1

Performance Analysis of Diversity Techniques for

Wireless Communication System

Md. Jaherul Islam

[email protected]

This Thesis is a part (30 ECTS) of Master of Science degree (120 ECTS) in Electrical
Engineering emphasis on Telecommunication

Blekinge Institute of Technology

February 12

Blekinge Institute of Technology

School of Engineering
Department of Telecommunication
Supervisor: Magnus G Nilsson
Examiner: Magnus G Nilsson
Contact: [email protected]
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Abstract
Different diversity techniques such as Maximal-Ratio Combining (MRC), Equal-Gain
Combining (EGC) and Selection Combining (SC) are described and analyzed. Two branches
(N=2) diversity systems that are used for pre-detection combining have been investigated and
computed. The statistics of carrier to noise ratio (CNR) and carrier to interference ratio (CIR)
without diversity assuming Rayleigh fading model have been examined and then measured
for diversity systems. The probability of error ( ) vs CNR and ( ) versus CIR have also
been obtained. The fading dynamic range of the instantaneous CNR and CIR is reduced
remarkably when diversity systems are used [1]. For a certain average probability of error, a
higher valued average CNR and CIR is in need for non-diversity systems [1]. But a smaller
valued of CNR and CIR are compared to diversity systems. The overall conclusion is that
maximal-ratio combining (MRC) achieves the best performance improvement compared to
other combining methods. Diversity techniques are very useful to improve the performance of
high speed wireless channel to transmit data and information. The problems which considered
in this thesis are not new but I have tried to organize, prove and analyze in new ways.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Magnus Nilsson for his sincere help. The way he
encouraged me to finish this thesis, was really great. It was impossible to finish this thesis
without his support.

Md. Jaherul Islam

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Contents

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………2

Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………...3

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background …………………………………………………………….9

1.2 Outline of Thesis ……………………………………………………….9

Chapter 2 Overview of Wireless Communications

2.1 Some Latest Contributions of Wireless Communication ………….....10

2.1.1 First Generation Technology ………………………………....11

2.1.2 Second Generation Technology ……………………………......12

2.1.3 Second-plus Generation Technology ……………………………14

2.1.4 Third Generation Technology …………………………………..14

2.1.5 Fourth Generation Technology ………………………………….16

2.2 Comparison of Data Services for Different Generation

Networks ………………………………………………………………16

2.3 Multiple Access Formats for Wireless Communications

2.3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Accesses (FDMA) ………….. …..19

2.3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) ……………………….19

2.3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) …………………. …..20

Chapter 3 Performance Degradation Factors in Wireless Communication

Channels
3.1 Characteristics of Wireless Communication Channels …………………22

3.2 Factors Affecting the Wireless Channels ………………………………24

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3.2.1 Path Loss …………………………………………………. .....25

3.2.2 Shadowing Loss ………………………………………….. ….26

3.2.3 Interference

3.2.3.1 Inter-symbol Interference (ISI) ………………………27

3.2.3.2 Co-channel Interference (CCI) …………………. ….28

3.2.4 Noise ………………………………………………………… 29

3.2.5 Channel Spreading ……………………………………………30

3.2.6 Channel Fading ……………………………………………….31

3.3 Parameters of Fading Channels ………………………………………. 32

3.3.1 Multipath Spread ………………………………………… 32

3.3.2 Coherence Bandwidth ………………………………... 33

3.3.3 Coherence Time ………………………………………. 33

3.3.4 Doppler Spread ……………………………………….... 33

3.3.5 Mean Path Loss (MPL) ……………………………………… 34

3.4 Classification of Fading Channels

3.4.1 Frequency Non-selective vs Frequency Selective Fading ……..35

3.4.2 Slow Fading versus Fast Fading ……………………………... 35

3.4.3 Large Scale Fading vs Small Scale Fading …………………..36

3.4.4 Ricean Fading vs Rayleigh Fading ………………………….. 37

Chapter 4 Diversity Techniques for Wireless Channel

4.1 Diversity Concept …………………………………………………38

4.2 Diversity Branches …………………………………………………39

4.3 Diversity Techniques ……………………………………………….39

4.3.1 Frequency/Multipath Diversity ……………………………….40

4.3.2 Space/Spatial Diversity ………………………………………41

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4.3.2.1 Receive Diversity ……………………………………42

4.3.2.2 Transmit Diversity ………………………………. ….42

4.3.3 Time/Temporal Diversity …………………………………… 42

4.3.4 Polarization Diversity ……………………………………….44

4.3.5 Angle/Direction/Pattern Diversity ……………………………44

4.3.6 Antenna Diversity ……………………………………………45

4.4 Why Transmit Diversity ……………………………………………45

4.5 Types of Transmit Diversity ………………………………………..46

4.6 Capacity of Receive and Transmit Diversity ………………………..47

Chapter 5 Diversity Combining Techniques

5.1 Concepts of Diversity Combining Techniques ………………………49

5.2 Maximal-ratio Combining (MRC) ………………………………….50

5.3 Equal Gain Combining (EGC) ……………………………………..51

5.4 Selection Combining (SC) ………………………………………...52

5.5 Switched Combining ………………………………………………..53

5.6 Periodic Switching Method …………………………………………54

5.7 Phase-sweeping Method ………………………………………….....55

Chapter 6 Performance Analysis of Different Diversity Combining

Techniques
6.1 Performance of Maximal Ratio Combining ………………………56

6.2 Carrier-to-noise Ratio (CNR) and Carrier-to-interference Ratio (CIR)

Performance Improvement ……………………………………….57

6.3 Average Probability of Error Performance Improvement ……59

6.3.1 versus CNR Performance Improvement ………………..59

6.3.2 versus CIR Performance Improvement ………………….61

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Chapter 7 Methodology and Result

7.1 Computational Method …………………………………………..62

7.2 Performance Analysis …………………………………………...68

Chapter 8 Discussion and Conclusion

8.1 Discussion ……………………………………………………….69

8.2 Conclusion ………………………………………………………70

8.3 Future Feasible Work ……………………………………………70

References ………………………………………………………………71
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background:
Communications between creatures is very important in our world. Wired communication and
wireless communication are the major types of communications effective in the present world.
Some examples of wireless communications are ‘Hand held CB (Citizens’ Band) radio’ and
‘cellular phone’. There are two main categories of Wireless communications such as mobile
communications and fixed wireless communications. Customer needs and technology
requirements, these two play vital role to make their own market in the wireless
communications [2]. Mobility or non-tethered communications are required for the mobile
communications. Mobility of the mobile communications ensures to communicate anytime
and anywhere. Mobile communications technology must be able to allow roaming. Roaming
is the ability to provide usability to the mobile phone users while outside their own network.
However, fixed wireless is just an alternative to wired communications. The fixed wireless
users do not get the mobility facility but they need cost effective communications from their
fixed locations. The alternative of wireless in the means of providing service is the only
means. When the customers attempt to communicate from the remote locations, Satellite is
the only alternative. Wireless communication is a revolution of human communications. The
technology to send idea and information to remote location could not even be imagined before
wireless communication technology was invented. The wireless communication technology
makes that dream true of the human being. Wireless hand held devices such as mini-
computers and phones deliver the world to our fingertips whatever our locations are, with
enough speed and flexibility. Wireless cellular networks are growing rapidly around the world
day by day un-imaginably and it seems this trend will to continue for several years. Over the
last few years, the subscribers of wireless communications have an exponential growth. The
ongoing progress in radio technology provides more and more new and improved services.
Current wireless services include transmission of fax, voice and low-speed data flexibly [1].
Usability of more band width in communications with consuming interactive multimedia
services like video-on-demand like TV viewing and internet access for transferring essential
data is supported in wireless communications.
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1.2 Outline of Thesis:

Diversity techniques are the useful methods to reduce fading problem in wireless
communications. The best diversity techniques can be selected by analyzing and comparing
the different types of diversity techniques. Moreover, different diversity techniques can be
combined and used in wireless communication systems to get the best result to mitigate
fading problems.

Description of wireless communications has given in chapter 2. Several performance

degradation factors of wireless communication were described in chapter 3. Useful Diversity
techniques were described in chapter 4. It’s important to combine two or more diversity
techniques to get full advantage of diversity techniques. Some diversity combining techniques
were described in chapter 5. The mathematical equations needed for simulation in diversity
combining techniques were collected and defined in chapter 6. Simulation results in graph and
in words and described the performance analysis in chapter 7. Chapter 8 concludes the entire
thesis work.
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Chapter 2
Overview of Wireless Communications

The basics of wireless communication systems are described in chapter2, based on their
services such as speech communication, data transmission, etc. The generations of
communication technologies such as 1st generation, 2nd generation, 2nd –plus generation, 3rd
generation and 4th generation are described in this chapter. Multiple access formats for
wireless communication and their operations are also described briefly at the last section of
this chapter.

2.1 Some Latest Contributions of Wireless Communication:

Cellular has standards such as first generation cellular system which is an analogue system,
second and third generation digital cellular systems. There is one intermediate technology
which is called second generation-plus communications system. It supports high speed data
transfer over today’s digital cellular systems. Table1 shows the main future of the above
technologies. A short discussion and comparison of data services of these technologies are
following:

Table1: Main futures of cellular technologies [1][2][3]

First Second Second + Third

Generation Generation Generation Generation
Analog Digital data Digital data transmission Digital data transmission
transmission transmission
Mainly for Mainly talking Mainly talking talking and video
talking
Voice bands Digital data Increasing digital data Mainly digital data
data
Circuit Circuit switched Increasingly packet Mainly packet switched
switched switched over IP network over IP network
Local systems Global roaming Global roaming facility Global roaming facility
facility with full flexibility
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2.1.1 First Generation Technologies:

First-generation (1G) mobile communication systems is a basic analog radio communication
systems that established the first cellular radio infrastructure. The main problem of 1G mobile
communication systems for cellular service providers is that it has less capacity to handle the
sheer number of users which demand voice services [3]. Circuit switched connections are
used in the analog cellular networks for data transfer. However, the performance of the radio
link for data transport is considered marginally because of the limitations creates by the nature
of the analog technology. The dynamics of the radio channels like dropouts, fade of signals,
and multi-path (multipath can be tolerated during a voice connection), can be disastrous to the
subscribers for mobile data transport [11]. Using standard modems with some adaptation can
sustain Subscriber data rates of 2400 bits/s or less to the cellular network [3]. Generally, Due
to limited available capacities, limitations of data recovery, low security, and the high cost of
use for many applications, the analog cellular infrastructure systems are not so efficient of
sending data. Some of the widely used standards are discussed as following.

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS):

The AMPS was the first standardize cellular service in the world. It was released in 1983 in
the USA for commercial use in the North America. The system uses 824 MHZ to 894 MHz
frequency band, multiple accesses FDMA, FM modulation and the 30 KHz channel
bandwidth [2]. This is the analog cellular standard which most widely used.

Narrow-band Advanced Mobile Phone System (N-AMPS):

This system operates in the same range like AMPS and provides three times greater capacity
than AMPS by using 10 KHz channel bandwidth instead while 30 KHz channel bandwidth is
used in the AMPS system [2]. Other features are as the same as in AMPS.

Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT):

This was the system which was widely used throughout the Nordic countries. The system has
two types based on the frequency allocation such as NMT-450 and NMT-900. Amongst them
NMT-450 operates on 450 to 470 MHz frequency band and 25 KHz channel bandwidth which
was introduced in 1981, while NMT-900 operates on 890 to 960 MHz frequency band and
12.5 KHz channel bandwidth which was introduced in 1986 [2].
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2.1.2 Second Generation Technologies:

Second-Generation (2G) mobile communication systems are the most common in the wireless
communication industries currently. Digital technologies are used in 2G to provide many
advantages for both the voice-based and the data-based mobile communication systems.
Available facilities in this technology are the increased system capacity, increased security
against eavesdropping, superior cell hand-off, and better radio signal recovery under different
conditions. In addition, rather than quality speech these technologies support services such as
fax, short messaging service (SMS), and roaming for mobile subscribers.

Table2: Technical Summery of Second Generation Technologies [1] [2] [3]

Europe USA

Characteristics GSM TDMA CDMA

Frequency band 890-960 MHz 824-894 MHz 824-894 MHz
Allocated bandwidth 50 50 50
Access scheme TDMA TDMA CDMA
Duplex method FDD FDD TDD
Channel bandwidth 200 KHz 30 KHz 1250 KHz
No. of voice / Frequency 8/16 3/6
Channel
Total traffic channels 1000/2000 2496/4992
Channel bit rate 270.833 kbps 48.6 kbps Vendor dependent
Voice coding 22.8 kbps 8/4.5 kbps 8
Data rate 9.6 kbps 9.6 kbps 14.4 kbps

Circuit switched connections are used in the second generation technologies for transporting
data and providing data transmission rate in between 9.6 to 14.4 Kbps [11]. These
technologies implement a high level flow control and error connection to provide reliable data
transfer. With second generation systems, a single cellular channel can be shared by multiple
users. This system function reduces congestion and provides access for more users. The
multiple access methods to the users provide extensive coverage with a proved and reliable
communications infrastructure in 2G. The standards within 2G in use worldwide are the
following:
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GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications):

This was the first European digital open standard and was commercialized for use in 1992. It
was developed intending to establish cellular consistent throughout the Europe. But it was so
successful that it was spread to all parts of the world. There were over 250 million subscribers
worldwide by the year 2000 [3]. The GSM technology was established based on a
combination of TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and FDMA (Frequency Division
Multiple Access) techniques. It operates at 900 MHz and 1800 MHz frequency bands in the
most parts of Europe and Asia. And the frequency band for this technology is 1900 MHz in
North America. It provides an almost error-free internet access at 9600 bps to the subscribers
now a day. According to GSM association’s 2009 press release around 80% mobile
subscribers use GSM technology worldwide [3].

Picture 1: Structure of GSM network [12]

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2.1.3 Second-plus Generation Technologies:

The second generation technologies capable to transfer data at the rate of only up to 14.4
Kbps [2]. The high data speeds are needed for video and graphical image transmissions. But
this speed is not available on the most mobile phone systems today. Providing such
capabilities the technologies are required a highly complex and robust platform that will not
be available in most of the countries next few years, according to researchers. An intermediate
step to the next generation technologies is second-plus generation or 2.5G technologies.
Supporting data transfer rates is 57.6 Kbps or higher in these technologies and offer
subscribers access to the internet at speeds that are comparable to a wire-line Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN) connection or even faster than ISDN sometimes. These
technologies include HSCSD (High speed Circuit Switched Data), GPRS (General Packet
Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution).

2.1.4 Third Generation Technologies:

Two common but effective limitations of the second generation communication networks are
low bandwidth and limited network capacity [3]. These two limitations impact negatively to
the users’ experience and the reliability of the service. To overcome these limitations, it was
very important to initiate a new technology. Third generation or 3G technology took foot step
to initiate at such a time and it is a new technological revolution that will offer far more
bandwidth and greater data and voice call capacity than today’s digital mobile networks
capable. It is a next big step in wireless communication technology for mobile network
development with its goal being full inter-operability and inter-working of mobile
communication systems. The 3G will unite the disparate standards those are used in today’s
second generation wireless networks.

Wired broadband connections and portable bandwidth are the same level with 3G technology
and the data transfer rates is up to 2Mbps in fixed applications. But data transfer rate is 128
Kbps in a car and 384 Kbps when a device remains stationary. When the targeted speed is
achieved fully, wireless technology will be more attractive to users those are interested in
internet browsing, gaming with wireless connection, and listening to music with broadband
mobile connection [3]. Voice and text messaging are available with the present mobile
networks. On the other hand, 3G networks are allowed us more faster and complex data
transmission such as streaming video and audio, satellite navigation, video conferencing and
sharing with interactive application. Packet switched data access provided with this kind of
networks to the internet end-to-end IP connection. A mobile phone has been connected
automatically to the internet when the cell activated. Then subscribers get the similar facilities
to today’s fixed-line internet connection with significant add-ons such as location-based and
highly personalized services. Some of these features already achieved and some are on the
road to come to public hands.
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3G technologies allow handsets to connect to network permanently and use only available
capacity when they receive or transmit packets. Subscribers are expected to pay for the
volume of data transfer ignoring the length of talk time.

Although 3G technology seems complicated still this technology makes our life very easy and
flexible. Much of those we have already been getting. Much of these facilities we have
already been getting with limited conditioning usability. The quality media information and
entertainment will be at our fingertips irrespectively location and time. The end user device
will not be just a mobile phone but a terminal after achieving all those functionalities with 3G
wireless communications.

Standards:
The 3G technology began to standardize in 1990s under the supervision of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). The goal of 3G was full interoperability and inter-activity
of mobile systems providing capability of value-added services. The ITU called for Radio
Transmission Technology (RTT) in the year 1998 with proposals for IMT-2000 (International
Mobile Communication for the year 2000) [13]. The ITU IMT-2000 standards are currently
separated into two major organizations reflecting the two 3G camps: 3GPP (3G partnership
project for wideband CDMA standards based on backward compatibility with GSM and IS-
136/PDC) and 3GPP2 (3G partnership Project for cdma2000 standards based on backward
compatibility with IS-95). The eventual 3G evolution for 2G CDMA systems leads to
cdma2000. CDMA 2000 are developed in several research based on IS-95 and IS-95B
technologies. The eventual 3G evolution for GSM, IS-136, and PDC system leads to
wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) also called
Universal Mobile Communication Service (UMTS). W-CDMA was invented based on the
network fundamental of GSM as well as improved version of GSM and IS-136 through
EDGE. It is fair to say that these two major 3G technology camps, cdma2000 and W-CDMA,
is remain popular throughout the early part of the 21st century. In January 1998, The ETSI
incorporated W-CDMA standard in 1998 was also incorporated with terrestrial Radio Access
specifications, and W-CDAM and UMTS are used synonymously sometimes [13]. IMT-2000
ensures that these technologies can work in different networks even in the GSM as well as
American ANSI networks. Most of the major network operators in Europe and Asia are
committed to the W-CDMA standard for 3G mobile communications while other parts of the
world implements other standards. In Asia Pacific and North America, the next generation
wireless network is going to be mainly based on CDMA2000, and China, the largest market
for mobile communication in the world, will be using TD-SCDMA standard for 3G networks.
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Availability:
Upgrading 2G to 3G technology requires a big amount of capital investment. Some European
Government auctioned off radio spectrum bands to accommodate the 3G networks. In the UK,
for example, five 3G mobile licenses were auctioned off at a total of $35 billion USD with the
expecting cost for each license between $4 billion and $9 billion USD to form out their 3G
network [3]. For this reason carriers have opposed to upgrade networks because they wanted
to be ensured and see a real demand for high speed wireless data, and many of them viewed
that 2.5G is more than just an interim solution following the reason that it delivers significant
bandwidth improvements at a lower cost.

However, major wireless service providers estimated the high costs of deploying 3G services
and warned about technical difficulties such as 3G handset and network infrastructure
foundation, a few are already working on W-CDMA in Europe and Japan, And some other
country also applying the technology step by step from lower income to high income
countries. A market structure and status of deployment of mobile internet technologies in
some of these countries are shown in table 3. NTT DoCoMo in Japan released a third
generation phone service FOMA (Freedom of Mobile multimedia Access) in major urban
location of the country. The receiving data of FOMA data at 384 Kbps and transmitting data
rate is 64 Kbps. Subscribers get access for almost everything in a limit such as movie trailers,
sports highlights, music, video clips and news feeds.

The strategies group predicted that there would be 9.5 million 3G mobile high-speed data
subscribers by 2005 but it crossed the limit of the predictors. Within 6 years of 3G
introduction, it gains 402 million subscribers by 2008, and 30 million subscribers are added in
every quarter. According to the UMTS Forum prediction by 2010 data services will represent
$300 billion or 66% of all worldwide 3G revenues. Japan, South Korea and the USA already
the number of 3G subscribers have already surpassed that of 2G subscribers [14].

2.1.5 Fourth Generation Technologies:

Growth of science is so fast and wireless communication is not exceptional from it. After a lot
of research and implementation works the network providers started to provide 3G services.
But some researchers could not be satisfied with this limit of wireless communication. As a
result they started to work on more upgraded wireless services which are called 4G. This 4G
technology will take mobile communication step forward in integrate radio and television
transmissions for all users with flexibility and it will unite world’s phone standards into one
technology with very speed.

There are two key elements which are required to deliver a legitimate 4G network. First is the
ability to roam across different wireless network standards with the one device; and the
second, and most obvious, is a higher level of bandwidth [3].
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Though function of 4G is not defined fully yet, still it can predict that 4G technology will
replace 3G, and it will use a combination of Wi-MAX and Wi-Fi. Standard bodies or carriers
have not defined definitely what exactly 4G will be but it is expected that IP end to end and
streaming quality with high quality will be featured in 4G technologies.

There are two competing 4G standards working mainly. One of them is a joint effort by
Hewlett Packard and another is Japan’s NTT DoCoMo to create Moto-Media. Moreover, the
wireless World Research Forum specifications with the backing of some of the Europe’s
largest phone markets.

Most of the wireless observer bodies made a question that is how the 4G market going to be,
and when can the industries reasonably expected to invest in a new network. Some of the
analysts have estimated that the 4G mobile systems would have more 50 million subscribers
by the end of year 2007, and it would account for 14 percent of total mobile data revenues.
But it is estimated that the subscriber for 3G/4G who use WCDMA/HSDPA, TD-SCDMA,
mobile Wi-MAX, EV-DO and LTE networks was 230 million in 2007 and rose to 375 million
in 2008 [15]. But most of the analyst estimate the technology to be ready around 2008-2010.
Nokia and Samsung have teamed up to create 4G wireless equipment; a move demonstrates
the support for the 4G mobile systems.

2.2 Comparison of Data Services for Different Generation

Networks:
The demand for mobile data services is growing day by day. Increased mobility has attracted
an expanding market for both vast consumers and the enterprise bodies. Various data services
comparison for cellular networks is known in table 3. For consumers, second-plus and third
generation networks have already brought access to the internet with an amazing performance
nearly wire-line speed and quality. 2.5G services are used mostly text-based with still images
and short audio clips. Service included web browsing, financial transactions, image
downloads, e-mail and instant messaging. As networks migrated to 3G, these same services
enriched with multimedia content including full audio and video clips. For enterprises,
second-plus generation networks allowed access to corporate intranet and e-mail, business
applications and data bases, and increasing mobile sales. 3G technologies enable even greater
benefits from wireless business applications through VOIP (Voice over IP), rapid file transfer
and video-conferencing.
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Table 3: Comparison of Data Services for 2G, 2.5G and 3G Networks [1] [2] [3]

Services 2nd Generation 2nd+ Generation 3rd Generation

Web browsing Short text 100KB web page takes 100KB web page
screens takes Approx.2
approx. 30 sec to sec to download
download

File Transfers No 500KB document takes 500KB document

takes
approx. 2mn to download approx.10sec to
download

E-mail Short Message Text-based with Full attachments

Service (SMS) small attachments

Instant messaging SMS Text-based With audio/video

clips

VOIP(Voice Over No Limited Yes

IP)

Streaming No Short clips Yes

audio/video

Access to Very limited Text-based Yes

corporate intranet

Access to Very limited Text-based Yes

corporate apps

2.3 Multiple Access Formats for Wireless Communications:

Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a
common bandwidth. Different types of multiple access formats are in use and we can discuss
them under the following standards:
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2.3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

It assigns single channels (frequency band) to single users. According to the figure below
each user is allocated a unique frequency band. These bands are assigned on demand to users
who request for service. No other users can share the same frequency band during a call
made. The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (25-30 KHz) as each channel
supports only one call per carrier [13]. FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband
systems. If an FDMA channel is not in use it sits idle and can’t be used by other users to
increase the system capacity. It can’t be used by other users even if a user stays in pause
during a phone call.

(User)

2
1
Frequency

Available
Bandwidth

Picture 2: FDMA schemes in which different users are assigned different frequency bands

2.3.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

Transmission time is divided into time slots here, and only one user is allowed to either
transmit or receive in each time slots. According to following figure 1.2, it is seen that each
user occupies cyclically repeating wording, so a channel might think of as a particular time
slot that reoccurs at slot locations in every frame. The FDMA system can accommodate
analog frequency modulation (FM) but TDMA uses digital data digital modulation.
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User

2
1
Time
Available
Bandwidth
Picture 3: TDMA schemes in which each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot

TDMA shares a single carrier frequency amongst many users, where each user uses non-
overlapping time slot. In the case of FDMA, if a channel is not in use then the corresponding
time slot sits idle and can’t be used by other users. In TDMA system data transmission for
users is not continuous but occurs in bursts transmission [3]. Synchronization overhead is
required in TDMA systems Because of this burst transmission. Moreover, it is important to
use guard slots for separating users. In general, TDMA mobile systems are more complex
than the FDMA systems.

Each user of a multiple access system like FDMA or TDMA is limited by bandwidth and time
allocated to it, the degradation caused by background noise, multipath fading and shadowing
effects. Another weakness is that its relatively low frequency reuse factor of FDMA and
TDMA.

A common performance degradation source to all multiple access system is fading in its
terrestrial environments. Fading is occurs by interference between different versions of the
transmitted signals which arrive at the receiver at very minor different time. This phenomenon
is very severe when each channel is allocated narrow bandwidth with the FDMA systems.

2.3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

A completely different approach is realized in CDMA systems. It does not try to allocate
separated frequencies or time resources to each user. Instead of this the system allocates all
resources to all users. Potentially, radio channel capacity in CDMA is larger than FDMA and
TDMA systems.
 21

Spread spectrum communication system is applied with Code Division Multiple Access in
which multiple users have access to the same frequency band. Spread spectrum refers to
power spreading over a given transmission bandwidth in DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence-
CDMA). This is accomplished by spreading the base-band binary data by means of high
speed pseudo noise (PN) code (called the chip rate). The composite high speed data are then
modulated and demodulated over the air.

In direct sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA) systems, the narrowband message signal is multiplied
by a very large-bandwidth signal which is called the spreading signal. The same carrier
frequencies are being used by all users in DS-CDMA systems and may transmit
simultaneously. Each user has its own spreading signal which is almost orthogonal to all other
users’ spreading signals. A correlation operation is performed by the receiver for detecting the
message addressed to a given user. The signals from other users appear as noise because of
de-correlation operation. The receiver requires the spreading signal for detecting the message
signal used by the transmitter. Each user operates independently to the other users with no
message which is called uncoordinated transmission.

CDMA Frequency Bands:

There are 12.5 MHz existing cellular bands which are divided to derive 10 different CDMA
bands. Therefore per band is 1.25 MHz. Each of these bands supports 64 Walsh codes limited
like W0, W1, W2, W3……….W63, where each code is functioned like a channel [3] [1].
Although these codes are not permitted to be used in the same band, but they can be used in
another band simply. However, several frequency bands are being permitted to be used in the
same cell or sector to enhance its capacity, as long as the frequencies are different.
 22

CHAPTER 3
Performance Degradation Factors of Wireless
Communications

There are several factors responsible for performance degradation in wireless

communication channels. Those factors are described in this chapter. The main performance
degradation factors are Path-loss, Shadowing-loss, Interference, Noise, Channel Spreading
and Fading of channels. Fading is specially described here because our main focus of this
thesis is fading based.

3.1 Characteristics of Wireless Communication Channel:

In radio communications, wireless communication channel works as transmission medium.
Characteristics of wireless communication depend on transmitting signal or information
riding on radio. Radio means electromagnetic wave here. Hence, the information suffers
attenuation effects by several reasons which are called fading of radio waves. These
attenuation effects can vary with time. This variation depends on user mobility, which makes
wireless a challenging medium of communication. Uncertainty or randomness is the main
characteristic of wireless communication. Types of randomness are two: randomness in users’
transmission channels and randomness in users’ geographical locations. These factors of user
in the wireless network systems lead a signal to random signal attenuation independently
through users.

Modulation of electromagnetic (radio) waves is utilized by wireless communication with a

carrier frequency. The frequencies vary from a few hundred MHz to several GHz but it
depends on the system. As a result, the behavior of the wireless communication channel is a
function of the radio (electromagnetic waves) propagation effects in an environment.
 23

Local to base

Picture 4: Local to base [16]

station

A typical wireless propagation environment at outdoor is seen in figure 2.1, where the mobile
wireless node is communicating with base station or a wireless access point. The transmitted
signal from the mobile may travel two ways. The signal may reach the access point directly
which is called line of sight (LOS) [16] or it may reach the access point through multiple
reflections on local scatters (buildings, mountains, bridges, trees etc.). As a result the received
signal has multiple random attenuation and of course with some delays. Moreover, the
mobility or movement of either the nodes or the scattering objects may cause these random
fluctuations to vary with time. Time variation results in random increasing or decreasing of
the transmitted signal strength over time period. In conclusion, an undesired interference may
be occurred by a shared wireless propagation because of simultaneous transmissions to the
transmitted signal. The combined effects of these discussed factors put wireless in a
challenging communication environment.

The difference from wired communication such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, is
that the transmission channel can’t be predicted or random and it can vary over as very short
time scales as microseconds [16]. The consequence gives the limited power resources which
leads the communication systems to new challenges in signal transmission. Moreover, the
equitable sharing of limited resources is an important challenge while the medium is
frequently shared by several users. In addition, freedom of mobility is an important factor to
the users and for that, the end users need to be located in order to information to them. This
situation makes the network topology very complex and a challenging dealing is needed for
 24

the challenging and complex wireless network. Finally, wireless devices are needed to
connect with an internet network infrastructure which is wired connected. As result a newly
challenge creates which is interoperability of these disparate communication media.

In wireless communication, it is impossible to get proper Line Of Sight (LOS) or properly

communicate between the communicating nodes because of some obstacles, made naturally
or constructively, between the nodes [16]. To overcome from this problem, a transmission
path is modeled randomly which has varying propagation path in such an environment. In this
kind of environment, signal propagation over multipath made us need to model wireless
channels as wireless multi-path channels.

Services are increasing dramatically because of users demand. Excess services lead air time
usage. Moreover, easy usability and cheaper services creates more and more users in wireless
communication industries. But the radio spectrum resources are limited, so system capacity is
a challenge to the wireless device and infrastructure designers. Some more challenges include
like-

1. Unfriendly medium due to presence of noise, interference, multipath and time variations.

2. Users' hand-held terminals have limited life time.

3. Offering efficient quality of services by efficient radio resource management.

3.2 Factors Affecting the Wireless Channels:

Wireless communication systems are performed by sending signals through radio propagation
environment. But radio propagation environment has some limitations of its performance
because of natural and constructive obstacles. Following impairments are responsible to the
sufferings of radio propagation.

 Path loss
 Shadowing loss
 Channel spreading
 Channel fading
 Interference
 Noise

Different copies of signal undergo different attenuation, distortion, phase shift and delays
during transmission. The overall performance of system degraded severely due to the above
problem.
 25

3.2.1 Path Loss:

When radio signal propagates in a space it losses power on the way of its propagation that is
called path loss. This is the signal attenuation and it happens because of the distance between
the communicating nodes of the system. This is a function of the distance between the mobile
and the base station and it defines the mean attenuation of the radio signal. The fact is that,
when radio wave propagates through an environment from a transmitter (Omni directional),
the fraction of the transmitter power gained by the receiver at a distance r away from the
receiver decreases with r. Experiments shows that attenuation D ≈ -Dt [16] The scale of
variation of D varies depending on the variation of distance r with time which is achieved by
mobility of communicating nodes. Additionally, radio frequencies, used antenna height and
propagation environment also play important roles on path loss. If huge obstructers obstructed
the propagation way of radio frequencies then it causes a very high attenuation comparing to
free space loss. The obstructers can be very high hills, buildings, bridges, deep forests etc. As
a result, the path loss is very less in flat and rural areas comparing to urban and hilly areas
.The character of path is that path loss is very slow with variation amongst the attenuation
effects.

The path loss in power varies gradually because of the signal attenuation which is determined
by the geometry of the path creates from received power in its whole area. Simply, a signal
attenuates according to propagation in a real channel. If a radio wave transmitted from a point
source in free space the path loss is power is,

L = (4d/)2 ------------------------------------------- (3.1)

Where  is wavelength of the signal; and d is distance between source and receiver.

The power of the signal decays is the squire of the distance. The same thing happens in
landline wireless communication also.

The mean power of a signal decays as the nth power of the distance:

L = cdn ----------------------------------------- (3.2)

Here, c is a constant and n is path loss exponent. The vales of c and n depend on the type of
environment. The n value is in between 2 and 5 but 4 is a common value in urban
environment in mobile communication. The value of n is 2 in free space propagation. The
signal variation in power follows the well known Friis Formula [2]. If the value is more than
2, it means there is an influence of structure on the way of propagation on the surface. The
value of n in sub-urban area is 2 to 4 and in a dense urban area n is 4 to 5. The power loss
causes the limit of coverage area of a wireless communication system.
 26

3.2.2 Shadowing:
Second factor is shadowing loss which effects on wireless channel. It is very difficult to
model Shadowing Loss. Shadowing is happen due to absorption of radio wave in the
propagation by scattering structures. In a normal sense, shadowing causes by the land surface
and obstructions between the transmitter and receiver in communication system. It remains
independent in concern of distance between receiver and transmitter. It is a random variable
which varies according to types of environment where radio wave propagates. Experiment
shows that it is modeled as well by a log normal distribution, for example, the attenuation
behavior is like,   ASL [16]. Where log (A) always follows the well known Gaussian
distribution. It can be said in other way like that, the measured attenuation is Gaussian
distribution in decibels. Moreover, Variation of time occurs when scattering environment is
changed. It can be said by an example like that that when a mobile moves to a corner of a
street, the time variation of shadowing loss is very difficult t model, and there are very few
experiment to study this situation. If we think about the quality and compare with path loss
and fading, we can describe that, shadowing loss varies faster than the path loss, but it is
slower than the fading (loss) [16] [3].

If a mobile unit is on moving, it does not affect the short term characteristics of the
shadowing. It’s because of the relatively large obstacles. However, shadowing behavior is
determined from the nature of the terrain surrounding of the base station, the mobile unit and
the height of the antenna. Shadowing adds some additional fluctuations around the system. As
a result, the received power as mean varies around the system area. Normally, shadowing is
modeled as a random process which is slowly time-varying and also multiplicative. If we
avoid all the other impairments, the received signal is [16]:

r(t) = g(t)s(t) …………………………………………. (3.3)

Here s(t) = transmitted signal
And g(t) = the random process which models the shadowing effect.

If we use an observation interval, we might let g(t) is a constant g. Normally, this s modeled
as a log normal random variable which has a density function as:

ln(g) = if g0 ………………………… (3.4)



Or, ln(g)= 0, if g0 ……………………….....

(2.5)

Here ln (g) is a Gaussian random variable and is mean value. Here is the variance. The
variance and the mean of the shadowing loss are measured in decibels. , the function of
the terrain and the antenna height, can be ranged between 4 dB to 12 dB in cellular and micro-
cellular environment.
 27

3.2.3 Interference:
The source of interference in a radio system can be originated at the system itself or it can be
located at external source. The self-centered interference can be divided into two types: inter-
cell and intra-cell interface. The inter-cell comes from other mobile stations and it normally
approximately 60% of total interference in a system. In the uplink case, the intra-cell interface
comes from other mobile station cells. If a communicating system uses multi-option access
technique, the users of the same cell or the neighboring cells of the system can be interfaced
with each other. Moreover, multiple propagation paths in a multi-paths channels interface
with each other. There are two types of interference, such as:

 Inter-symbol-interference (ISI)
 Co-channel-interference (CCI)

3.2.3.1 Inter-Symbol-Interference (ISI):

Inter symbol interference (ISI), an unavoidable consequence, is introduced by the delay
spread in a propagating channel in the both wired and wireless communication systems. When
symbol attempt to transmit, it spreads more than normal extension and smeared into the next
symbol and make interference. In short, a small part of symbol overlap on the next symbol
while transmit. It can be shown in figure:

Amplitude

Time

Symbol Time

Picture 5: (a) The transmitter symbols

 28

Amplitude

Time

Delay Spread Interference

Picture 6: (a) The received symbols

ISI can be controlled by slowing down the transmit data. When the received signal damps
down, then the next pulse of information should send [1]. The time it takes to damp is called
delay spread, and the original time of pulse is called symbol time. To suppressed ISI, we can
select a space-time filter that equalizes the channel. Moreover it can be controlled by using a
maximum likelihood sequence detector.

3.2.3.2 Co-Channel Interference (CCI):

The reason of creation of CCI is, when the neighboring cells operate at the same frequencies.
Some other factors of creation of CCI are insufficient cross-polarization isolation, non-
linearity of power amplifier, poor radiation from antenna side lobs, faulty filtering etc. The
CCI can be suppressed by using an orthogonal space time filter to the interference channels.
Another method to solve this problem is the estimation of Time of Arrival (TOA). This
method uses the synchronized time difference between original signal and the CCI signal. An
un-synchronized base station is used to suppressed the CCI signal and the signal without CCI
is received which has good data quality and good speech quality [17].
 29

Receiver 1 Receiver 2

Interference
Signal
Cell 2 Cell 1

Picture 7: Co-channel interference scenario for neighboring base station

3.2.4 Noise:
There are two types of noise which have a role play in radio wave propagation, natural noise
and man-made noise. The main source of 1st type of noise is the ignition systems of vehicles.
However, natural noise source such as galactic noise, solar, atmospheric noise, has less effect
in land-mobile communication systems but lots in radio channel. The noise generated in the
components in the communication systems also corrupt the received signals besides the
natural and man-made noise. The characteristics of different noise sources are simply
different but the noise process most commonly and frequently modeled with Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN). If the receiver components introduced thermal noise and dominates
the noise process then AWGN assumption the component is valid [3]. The AWN should be
taken into account when considering a system with very few users as it will impose a lower
bound on the bit error rate. However, if we want to think about the system capacity then we
consider the state in which the system has large number of users. In this case the noise is not
important factor like interference introduced by the other users in the system.
 30

3.2.5 Channel Spreading:

When information carrying signal energy spreads in space or concerning time or frequency
axis then the spreading of the signal is called ‘Channel Spreading’. Propagation of a radio
wave from a user or to a user in multipath channel is the reason why the signal energy to
spread in the space dimension, time or in the frequency axis. The design of receiver is
affected by the characteristics of channel spreading.

There are two types of channel spreading such as:

 Doppler spread
 Delay spread

3.2.5.1 Doppler Spread:

Due to movement of the communicating device or other components in a multipath
propagation environment the information carrying radio signal experience a shift in frequency
domain. The shift in frequency domain is also called Doppler shift. The amplitude of the
Doppler shift is depends on the path direction of the signal arrival. Doppler shift is much
smaller than the carrier frequency and it is bounded to positive and negative amplitude. For
example, it can be seen that component waves arriving from ahead of the vehicle experience a
positive Doppler shift, while those arriving from behind the vehicle have a negative Doppler
shift [18].

If surrounding scatters are present with multi-directions and a pure tone is spread over a finite
bandwidth, then Doppler power spectrum is the Fourier transform of the received signal in
time domain and the support of the Doppler power spectrum is the Doppler spread. If the
scatters equally distributed in angle, then the Doppler power spectrum is given by classical
spectrum.

S (f) =

, ----------------------------------- (3.6)

, is the maximum Doppler shift, v is the mobile velocity, is carrier frequency, is

the variance.

If there is a source of energy coming from a particular direction such as in Line-of-sight

situation, the expression for the spectrum needs to be corrected as following. In that case the
Doppler shift of dominant path :
 31

S(f)+B(f - ) ……………………………………………………………….(3.7)

Here B is the ratio of direct to scattered path energy.

The result of Doppler spread in the channel characteristics is that it change the channel
characteristics sharply in time, it gives rise to the so called time selectivity. The fading
channel can be considered as constant during the coherent time and the coherent time is
inversely proportional to the Doppler spread. Typical values of Doppler spread are 10 to 250
Hz (Suburban areas), 10 to 20 Hz (Urban areas), 10 to 100 Hz (Office areas). A person
walking at 10km/h induce a maximum Doppler spread of 22 Hz at 2.4 GHz. (Reference:
Broadband wireless access by Benny Bing, page- 5). A Doppler spread makes good channel
tracking which is an important feature of receiver design.

3.2.5.2 Delay Spread:

Sometimes, multipath propagation is characterized by different version of transmitted signal
arriving at the receiver attenuation factors and delays. When spreading in time domain then it
called delay spread and this is responsible for the selectivity of the channel in frequency
domain. The coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to the delay spread. The
significant delay spread causes strong inter-symbol interference.

3.2.6 Channel Fading:

Fading in a channel is the propagation losses by radio signal on both forward and reverse
links. This impairment is a major problem of wireless communication channel. Fading
introduce for the combined effect of multiple propagation paths, high speed of mobile units
and reflectors. Multiple path fading has a small scale effect. In a multi-path propagation,
received signal by a mobile terminal comes from a large number of propagation paths.
Reflection, diffraction, scattering in radio wave in natural structure and human made structure
like building, bridge are responsible for the creation of multi-path propagation [4]. Received
signal suffers variation in magnitude and phase due to the multiple propagation paths and it
interfere each other in both constructively and destructively which depends on the spatial
position of the receiver. This variation in the received signal is called multipath fading and
this fading is depends on the rate of speed of the receiver motion and the objects around the
receiver. The performance of a wireless communication system in term of probability error
can be severely degraded by fading.

In mobile communication, there is not only multipath propagation exists but also its time
varying. The phenomena results a time-varying fading channel. It’s very difficult to
communicate through this kind of fading channel in communication systems. But there is
some special technique may be taken to achieve satisfactory performance. In wireless
communication, the received signal comes from both direct part and the path of scattering,
 32

reflections and diffractions. Because of the propagation loss, the effect of the terrain
configuration implement small-scale long term fading which is also called shadowing fading
and it changes with the atmosphere and electrical constants. Natural and man-made structures
such as buildings, traffic, motion, trees, hills and the other nearby environment would cause
the multi-path fading on the received signal called short-term fading.

3.3 Parameters of a Fading Channel:

The general time-varying channel model is not so easy but very complex for understanding as
well as performance analysis for wireless communication channels. One of many approximate
channel models is the WIDE-SENSE STATIONARY UNCORRELATED SCATTERING
(WSSUS). In WSSUS model, the time varying fading is seems to be wide-sense stationary
random process and the signal copies from the scattering by different objects are assumed to
be independent. The followings are some parameters used sometimes to characterize a
WSSUS channel.

3.3.1 Multi-path Spread, Tm

When we send a very narrow pulse in a fading channel, the received power can be measured
as a function of time delay as shown in figure 2.2. The average received power P(r) is called
multi-path intensity profile or delay power spectrum when  is a function of excess time
delay. Sometimes, P(r) is essentially non-zero over a range of values of a function of excess
time delay . Then it’s called multipath spread of the channel, symbol is Tm. We can find the
maximum delay between paths of significant power in the channel. In an urban environments,
and the range of Tm is between 0.5 s and 5 s [3].

Transmitted impulse
Average received power

t Tm

Picture 8: Multi-path delay profile

 33

3.3.2 Coherent Bandwidth, (∆f) c

In a fading channel, signals with different frequencies can undergo different degrees of
fading. Coherent bandwidth in channel gives us an idea how far signals should be separated in
frequency. If two frequency signals are separated by more than coherent bandwidth then the
signals may undergo different degrees of fading. The relationship between (∆f) c and Tm is
[18]:

(∆f) c ≈ ……………………………………………….. (3.8)

3.3.3 Coherent Time,

The channel impulse responses vary with time in a time varying channel. The coherent time
identify the time duration over which the channel impulse is invariant or highly correlated. As
a result, if the time duration is smaller than the coherent time then the channel considerably
invariant during the reception of symbol [11]. Different time –invariant model is still need in
different symbol intervals due to the time varying nature of a channel.

3.3.4 Doppler Spread,

A signal propagating in a channel may undergo frequency shift or Doppler shift due to its
time varying nature. If a bunch of frequency is transmitted through a channel, the received
power spectrum can be plotted against the Doppler shift according to following figure. The
consequence is called Doppler power spectrum. The Doppler spread is the range of the values
where the Doppler power spectrum is non-zero. It gives the maximum range of Doppler
shifts. Coherent bandwidth and Doppler spread is related by the following equation:

≈ ……………………………………………… (3.9)
 34

Average received power

Signal tone f
Doppler shift

Picture 9: Doppler power spectrum

3.3.5 Mean Path Loss:

The mean path loss describes the attenuation of a radio wave in a free space propagation
environment due to isotropic power spreading which is given by the inverse squire law [2],


…………………………………… (3.10)


Here and are received and transmitted powers,  is wavelength of the radio wave, d is
the range are gains of transmitter and receiver respectively. The main path is
accompanied sometimes by a surface reflected path which may destructively interfere with
the primary path. There is a model called path loss model is developed to handle this effect.
The model is [2]:

……………………………………. (3.11)

Here are the effective heights of transmitter and receiver respectively. This path loss
model built in according to an inverse fourth power law and the path loss exponent may vary
from 2.5 to 5 depending on the environment.
 35

3.4 Classification of Fading Channels:

Time varying fading channels may be classified as following depending on the parameters of
the channels and characteristics of the signal to be transmitted:

 Frequency non-selective vs. frequency selective fading.

 Fast fading vs. slow fading
 Large scale fading vs. small scale fading
 Ricean fading vs. Rayleigh fading

3.4.1 Frequency Non-selective vs. Selective Fading:

Considering the comparison between bandwidth of transmitted signal and coherent
bandwidth, if the bandwidth of transmitted signal is small, then all the frequency components
of signal may approximately undergo the same degree of fading. This kind of channel is
called frequency non-selective or flat fading [8]. In a frequency non-selective channel, the
symbol duration is large enough comparing with coherent bandwidth because of the
reciprocal relationship between coherent bandwidth and coherent time , and
bandwidth and symbol duration. In this situation, delays are relatively small between different
paths compare to the symbol duration. It is expected to receive only one copy of signal with
the gain and phase determined by the superposition of all those copies come within the
coherent time.

However, considering the same parameters if the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is large
then different frequency component may undergo of different fading. This kind of channel is
called frequency selective fading. The symbol duration is small comparing to coherent
bandwidth due to their reciprocal relationship. Delays between different paths can be large
respect to the symbol duration. It is then expected to receive multiple copies of signal.

3.4.2 Fast Fading vs. Slow Fading:

If there is a long term shadowing effect of buildings or natural objects in terrain then slow fading
occur in a channel. The local mean is influenced by the environment types. Therefore, it is really
difficult to make a prediction. However, if it is plotted the signal fluctuation in a logarithmic scale, the
fluctuation approaches a normal distribution. This kind of distribution is called log-normal. The
typical value of the standard deviation of shadowing distribution is 8 in Decibel.

When the symbol duration is small comparing to coherent time , then the channel is
called slow fading channel. This type of channel often modeled as time invariant channels
 36

over a number of symbol intervals. Moreover, slow varying channel parameters can be
estimated by different types of estimation techniques.

Multipath propagation characteristics of a radio signal results path signals to add up to

random phases in both ways constructively or destructively at the receiver end. These phases
can vary extremely rapid way along with the receiver end and can be determined by the path
length, and the carrier frequencies. If we consider a large number of scattered wave fronts
which has random amplitude and angles and if we consider that it arrives at the receiver end
with uniformly distributed phases [0, 2], then in-phase and quadrature-phases components of
the vertical electrical field can described Gaussian process. The presence of a direct path in
space, it will no longer be a Rayleigh distribution. Then it becomes a Ricean distribution.

When there is a close or smaller coherent time to/than symbol duration, the channels is fast
fading or time-selective fading. It is still a difficult phenomenon to estimate the parameters of
the channel in a fast fading channel.

3.4.3 Large Scale Fading vs. Small Scale Fading:

Large scale fading is considered the mean path loss variation over distances that are
proportional to the size of obstructive features between base station and the mobile. In this
case, the receiver is differently shadowed by the obstructive features at a sufficient distance.
The signal variation in level due to large-scale fading follows a log-normal distribution. The
standard deviation of the signal in this kind of fading channels depends on the propagation
environment and the distance between the mobile and the base station.

However, small-scale fading is a phenomenon creates by the multipath propagation in a

channel. Multi-path channels include one or more than one reflected propagation paths
between a transmitter and a receiver to a feasible line-of-sight (LOS) propagation path. In
addition with propagation via dominating reflectors such as high mountains, large buildings,
the transmitted signal can be scattered by structures present in around of transmitter or
receiver. The destructive interference between multi-paths may be a reason to fade the
channel greater than 20 dB [3].
 37

3.4.4 Rician Fading vs. Rayleigh Fading:

There is a variation of fading loss during sampling a radio wave in various spatial locations. If
there are enough scatters in a dense multipath environment, the complex amplitude is well
modeled by a Gaussian distribution. If there is a line-of-sight (LOS) propagation path in
between transmitter and receiver, then the mean Gaussian distribution is non-zero [2]. It leads
to attenuation with absolute value of complex amplitude which is Ricean distribution and it
terms as Rician fading. The signal variation follows Rice probability density function (PDF)
in channel here.

If there is a line-of-sight (LOS) propagation path in a dense urban environment, then there is a
zero mean Gaussian distribution which is leading to a Rayleigh distributed attenuation and the
channels is called Rayleigh fading channel. The envelope fluctuations of the signal follow the
Rayleigh PDF in Rayleigh fading channel and the signal comes from almost the directions
with the same average power. The Rayleigh fading is predominant and worst case in typical
land mobile communication systems. Multipath fading phenomena occurs in three situations.
If the mobile unit and the nearby scattering objects all moving, If the mobile unit is standing
but the nearby scattering objects are moving and if the mobile unit and the nearby scattering
objects all standing.
 38

CHAPTER 4
Diversity Technique for Wireless Channel
Several types of diversity techniques are described in this chapter. In section 4.3, several
types of diversity techniques such as Multipath Diversity, Spatial Diversity, Time Diversity,
Polarization Diversity, Angle diversity, Antenna Diversity are described. Every diversity
technique has some branches. Those are also introduced with the respective diversity
technique description. For example, Transmit diversity has two branches such as close-loop
transmit diversity and open-loop transmit diversity.

4.1 Diversity Concept:

The reception of a signal in a channel transmitted through any type of fading channel
degrades in quality if the signal level attenuation is below the expected operation region of the
receiver. In this situation, the received signal power is not expectedly enough comparing with
signal noise and interference power for reliable reception. The solution to overcome the
channel attenuation because of fading problem in channel is to increase the transmitted power
adjusted to the attenuation which is called power control (PC) [4]. On the other hand, there
are two primary problems with this power control (PC) system.

One of these problems is that the dynamic range of the transmitter and the required
transmitting power is extremely high if it’s intended to fully compensate the fading. This is
impossible because of the radiation power limitations, the cost and the size of the amplifiers,
and the limited battery power in the portable unit. Moreover, excess transmitted power
increases the interference level at the other channels and users in the system unit. Another
problem in power control (PC) approach that a feedback link is needed for the channel unless
the operation of the radio channel is in time division duplex (TDD) mode. In a TDD system,
the same frequency band is used for the downlink transmission from the base station to
mobile unit and for the uplink transmission from the mobile unit to the base station. As a
result, the transmitted signal undergoes the fading channel as the received signal due to its
reciprocal characteristic of the channel, the transmitted power of transmitter is adjusted
according to the received signal power. The feedback information usage decreases throughout
the channel and increases the complexity in the system [4]. Even an appropriate feedback link
may not available in some application.

Using PC the fading can’t be overcome completely but the attenuation may compensate
considerably. It can mention that large-scale fading can be compensated as well in the uplink
of a system, for example CDMA. But stringent power control is required in prevention near-
far problem in the system. The rate of large-scale fading is simply slow, as a result it can be
tracked well and the delay in the feedback of the power control commands can be neglected
 39

comparing with the rapid fading. On the other hand, small-scale fading can result in such
rapid variations in the signal power that even the power control can’t follow them.

Another approach to minimize fading effect in a system is to supply multiple replicas of the
transmitted signal to the receiver which already have passed through different fading
channels. The result of this approach is that the probability that all replicas of the signal will
fade simultaneously is reduced [1]. This is called diversity and it is effectively and commonly
used to overcome degradation in performance due to interference and fading. If there is D
number of fading channels and the probability of any one channel may fade under some
threshold is P, then the probability of all D signals which fade below the threshold is . The
number of diversity channel D is called diversity order in the system.

4.2 Diversity Branches:

Diversity in wireless radio communication is originated at various sources and this diversity
can be achieved by several techniques. Moreover, several methods can be combined to obtain
higher diversity and its advantage. A diversity technique needs a number of transmitted signal
paths which are called diversity braches. These diversity branches carry the same information
with uncorrelated multi-path fading. A circuit also needed to combine the received signals or
need to select one of them. There are a number of methods to construct a diversity branches
depending on the land mobile radio propagation characteristics.

4.3 Diversity Techniques:

Diversity technique is used to decreased the fading effect and improve system performance in
fading channels. In this method, we obtain L copies of desired signal through M different
channels instead of transmitting and receiving the desired signal through one channel. The
main idea here is that some the signal may undergo fading channel but some other signal may
not. While some signal might undergo deep fade, we may still be able to obtain enough
energy to make right decision on the transmitted symbol from other signals. There is a
number of different diversity which is commonly employed in wireless communication
systems. Some of them are following:

 Multipath/frequency diversity
 Spatial/space diversity
 Temporal/time diversity
 Polarization diversity
 Angle diversity
 Antenna diversity
 40

4.3.1 Multipath or Frequency Diversity:

In a channel, Transmitted signals with different frequencies are affected different way in
frequency domain. The fact is an advantage in frequency diversity technique. Multiple
replicas of information signal are sent over several affected frequency band in this diversity
[5]. There should be a distance more than coherent bandwidth between the frequency bands
and achieve small-scale fading according to following equation.

Moreover, frequency hopping (FH) might be use to achieve such kind of diversity instead of
sending multiple frequency replicas over different affecting frequencies. Frequency band can
be changed many times per symbol in fast frequency hopping (FFH) and this results
frequency diversity on each transmitted symbol. This process is very beneficial in an
environment where there is a partial band jamming in channel [5]. However, a different
frequency band is used for a burst of symbol in slow frequency hopping (SFH). If SFH is
combined with time domain coding and interleaving, it is seen as like an additional block
interleaving in the frequency domain. This kind of spreading of information in a frequency
domain introduces frequency diversity benefit.

Frequency diversity can also be implied as in the case of multipath diversity. Transmission of
a wideband signal is given by the following equation where the bandwidth is more than the
coherence bandwidth of the previously used channel and this results a frequency
selective fading [3].

In a sufficient wide signal bandwidth, multipath components can resolve. In the result, it is
possible to obtain different independently fading signal. The number of resolvable multipath
given by the following equation is used to approximate the maximum achievable diversity
order for multipath diversity:

L= [ ]+1

Channel equalization is another approach to achieve multipath diversity. A filter is used at

receiver to make channel equalization to compensate the channel impairments. This process
combines the multipath of signals and reduces inter-symbol-interference (ISI) and produce
diversity.

In general, the information signals are modulated through different carriers M in frequency
diversity scheme. It is important that different signals undergo independent fading. The
carriers should be separated by at least coherent bandwidth from each other. L copies of
signals are optimally combined at the receiver to make a statistic decision. The maximum
ratio combiner is the optimal combiner.
 41

Ant Ant
Tx Rx

Comp Sw
mod ∑

Tx Rx

Picture 10: Frequency Diversity

4.3.2 Spatial/Space Diversity:

Multiple antennas are used to transmit signals with carrying information at the transmitter
and/or receiver to provide multiple independent fading paths in space diversity. This
technique is used to provide significant performance gain with not sacrificing any valuable
bandwidth on the transmitted power resources. Spatial diversity is widely used because it is
easy to implement and it’s cost effective and very simple. This technique has a single
transmitting but multiple receiving antennas. The receiving antennas should be at enough
distance for that the multiple fading in the diversity will be uncorrelated. There should be a
balanced average power between channels and the correlation coefficient should be very low
to achieve a good diversity gain [9]. While wide distance is required between antennas for
obtaining low correlation between channels but close distance is also required to synthesize to
make a narrow beam not generating grating lobes which prevent introducing interference.
Only one or two co-channel interfering signals are used in time division multiple access
(TDMA) systems. However, the number of signals is more in code division multiple access
(CDMA) the maximal ratio combining (MRC) is better than the performance of optimum
adapting processing. It is suggested that if we increase antenna element separation as much as
feasible the then high space diversity gain can be achieved with maximal ratio combining in a
CDMA system. Most of the cellular communication system has only one transmitting
antenna at the base station and two receiving antennas those are widely separated per sector in
a space diversity system.

In general, if we want to receive M copies of transmitted signals then we need M number of

antennas in a space diversity system [7]. It is very important to keep enough space between
the antennas so that the received signals undergo independent fading. Space diversity is
different than frequency and temporal diversity. Unlike those spaces diversity needs no
additional work at the transmission end and no additional bandwidth is required on the
transmission time.
 42

On the other hand, physical complexity restricts its application widely. Like several receiving
antennas use in space diversity, several transmission antennas also can be used to send several
copies of transmitted signals. This kind of diversity can be employed combating frequency
and time selective fading both.

There are two types of spatial diversity techniques such as receive diversity and transmit
diversity.

4.3.2.1 Receive Diversity:

Multiple antennas are use at the receiver to obtain diversity and employ switching and
combining or selection intending to improve the quality of received signal. Since it is easier
and cost effective to use multiple antennas at the base station than the terminal which is a
positive manner of receive diversity. This technique may utilize channel state information
(CSI) at receiver and it’s fully fit for uplink which is remote to base. But the main problems of
receive diversity are cost, size and necessary power at the remote units. This technique is
larger in size and expensive in cost because of multiple antennas, radio frequency chains or
selections and its switching circuits.

4.3.2.2 Transmit Diversity:

Unlike receive diversity, transmit diversity needs multiple transmitting antennas. Moreover,
unlike receive diversity, transmit diversity does not utilize CSI in its single information signal.
Effective signal processing technique should be used to extract the noisy and distorted
received signal in transmit diversity.

4.3.3 Time / Temporal Diversity:

Interleaving and coding, over symbols across different coherent time periods, is used to obtain
time or temporal diversity. This technique utilizes coding of channel and interleaving to
mitigate channel fading at a cost of added delay and loss of bandwidth efficiency. It is uses on
slow fading channels and on the channels which is delay sensitive.

Intentional redundancy is introduced into the transmitted signal to achieve time diversity in
the temporal domain. Redundancy can be done by repetition of channel coding. To make
repetition coding, information bearing signals are transmitted in several time slots. But the
separation between time slots should be more or equal than the coherent time of the channel
to obtain independent faded signals which helps to gain full diversity advantages. Moreover, it
 43

is possible to obtain repetition coding by spreading in direct-sequence code division multiple

access (DS-CDMA).

Channel coding, when there is an error control capability, may be performed separately or
with modulation. If we want to perform coding and modulation separately, then we can use
conventional error control coding to achieve redundancy in the form of extra symbols. The
advantage to this case is that the transmission of extra symbols leads to lower efficiency in
system bandwidth. On the other hand, if we want to perform coding and modulation together
(the process also called as coded modulation) then the redundancy comes from the channel-set
expansion. But the most beneficial process is ceded modulation because it is bandwidth
efficient since it allows error control coding without increasing the bandwidth.

If the successive channel symbols are independent and the channel is Rayleigh fading then the
effective minimum time diversity of the channel code is equal to its lowest hamming distance
in signal symbols. But the problem is that if the fading is not very fast then there are no
successive and independent channel symbols. As a result we can’t achieve full diversity in
the system. Longer fade duration with slower fading results burst errors if there is no use of
interleaving or effective burst error corresponding codes. The purpose of the interleaving is to
impose further spread out in time coded signal symbols to achieve independent errors at the
place of burst error. Therefore, a code is used which is capable to correct errors.

In general, a desired signal is transmitted in M different periods of time in time diversity. For
example, every symbol is transmitted M times. As it is mentioned earlier that intervals
between the transmitted symbols should be at least coherence time to make ensure that
different copies of the same symbol undergo independent fading. Maximum ratio combiner
can be used to obtain optimal combiner [10]. If we send the same symbol M times then it
applies the (M, I) repetition code. We can also use non-trivial coding. Error control coding
and interleaving is an effective way to combat time selective or fast fading.

Ant Ant

D
SW Rx Sw
D Tx

D Comp

Picture 11: Time diversity

 44

4.3.4 Polarization Diversity:

In polarization diversity, transmitted signals have uncorrelated fading statistics in VHF and
VHF land mobile radio system when signals should be transmitted through two orthogonally
propagations path [6].

Spatial diversity may achieve by using multiple antennas with independent polarizations in
the same location instead of multiple antennas in use in different locations. This is the method
of polarization diversity. If an implementation of spatial diversity with small dimensions is
desired, this is very attractive process. Normally two orthogonally polarized antennas are used
on horizontal and vertical planes or with a slope of to employ polarization diversity [6].
Experiments show that polarization diversity may obtain in dense scattering environments
when there is line of sight (LOS) and non-line of sight (non-LOS) situations.

4.3.5 Angle Diversity/ Pattern Diversity / Direction Diversity:

Equal data traffic is used on the both uplink (reverse link) and downlink (forward link) in
digital cellular communication but the system requires better reverse link performance
because of the limitation of mobile terminal transmit power. There is uplink capacity
deployed in CDMA system due to synchronize operation on forward link and asynchronies
operation on reverse link [7] [6]. If we need to achieve better uplink reliability then we can
use space diversity or polarization diversity. On the other hand, there is a huge demand of
data applications on downlink capacity comparing to the uplink capacity. Improvement of
reliability or downlink capacity is a major issue in three generation mobile system and the
other generation mobile communication systems in future. One promising solution to improve
downlink capacity is forming beam on downlink. It can also be implemented by forming
multiple fixed narrow beams or by steering a beam toward a user in the system. Additional
protection which the angle diversity provides is protection from deep multipath fading in
multiple beam systems. It is experimentally proved that the angle diversity is equally effective
as conventional space diversity in dense urban area and it provides approximately 8 dB
diversity gain at reliability level with selection combining.

A multiple fixed narrow-beam antenna or an array antenna, which is fully adaptive, transmits
and receives much more energy between the mobile terminal and base station comparing to a
wide beam antenna system [9]. On the other hand, a beam forming system using multiple
antennas may experiences multipath fading sometimes when the multipath components are
applied from very close angles. The base station antenna system in a dense urban environment
experiences antenna gain reduction and the multipath components will spread in wider angles.
In this case, it is wise to use angle diversity to avoid deep multipath fading by choosing the
best beam to collect energy. The size of the angle diversity is very smaller comparing to the
space diversity system where we need the wide separation between the receiving antennas.
 45

This diversity system needs a number of directional antennas those responds independently to
wave propagation. An antenna response to a wave propagates at a specific angle and receives
a faded signal which is uncorrelated with other signals.

Multipath components in a cluster those have individual arrival angles travel through different
paths and employ different fading. Very basic procedure to obtain angle diversity is to fix
antennas with narrow beam widths different sector in the system. Then the arriving multi-
paths from the different beam directions are resolved and combined advantageously. This
procedure not only creates diversity but also increases the antenna gain and reduces
interference by providing angular discrimination. It is mentioned earlier that one more method
of achieving diversity is to use antenna array with adaptive beam forming which termed as
path diversity sometimes.

4.3.6 Antenna Diversity:

Antenna diversity is a popular and extensively used technique to improve performance in
wireless communication systems. The technique reduces fast fading and inter-channel
interference effects in the wireless network system. In an antenna diversity system, two or
more antennas are used and fixed in positions which will provide uncorrelated signals with
the same power level. Then the signals are combined and created an improved signal. The
basic method of antenna diversity is that the antennas experiences different kind of signals
because of individual channel conditions and the signals are correlated partially. Then we can
expect that if one signal from one antenna is highly faded, other signals from other antennas
are not faded such way and these signals are our expected quality signals. In a multipath
propagation environment, each receiving signal experiences individual fading characteristic.

4.4 Why we use Transmit Diversity:

Sometimes, a base station has to serve for hundreds of thousands remote units. Therefore, it is
cost saving to add the necessary equipments to the base stations instead of the remote units.
This is the main reason that transmit diversity is very attractive to the wireless service
operators. For example, for covering service area of a base station, one antenna and one
transmit chain can be added to that base station to improve the reception quality of all the
remote units under the base station. Transmit diversity is more effective than receive diversity
for increasing the forwarding link that is the bottleneck in broadband asymmetric applications
such as browsing internet and downloading files.
 46

4.5 Types of Transmit Diversity Techniques:

There are three types of transmit diversity techniques:

 Schemes using feedback

 Schemes using forwarding feed without feedback
 Blind schemes

In the feedback schemes, the scheme uses either direct or indirect feedback from the receiver
to the transmitter to adjust the channel conditions. Indirect feedback can be used in time
division duplex (TDD) systems due to reciprocal channel in uplink and downlink. The same
diversity combing system, used for received signals from multiple antennas, can be converted
to distribute and weight for the transmission signals from multiple antennas. Indirect feedback
accuracy depends on the channel change during the dwell time between the uplink and
downlink transmission. In the direct feedback the receiver provides the transmission
information about the preferred weighting of the transmission antennas based on the
measurement of the receiver. The feedback information amount is a tradeoff between antenna
weighting accuracy and data throughput reduction of the uplink.

The next category schemes use feed forward information to compensate the receiver response
in the channel. The pilot symbol insertion is the commonly used method to obtain channel
estimation for coherent detection. For spreading the information across antennas, this
diversity schemes use feed forward information and linear processing at the transmitter. In the
reception section, the schemes estimate the state of the channel based on pilot symbols using
maximum-likelihood decoding sequence.

The last schemes category does not need feedback or feed forward information. Non-coherent
or differential detection is used generally in these schemes because coherent detection without
feed forward may be impossible due to fast fading. The phase sweeping transmit diversity is
one example of blind schemes. We may need to combat burst error due to slow fading by
using two transmit antennas, which are uncorrelated spatially, to generate force fading. After
that the interleaving depths and short block codes are used for making correction of forward
error. Quaternary differential phase shift keying (QDPSK) with differential detection is used
in these schemes category.

Again there are two main classes of transmit diversity, they are:

 Close-loop transmit diversity and

 Open-loop transmit diversity
 47

The close-loop (CL) uses a feedback channel to send Channel state information (CSI)
required at the receiver. The receiver sends back to transmitter which uses for signal design
while the Open-loop does not need CSI. On the condition of availability of CSI, which is ideal
meant error free and instantaneous, at the transmitters, close-loop techniques have an SNR
advantage of 10 ( ) over open-loop techniques due to the factor of ‘array gain’ [5].
But there are some other factors which are responsible to degrade the performance of close-
loop techniques such as channel estimation errors at the receiver, errors in feedback link (for
noise, interference, quantization effects), and feedback delay. Amongst them, feedback delay
causes a mismatch between the available CSI and the actual CSI. All of these factors
combined with extra bandwidth and system complexity resources. The process make open-
loop technique more attractive as a robust means for improving downlink performance for
high mobility applications while close-loop techniques become attractive under low-mobility
applications.

Delay diversity is one simple example for open-loop diversity. In a delay diversity scheme
employed for a single base station, where the symbols are transmitted different times through
multiple antennas, creates an artificial multipath distortion. It is essential to resolve the
multipath distortion. For that, a Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator (MLSE) or a
Minimum Mean Squire Error (MMSE) equalizer is used then obtain the targeted diversity
gain. So the main theme of delay diversity is that to transmit of the same information for M
antennas simultaneously with individual delay and the operating flat fading channel
intentionally into a frequency selective channel.

4.6 Capacity of Receive and Transmit Diversity:

Theoretically, receive diversity along with optimum combining improves capacity
significantly in fading channels. The capacity of receive diversity, transmit diversity and
combined receive-transmit diversity can be derived in the case of complex AWGN based on
the Shannon’s classical formula. But the capacity should be derived with independent
components at each of the receiver branches, and Rayleigh fading with independent fading on
each of the diversity branches.

The capacity of receiver diversity with possible combining can be presented by following
equation:

Where = average signal to noise ratio (SNR) at each of the receiver branches.

M= Number of receiver diversity branches

 48

= Random variable formed by summing M random variables of .

The power gain of the Rayleigh fading channel is Random variable with unit variance. The
probability density function (PDF) of is a central chi-squire with variance and zero
mean. Representation of random variable means the variation of received power from
the branches of fading diversity. In the result, the fading channel capacity is a random
variable.

However, in the transmit diversity, the total transmitted power distributed amongst the
transmitted antennas. As a result the average signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) of transmitted signal
components from the branches of diversity is a fraction of total SNR at the receiver.
Therefore, if the number of transmitting antenna is J then the capacity of the transmit diversity
is:

Here  1, using the large number rule. So, the capacity becomes as Gaussian
capacity . The fact is applicable when the number of transmitting antennas
increases. The practical gain in term of capacity is very little if more than four transmit
antenna and only one receive antenna is used.

If we use combined transmit-receive diversity then the capacity is absolutely greater than if
we use only receive diversity. The minimum level of capacity gain for a combined transmit-
receive diversity when J  M is:

The upper level of capacity for transmit-receive diversity is:

Here the transmitted signal components are un-coupled and there is no interference in the
received signal. It is observable that the capacity of combined transmit-receive diversity
increases linearly as a function of J when J  M. It is feasible to obtain almost all the diversity
capacity by using six transmit antennas and two receive antennas.
 49

Chapter 5
Combining Techniques of Diversity
If we want to get benefit from diversity technique then we must need to combine some
diversity technique to get advantage. Therefore, diversity combining concepts are described
in this chapter, in section 5.2, we described Maximal-ratio Combining (MRC), in section 5.3,
we described Equal-gain Combining (EGC) and in section 4.4, we described Selection
Combining (SC). Above three combining systems are our main focuses and applied in
experiments to improve performance in wireless communication systems. Block diagram of
combining methods are drawn in this chapter. Switched combining method, Periodic
combining method, Phase-sweeping methods are described shortly and their diagrams also
drawn in this chapter.

5.1 Concepts of Diversity Combining Techniques:

It is important to combine the uncorrelated faded signals which were obtained from the
diversity branches to get proper diversity benefit. The combing system should be in such a
manner that improves the performance of the communication system. Diversity combing also
increases the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the power of received signal. Mainly, the
combining should be applied in reception; however it is also possible to apply in transmission.
There are many diversity combining methods available but only three of them are going to be
discussed here.

 Maximal ratio combining (MRC)

 Equal gain combining (EGC)
 Selection combining (SC)

The combining processes which use to combine multiple diversity branches in the reception,
has two classes such as post-detection combing and pre-detection combining. The signals
from diversity branches are combined coherently before detection in pre-detection combining.
However, signals are detected individually before combining in post-detection. The
performance of communication system is the same for both combining techniques for
coherent detection. However, the performance of communication system is better by using
pre-detection combining for non-coherent detection. It does mean that there is no effect in
performance by the type of combining procedure for the coherent modulation case. The post-
detection combining is not complex in non-coherent detection, results very common in use.
There is a difference in system performance when used pre-detection combining and post-
detection combining for non-coherent detection such as frequency modulation (FM)
discriminator or differential detection schemes. Moreover, the terms pre-detection and post-
 50

detection are also indicates the time of combining means when the combining is performed,
before or after the hard decision.

Squire-law non-coherent combining is employed frequently in diversity reception when non-

coherent modulation methods are used. The demodulator outputs of all diversity branches are
squired and summed to form a decision variable when used squire-law pre-detection
combining. The system performance is decreased in non-coherent combining comparing to
coherent combining and the degradation is called combining loss.

5.2 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC):

This is a very useful combining process to combat channel fading. This is the best combining
process which achieves the best performance improvement comparing to other methods. The
MRC is a commonly used combining method to improve performance in a noise limited
communication systems where the AWGN and the fading are independent amongst the
diversity branches. But the MRC employment needs summing circuits, weighting and co-
phasing. In the MRC combining technique, the signals from different diversity branches are
co-phased and weighted before summing or combining. The weights have to be chosen as
proportional to the respective signals level for maximizing the combined carrier-to-noise ratio
(CNR). The applied weighting to the diversity branches has to be adjusted according to the
SNR. For maximizing the SNR and minimizing the probability of error at the output
combiner, signals of diversity branch is weighted before making sum with others by a
factor, . Here is noise variance of diversity branch and is the complex

conjugate of channel gain [1]. As a result the phase-shifts are compensated in the diversity
channels and the signals coming from strong diversity branches which has low level noise, are
weighted more comparing to the signals from the weak branches with high level of noise. The
term in weighting can be neglected conditioning that has equal value for all d. Then
the realization of the combiner needs the estimation of gains in complex channel and it does
not need any estimation of the power of noise.

It is feasible to employ MRC in transmission process of transmit diversity. But in this case the
transmitter should get proper feedback information about the sub-channels state between
single receive antenna and multiple transmit antennas. However, it is not feasible to weight
transmissions from multiple antennas optimally for every receiving antenna, in a combined
transmit-receive diversity channel. Moreover, if interference is limited in a communication
system, then there is a scheme which combines the diversity branches in order to maximize
the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio may allow much better performance than MRC
provides. The assumption is valid for spatially white Gaussian noise if we can observe noise
power at the receiver where just thermal noise is accounted. If we use the same type antenna
elements then the thermal noise power is uncorrelated and equal for each branch.
 51

Ant

 Rx
Ant
Det
Det

Rx

Picture 12: Maximal-ratio combining (MRC)

5.3: Equal-gain Combining (EGC):

MRC is the most ideal diversity combining but the scheme requires very expensive design at
receiver circuit to adjust the gain in every branch. It needs an appropriate tracking for the
complex fading, which very difficult to achieve practically. However, by using a simple phase
lock summing circuit, it is very easy to implement an equal gain combining. The EGC is
similar to MRC with an exception to omit the weighting circuits. The performance
improvement is little bit lower in EGC than MRC because there is a chance to combine the
signals with interference and noise, with the signals in high quality which are interference and
noise free. EGC’s normal procedure is coherently combined the individual signal branch but it
non-coherently combine some noise components according to following figure:

Q C
Q A
A
B
B
t
t
C

(1) Non-coherent branch signal. (2) Coherent combining

Picture 13: Concept of coherent combining, complex signal diagram illustration.

The EGC can employ in the reception of diversity with coherent modulation. The envelope
gains of diversity channels are neglected in EGC and the diversity branches are combined
 52

here with equal weights but conjugate phase. The structure of equal-gain combining (EGC) is
as following since there is no envelope gain estimation of the channel.

 Rx

Det
Det
Rx

Picture 14: Equal gain combining (EGC)

5.4 Selection Combining (SC):

MRC and EGC are not suitable for very high frequency (VHF), ultra high frequency (UHF) or
mobile radio applications. Realization of a co-phasing circuit with precise and stable tracking
performance is not easy in a frequently changing, multipath fading and random-phase
environment. SC is more suitable comparing to MRC and EGC in mobile radio application
because of simple implementation procedure. In SC, the diversity branch which has the
highest signal level has to be selected. Therefore, the main algorithm of this method is on the
base of principle to select the signal amongst the all signals at the receiver end. If there is even
a fast multipath fading environment, the stable operation easily can be achieved. It is
experimentally proved that the performance improvement achieved by the selection
combining is just little lower than performance improved achieved by an ideal MRC. As a
result the SC is the most used diversity technique in wireless communication.

The general form of selection combining is to monitor all the diversity branches and select the
best one (the one which has the highest SNR) for detection. Therefore we can say that SC is
not a combining method but a selection procedure at the available diversity. However,
measuring SNR is quite difficult because the system has to select it in a very short time. But
selecting the branch with the highest SNR is similar to select the branch with highest received
power when average power of noise is the same on each branch. Therefore, it is practical to
select the branch which has the largest signal composition, noise and interference. If there is
an availability of feedback information about the channel state of the diversity branch the
selection combining also can be used in transmission.
 53

Rx

Comp Det

Rx

Figure: Selection combining (SC)

5.5 Switched Combining (SWC):

It is impractical to monitor the all diversity branches in selection combining. In addition, if we
want to monitor the signals continuously then we need the same number of receivers and
branches. Therefore, the form of switched combining is used to implement selection
combining. According to the figure (a), switching from branch to branch occurs when the
signal level falls under threshold. The value of threshold is fixed under a small area but the
value is not the best necessarily over the total service area. As a result the threshold needs to
be set frequently according to the movement of vehicle fig (b). It is very important to
determine the optimal switching threshold in SWC. If the value of threshold is very high, then
the rate of undesirable switching transient increases. However, if the threshold is very low
then the diversity gain is also very low. The switching of switch combining can be performed
periodically in the case of frequency hopping systems.

Performance improvement obtained by the switching method leys on the value of threshold
selection, the delay of time that creates from the loop of feedback of monitoring estimation,
switching and decision. Moreover, phase transients and envelope of a carrier can reduce the
improvement of performance. In the system of angle modulation, for example, GSM, the
phase transient is responsible to create errors in detection stream of data. In this case, a pre-
detection band pass filter may be used to remove envelope transients.

Ant
Switch
Ant
Rx Det

Comp
Fixed
Threshold

(a)
 54

Ant
Switch
Ant
Rx Det

Comp Estimation

(b)

Picture 15: Switching combining methods with fixed threshold (a) and variable threshold (b).

5.6 Periodic Switching Method:

In a simple switching method, the diversity branches are selected periodically by a
conventional, free-running oscillator. This procedure is useful in comparably large deviational
and low-speed frequency modulation systems which includes phase transients creates by
switching can be diminished. The only selectable parameter switching rate can be chosen as
twice the height of the bit rate of signal. As a result the signal of the better branch can select
per signaling period. The performance can be improved as the same amount as it does at
conventional switching method by using FM discriminator which follows a suitable low-pass
filter (LPF). However, performance improvement may reduce in adjust-channel area because
this channel spectrum may be folded into desired channel band by periodic switching in the
pre-detection radio frequency stage. So we can see an overlap here which can be solved by
rising selectivity of the adjust-channel at the receiver.

Ant
Switch
Ant
Rx Det

 Oscillator

Picture 16: Periodic switching method

 55

5.7 Phase Sweeping Method:

Phase sweeping method is another version of switching method which uses a single receiver.
In phase sweeping method sweeping rate is more than twice the highest frequency of
modulation signal. But we can gain the same diversity improvement which we achieve by the
periodic switching method. The phase sweeping method is as like mode-averaging method
where spaced antennas are used with electrically scanned directional patterns. On the other
hand, Phase sweeping method may be applicable to Digital Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) and
FM systems.

Ant
Ant

 Rx Det

Ant


Sweep signal

Picture 17: Phase sweeping combining.

 56

CHAPTER 6
Performance Analysis of Different Combining Techniques

To analyze the performance the performance of several combining techniques, necessary

mathematical equations are written and obtained. Section 6.1 describes the performance of
maximal ratio combining. In section 6.2 Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR) and Carrier to
Interference Ratio (CIR) are examined in the cases of with and without diversity. The
equations for CNR and CIR are obtained in the case of Maximal-ratio Combining (MRC),
Equal-gain Combining (EGC) and Selection Combining (SC). The calculations used in this
chapter were taken from [1] and some of them were calculated.

6.1 Performance of Maximal Ratio Combining:

If we consider that the fading is constant over one symbol period, the bit error probability of
maximal-ratio combined the Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) with gray coding over
Rayleigh fading of D diversity branches. Which are corrupted by AWGN and having equal
Signal to noise ratio. Then the equation of the bit error probability is:

--------------------------- (6.1)

Where is depends on the type of channel estimation and can be interpreted as cross
correlation coefficient. cab be expressed using following equation in the case of coherent
detection in conditioning perfect channel estimation.

------------------------------------------------------------ (6.2)

is received SNR for every diversity channel in average. The equation of M-array Phase
Shift Keying (PSK) in the corresponding SNR per bit is:

----------------------------------------------------------------- (6.3)

A QPSK signal can be expressed as two Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) signals in phase
quadrature [3]. As a result, if there is no cross talk or interference between signals on two
quadratures then the bit error probability for QPSK and BPSK is similar. If there is no
additional interference in an AWGN channel then the noise in the in-phase and quadrature
components is independent. Therefore, the equation of bit error probability of coherent BPSK
is used to find the bit error probability of coherent QPSK or the reverse way. On the other
 57

hand, if the bit error probability is a function of , the received SNR per channel in average
must be normalized by the number of bits per symbol in QPSK.

The bit error probability in AWGN channel is expressed by the following equation:

------------------------------------------- (6.4)

The equation (5.1) can’t apply if the SNR in all branches are identical. If the mean SNR of all
diversity branches are distinct then the bit error probability for coherent QPSK is defined by:

----------------------------- (6.5)

Here

-------------------------------------------- (6.6)

The estimated correlation between two diversity branches is equal. In such dual diversity, the
bit error probability of QPSK and BPSK with MRC for correlated fading is:

--------------------- (6.7)

6.2 Performance Improvement in the case of Carrier-to-Noise

Ratio (CNR) and Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (CIR):
Here we need to investigate a diversity system with two branches using pre-detection
combing. Practically, mobile radio systems use these systems very effectively. We need to
define the statistics of CNR and CIR without diversity summing a Rayleigh fading model. In
CNR, is proportional to the square of a Rayleigh distributed signal envelope (Reference).
The probability density function (pdf) of is expressed by the exponential distribution
equation, (  0)

------------------------------------------- (6.8)

Here the average of is .

In the case of CIR,  is the ratio of squired signal envelope to squired interference envelope.
Both of the envelopes are independent and Rayleigh distributed random variables. The pdf of
 ( 0) is F-distribution and measured by the equation,

 
----------------------------------------- (6.9)
 58

The average value of  is .

Let the CNR of each diversity branch , where i=1, 2 and let the CNR of combined branch
.

The three combining method is expressed by the following equations,

for the case of maximal-ratio-combining -------------------( 6.10a)

for the case of equal gain combining -------------------- (6.10b)

for the case of selection or switching ----------(6.10c)

Rayleigh fades are independent on the diversity branches and faded signals have equal
average power such as .

Here (i=1,2) means the average value of (i=1,2). The equations of pdf for the three
combining methods of are:

Maximal-ratio-combining ------------------------------- (6.11a)

Equal gain combining --------------------------------------------- (6.11b)

Selection or switching combining---------- (6.11c)

It is approximated that << . The probability that does not exceed the specified value of ,
can be calculated by the integral,

---------------------------------------- (6.12)

In the same way, the pdf of  can be expressed by following equations,


  
Maximal-ratio combining -------------------------- (6.13a)


 
Equal gain combining ------------------------------ (6.13b)


  
Selection or switching combining ------------- (6.13c)

This has been assumed a perfect-pilot co-phasing scheme for maximal ratio and equal gain
combining methods. However, comparably larger desired signal power algorithm assumed for
 59

selection combining method. The mutual correlation within four Rayleigh fades which is
visible on desired signals and the interference which is undesired found at respective branches
are negligible. As like as average CNRs, average CIRs are equal to each. Therefore,
. The value of out-age is,

    ---------------------------------- (6.14)

6.3 Average Probability of Error ( Performance Improvement:

The reduction of permissible value ( of CNR and CIR is considered for the performance
improvement of diversity techniques. Extensive study taken place about diversity
improvement which effects on the average ( performing at multipath radio fading
transmission channels. The effects of nonselective envelope fades have been taken into
account to analyze diversity improvements for digital land mobile radio transmission systems.
We are going to discuss a two branch prediction diversity improvement effects on the average
( performance of minimum shift keying (MSK) wireless communication systems in a
nonselective Rayleigh fading environment.

The resultant study of the simplest MSK diversity systems can be useful in advance
modulated wireless diversity structures.

6.3.1 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) vs Performance Improvement:

Taking a case study where the effect of co-channel interference (CCI) is ignored. Using an
ideal selection method, we consider the average ( vs CNR performance in two condition
such as with diversity ] and without diversity . Both are expressed from the
equations (5.8) and (5.11c) mentioned before.

-------------------------- (6.15)

-------------------------------- (6.16)

Here is static vs CNR performance in the non-fading channel. As a result the

relationship between and ] is as following,

----------------------------------- (6.17)

In the similar way following equation is obtained for maximal-ratio combining using the
equation (5.10a),
 60

] ------------------------------- (6.18)

These relationships can also be used for the case of M-branches diversity reception instead of
2-branch.

Using relationship obtained in Feher and ] in the case of non-diversity MSK

modulation, we get

------------------------------------------ (6.19a)

in the case of discriminator detection

--------------------------------------------------- (6.19b)

In the case of differential detection.

-------------------------------------- (6.19c)

In the case of coherent detection

Now we substitute equations from (6.19) into equation (6.17) to find the equations for
in selection method,

-------------------------------- (6.20a)

In the case of discriminator detection

----------------------------------------------------------- (6.20b)

In the case of differential detection

-------------------------------------- (6.20c)

In the case of coherent detection

 61

Again, we substitute equations from (6.19) into equation (6.18) to find in the case
maximal ratio combining method,

---------------------------- (6.21a)

In the case of discriminator detection

--------------------------------------------------------------------- (6.21b)

In the case of differential detection

---------------------------------------- (6.21c)

In the case of coherent detection

5.3.2 Vs carrier-to-interference (CIR) performance improvement:

The case we consider here is ‘the effect of co-channel interference is the major cause of
error’. The deviation of the -Vs-CNR performance and the -Vs-CIR performance is equal.

The final equations in maximal ratio combining method are [1],

-------------------------------------------------- (6.22a)

In the case of discriminator detection

------------------------------ (6.22b)

In the case of different detection

------------------------------------------- (5.22c)

In the case of coherent detection

 62

Chapter 7
Computational Method and Computational Result
7.1 Computational Method:
The parameters used in the equations and computations are:

= The instantaneous carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR)

 = The instantaneous carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR)

= The probability density function (pdf) of

 = The probability density function (pdf) of 

= The average value of

= The average value of 

= A specified value of

 = A specified value of 

= Probability of error


 63

Program 1:
Equation (6.12) for equations (6.8), (6.11a) and (6.11c) gives graphs in terms of probability
distribution of versus the ratio ( / ) in dB.

2
10
no diversity
1 selection diversity
10
maximal ratio combining

0
10

-1
10
probability

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
10log10(Eb/No)(dB)

Figure 7.1: Cumulative probability distribution as function of CNR (Average CNR at 0 in

X-axis).
 64

Program2:
Equation (6.14) for equations (6.9), (6.13a) and (6.13c) gives graphs in term of probability
distribution of  versus the ratio (/ ) in dB.

1
10
no diversity
selection diversity
0
10 maximal ratio combining

-1
10
probability

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
10log10(Eb/No)(dB)

Figure7.2: Cumulative probability distribution of CIR  (Average CIR at 0 in X-axis)

 65

Program3:
Equation (6.19) and (6.20) gives graphs for average -versus-CNR performance for the
selection method.

4
10
discriminator detection
differential detection
2
10 coherent detection

0
10
average Pe

-2
10

-4
10

-6
10

-8
10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
average CNR in dB

Figure7.3: Average Pe-versus-CNR performance for selection method.

 66

Program4:
Equation (6.19) and (6.20) gives graphs for average -versus-CNR performance for
maximal-ratio-combining method.

4
10
discriminator detection
differential detection
2
10 coherent detection

0
10
average Pe

-2
10

-4
10

-6
10

-8
10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Average CNR in dB

Figure 7.4: Average Pe-versus-CNR performance for the maximal ratio combining method.
 67

Program5:
Equations (6.19a), (6.19c) and (6.22a, (6.22c) gives graphs for average -versus-CIR
performance for maximal ratio combining method.

4
10
discriminator detection
differential detection
2
10 coherent detection

0
10
average Pe

-2
10

-4
10

-6
10

-8
10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
average CIR in dB

Figure 7.5: Average Pe-versus-CIR performance for the maximal ratio combining method.
 68

7.2 Performance Analysis:

The performance improvement of diversity systems is expressed in terms of the permissible
reduction of the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) and carrier-to-Interference ratio (CIR)
that are required to obtain a specified probability of error (Pe). The performance improvement
is also evaluated in terms of the statistical reduction of the fading dynamic range of the
average CNR and CIR.

The intention of this study is to investigate two branches (N=2) of diversity systems using
pre-detection combining which is very useful and effective in radio mobile communications.
The first examination is done to study the statistics of CNR and CIR without diversity
concerning a Rayleigh fading model. The same experiment is done with diversity. The study
for -versus-CNR and -versus-CIR performance improvements also has been done.

It can be concluded from figure 7.1 that the fading dynamic range of the instantaneous CNR
is reduced remarkably by the use of the diversity techniques and there is only a slight
difference among the performance improvements of the combining methods. is the average
value of . We considered average CNR at point 0 in X-axis.

In figure 7.2, it is shown that the fading dynamic range of the instantaneous CIR  is reduced
remarkably by diversity techniques. There is only a slight difference in performance
improvements of the various combining methods. The is the average value of . The
probability is the probability that CIR  is less than a determined value of . We considered
average CIR at point 0 in Y-axis.

Figure 7.3 and 7.4 indicate that for a certain average Pe, a higher amount of average CNR is
required for non-diversity system, while a smaller amount of CNR is required for a two
branch diversity technique. Diversity improvement effect is shown in case of an MSK
modulation system in nonselective Rayleigh-fading environment.

Figure 7.5 indicates that as in figure 7.3 and 7.4, in order to improve the average Pe at a
particular time, it is only necessary to increase the CIR by a smaller factor when two-branch
diversity improvement is available, whereas an increase of higher CIR is required in the case
of no diversity reception. In this case MSK and FQPSK, modulated and coherently
demodulated GMSK systems are considered in the Rayleigh-fading environment.

We can see that the maximal-ratio combining (MRC) achieves the best performance
improvement comparing to other methods.
 69

Chapter 8
Discussion and Conclusion
8.1 Discussion:
Communication is very important in this world. We have two types of communication such as
wired communication and wireless communication. Wireless communication is divided into
mobile communications and fixed wireless communications. Each type of communication has
huge demand according to customers need in the market. Wireless communication have
passing a revolutionary era to transmit data and information to remote area which we would
not even imagine. Wireless data transmission gives us every opportunity to get all feasible
necessary access to the world wherever we are and wherever we need from. It has gained
exponential growth of subscribers during last 10 to 12 years and continues to expand
everyday with new technology invention.

The uncertainty or randomness is the main characteristic of wireless communication. This

randomness appears in users’ transmission channel and users’ location. Transmission of data
and information is carried out in radio propagation environment. Again radio propagation
environment has some basic limitations in performing in wireless communication systems.
For such reasons, wireless communication suffers channels from much impairment which
leads the overall system performance severally degradation.

Though there are many performance degradation factors in wireless communication channels
but fading problem is the major impairment problem. Fading means the loss of propagation
experienced by the radio signal on forward and reverse links. The signals which is received by
mobile terminals come from several propagation paths those are called multi-path
propagation. Reflection, diffraction and scattering of radio waves in natural and human made
structures are the main causes to introduce multipath in propagation. The received signal at
the receiver suffers magnitude and phase variation due to multiple paths of propagation.
Those interfere themselves constructively and destructively. This variation of received signal
is called multipath fading.

To improve the performance of those fading channels, diversity techniques are used. In
diversity technique, the receiver is supplied multiple replicas of transmitting signals instead of
one signal that have passed over different fading channels. As a result, the probability that all
replicas of signals will fade simultaneously is reduced considerably.

For getting full benefit, uncorrelated faded signals are collected from diversity branches and
combine in such manner that can improve the performance of communication systems. This is
called diversity combining method and also used to optimize received signal power or signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR). The main idea of diversity combining is to combine several copies of
transmitted signals which were gone through independent fading in order to increase overall
received SNR. This combining method can be used in receiver mainly.
 70

The performance improvement of a diversity system means its ability to reduce the
permissible values of carrier to noise ratio (CNR) and carrier to interference ratio (CIR) those
are required to obtain specified probability of error ( . The performance improvement
also can be evaluated in terms of statistical reduction of fading dynamic range of the average
CNR and CIR.

8.2 Conclusion:
This paper describes the characteristics of the signal propagation and performance
degradation issues in wireless communication channels. There are many impairment factors
and fading is the major factor amongst them which degrades the performance of wireless
communication system severally. Several types of diversity techniques are described which
can be use to mitigate fading problem in the channels. Diversity is used to supply the receiver
with several replicas of the same signal. Diversity combining techniques are used to improve
the channels’ performance without transmitting any additional power. If high received signal
are de-correlated, the gain of diversity is also high. The performance of diversity system is
expressed by its ability to reduce the value of carrier to noise ratio (CNR) and carrier to
interference ratio (CIR) at a specified probability of error ( . The performance evaluated in
terms of statistical reduction of the fading dynamic range of the average CNR and CIR. We
have concluded that the fading dynamic range of the instantaneous CNR and instantaneous
CIR  is reduced remarkably by the use of diversity techniques. We have also seen there is
only a slight difference between the combining methods. For a certain average of Pe, a higher
amount of CNR and CIR is required for non-diversity systems, while a smaller amount of
CNR and CIR is required for a diversity technique. We see that maximal-ratio combining
(MRC) achieves the best performance improvement comparing to the other methods.

8.3 Future Work:

This work is limited within theoretical aspects for the lack of required practical instruments
and time. If instruments are supplied various statistical data may be collected. There are two
branch of diversity data considered but branches can be many. The study of MSK modulation
system can be extended to more modern and advanced modulation techniques. Maximal ratio
combing technique and selection combining technique are considered but another combining
technique may be considered for more experiment. Performance analysis was limited within
CNR and CIR but can be extend to other aspects. There is also possible space to analyze and
compare several diversity performance improvements with each other. The users’
geographical location is always uncertain. As a result the degradation factors are also
uncertain. More study can be done to find more degradation factors and find the possible
ways to mitigate them.
 71

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The End
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