signal is called the control action. The controllers may be classified according to their control actions
as,

1. Proportional controllers.
2. Integral controllers.
3. Proportional-plus- integral controllers.
4. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers.
5. Proportional-plus- integral-plus-derivative controllers
A proportional control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing function is
directly proportional to error.
A integral control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing function is directly
proportional to the first time integral of error.
A proportional-plus-derivative control system is a feedback control system in which the output
forcing function is a linear combination of the error and its first time derivative.
A proportional-plus- integral control system is a feedback control system in which the output
forcing function is a linear combination of the error and its first time integral.A proportional-plus-

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System
derivative-plus- integral control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing
function is a linear combination of the error, its first time derivative and its first time integral.

OUTCOMES:
At the end of the unit, the students are able to:
 Different types of control system.
 Different types of controllers.
 Ideal requirements of a good control system.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:
1. Name three applications of control systems.
2. Give three examples of open- loop systems.
3. Explain open loop control system.
4. Explain Closed loop control system.
5. Describe the requirements of ideal control system.
6. Explain controllers in a control system.
7. Explain Proportional controllers.
8. Explain Integral Proportional Integral controllers.
9. Explain Proportional Integral Differential controllers.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

MATHEMATICAL MODELS

LESSON STRUCTURE:
Modeling of Control Systems
Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System
Force Voltage Analogy
Force Current Analogy

OBJECTIVES:
To develop mathematical model for the mechanical, electrical, servo mechanism and
hydraulic systems.

Modeling of Control Systems:

The first step in the design and the analysis of control system is to build physical and mathematical
models. A control system being a collection of several physical systems (sub systems) which may be
of mechanical, electrical electronic, thermal, hydraulic or pneumatic type. No physical system can be
represented in its full intricacies. Idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis
and synthesis. An idealized representation of physical system is called a Physical Model.

Control systems being dynamic systems in nature require a quantitative mathematical

description of the system for analysis. This process of obtaining the desired mathematical
description of the system is called Mathematical Modeling.

In Unit 1, we have learnt the basic concepts of control systems such as open loop and feedback
control systems, different types of Control systems like regulator systems, follow-up systems and
servo mechanisms. We have also discussed a few simple applications. In this chapter we learn the
concepts of modeling.

The requirements demanded by every control system are many and depend on the system
under consideration. Major requirements are 1) Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of Response. An
ideal control system would be stable, would provide absolute accuracy (maintain zero error despite
disturbances) and would respond instantaneously to a change in the reference variable. Such a
system cannot, of course, be produced. However, study of automatic control system theory would
provide the insight necessary to make the most effective compromises so that the engineer can
design the best possible system. One of the important steps in the study of control systems is
modeling. Following section presents modeling aspects of various systems that find application in
control engineering.

The basic models of dynamic physical systems are differential equations obtained by the
application of appropriate laws of nature. Having obtained the differential equations and where
possible the numerical values of parameters, one can proceed with the analysis. When the

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

mathematical model of a physical system is solved for various input conditions, the results represent
the dynamic response of the system. The mathematical model of a system is linear, if it obeys the
principle of superposition and homogeneity.

A mathematical model is linear, if the differential equation describing it has coefficients,

which are either functions of the independent variable or are constants. If the coefficients of the
describing differential equations are functions of time (the independent variable), then the
mathematical model is linear time-varying. On the other hand, if the coefficients of the describing
differential equations are constants, the model is linear time-invariant. Powerful mathematical tools
like the Fourier and Laplace transformations are available for use in linear systems. Unfortunately no
physical system in nature is perfectly linear. Therefore certain assumptions must always be made to
get a linear model.

Usually control systems are complex. As a first approximation a simplified model is built to
get a general feeling for the solution. However, improved model which can give better accuracy can
then be obtained for a complete analysis. Compromise has to be made between simplicity of the
model and accuracy. It is difficult to consider all the details for mathematical analysis. Only most
important features are considered to predict behavior of the system under specified conditions. A
more complete model may be then built for complete analysis.

Modeling of Mechanical Systems:

Mechanical systems can be idealized as spring- mass-damper systems and the governing
differential equations can be obtained on the basis of Newton’s second law of motion, which states
that

F = ma: for rectilinear motion

where F: Force, m: mass and a: acceleration (with consistent units)

T = I α: or Jα for rotary motion

where T: Torque, I or J: moment of inertia and α: angular acceleration (with consistent units)

Mass / inertia and the springs are the energy storage elements where in energy can be stored
and retrieved without loss and hence referred as conservative elements. Damper represents the
energy loss (energy absorption) in the system and hence is referred as dissipative element.
Depending upon the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a given physical model may lead
to different mathematical models. The minimum number of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines the degrees
of freedom (DOF) of the system. A large number of practical systems can be described using a finite
number of degrees of freedom and are referred as discrete or lumped parameter systems. Some
systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members, have an infinite number of degrees
of freedom and are referred as continuous or distributed systems. Most of the time, continuous
systems are approximated as discrete systems, and solutions are obtained in a simpler manner.
Although treatment of a system as continuous gives exact results, the analysis methods available for
dealing with continuous systems are limited to a narrow selection of problems. Hence most of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi
 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

practical systems are studied by treating them as finite lumped masses, springs and dampers. In
general, more accurate results are obtained by increasing the number of masses, springs and
dampers-that is, by increasing the number of degrees of freedom.

Mechanical systems can be of two types:

1) Translation Systems
2) Rotational Systems.

The variables that described the motion are displacement, velocity and acceleration.

And also we have three parameters-

Mass which is represented by ‘M’.

Coefficient of viscous friction which is represented by ‘B’.
Spring constant which is represented by ‘K’.

In rotational mechanical type of systems we have three variables-

Torque which is represented by ‘T’.

Angular velocity which is represented by ‘ω’
Angular displacement represented by ‘θ’

Now let us consider the linear displacement mechanical system which is shown below-

spring mass mechanical system

We have already marked various variables in the diagram itself. We have x is the displacement as
shown in the diagram. From the Newton’s second law of motion, we can write force as

From the diagram we can see that the,

F = F1+F2+F3

On substituting the values of F1, F2 and F3 in the above equation and taking the Laplace transform
we have the transfer function as,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System:

In electrical type of systems we have three variables -

Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.

Current which is represented by ‘I’.
Charge which is represented by ‘Q’.

And also we have three parameters which are active and passive elements –
Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.
Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.
Inductance which is represented by ‘L’.
Now we are in condition to derive analogy between electrical and mechanical types of
systems. There are two types of analogies and they are written below:
Force Voltage Analogy :
In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit which consists of series
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

A voltage V is connected in series with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram. Now
from the circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we write the expression for voltage in
terms of charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that-

1. Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).

2. Force is analogous to voltage V.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and
5. Spring constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C).

This analogy is known as force voltage analogy.

Force Current Analogy :

In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit which consists of parallel
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi

 S J P N Trust's Electrical
Hirasugar Institute of Technology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi. Control System

A voltage E is connected in parallel with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram.
Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KCL equation we write the expression for current
in terms of flux, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that,

1. Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).

2. Force is analogous to current I.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R and
5. Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L).
This analogy is known as force current analogy.

OUTCOMES:
At the end of the unit, the students are able to:
 Mathematical modeling of mechanical, electrical, servo mechanism and hydraulic systems.

 To find Transfer function of a system.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:
1. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems?
2. Define the transfer function.
3. What are the component parts of the mechanical constants of a motor‘s transfer function?
4. Derive the transfer function of a Spring - Mass-Damper – system.
5. Differentiate between FI and FV analogy.
6. Obtain Transfer function of Armature controlled DC motor.
7. Derive transfer function for the Electrical system shown in Figure below.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HIT,Nidasoshi