Assignment

(MT413)
Knowledge Management

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Ankita Bhatia Dr. Piyush Gupta
MBA/25007/19

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 Table of Contents

Contents Page no.

Short notes on : 03-11
a)Expert System
b) Artificial intelligence
c) Fuzzy logic systems
d) Genetic Algorithms
e)Neural Networks
f)Intelligent Agents

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Write a short notes on :
a)Expert Systems
Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.

What are Expert Systems?

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems:

 High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive
 Capabilities of Expert Systems
 The expert systems are capable of −
 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem
 They are incapable of −
 Substituting human decision makers
 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge

Components of Expert Systems:

The components of ES include −
o Knowledge Base
o Inference Engine
o User Interface

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b) Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building
smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. AI is an
interdisciplinary science with multiple approaches, but advancements in machine learning and
deep learning are creating a paradigm shift in virtually every sector of the tech industry. 

HOW DOES ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WORK?

Can machines think? — Alan Turing, 1950
Less than a decade after breaking the Nazi encryption
machine Enigma and helping the Allied Forces win World
War II, mathematician Alan Turing changed history a second
time with a simple question: "Can machines think?" 
Turing's paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
(1950), and it's subsequent Turing Test, established the
fundamental goal and vision of artificial intelligence.   
At it's core, AI is the branch of computer science that aims to
answer Turing's question in the affirmative. It is the endeavor
to replicate or simulate human intelligence in machines.
The expansive goal of artificial intelligence has given rise to
many questions and debates. So much so, that no singular
definition of the field is universally accepted.  
The major limitation in defining AI as simply "building machines that are intelligent" is that it
doesn't actually explain what artificial intelligence is? What makes a machine intelligent?
In their groundbreaking textbook Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, authors Stuart
Russell and Peter Norvig approach the question by unifying their work around the theme of

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intelligent agents in machines. With this in mind, AI is "the study of agents that receive percepts
from the environment and perform actions." (Russel and Norvig viii)
Norvig and Russell go on to explore four different approaches that have historically defined the
field of AI: 
 Thinking humanly
 Thinking rationally
 Acting humanly 
 Acting rationally
The first two ideas concern thought processes and reasoning, while the others deal with behavior.
Norvig and Russell focus particularly on rational agents that act to achieve the best outcome,
noting "all the skills needed for the Turing Test also allow an agent to act rationally." (Russel
and Norvig 4).
Patrick Winston, the Ford professor of artificial intelligence and computer science at
MIT, defines AI as  "algorithms enabled by constraints, exposed by representations that support
models targeted at loops that tie thinking, perception and action together."
While these definitions may seem abstract to the average person, they help focus the field as an
area of computer science and provide a blueprint for infusing machines and programs with
machine learning and other subsets of artificial intelligence. 
While addressing a crowd at the Japan AI Experience in 2017,  DataRobot CEO Jeremy Achin
began his speech by offering the following definition of how AI is used today:
"AI is a computer system able to perform tasks that ordinarily require human intelligence...
Many of these artificial intelligence systems are powered by machine learning, some of them are
powered by deep learning and some of them are powered by very boring things like rules." 

HOW IS AI USED?
Artificial intelligence generally falls under two broad categories: 
Narrow AI: Sometimes referred to as "Weak AI," this kind of artificial intelligence operates
within a limited context and is a simulation of human intelligence. Narrow AI is often focused
on performing a single task extremely well and while these machines may seem intelligent, they
are operating under far more constraints and limitations than even the most basic human
intelligence. 
 
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): AGI, sometimes referred to as "Strong AI," is the kind of
artificial intelligence we see in the movies, like the robots from Westworld or Data from Star
Trek: The Next Generation. AGI is a machine with general intelligence and, much like a human
being, it can apply that intelligence to solve any problem. 

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE EXAMPLES

 Smart assistants (like Siri and Alexa)
 Disease mapping and prediction tools
 Manufacturing and drone robots
 Optimized, personalized healthcare treatment recommendations
 Conversational bots for marketing and customer service
 Robo-advisors for stock trading
 Spam filters on email
 Social media monitoring tools for dangerous content or false news

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  Song or TV show recommendations from Spotify and Netflix

c) Fuzzy logic systems

In our day to day life, we might face situations where we are unable to determine whether the
state is true or false. Fuzzy refers to something which is unclear or vague. Fuzzy Logic in AI
provides valuable flexibility for reasoning. Fuzzy Logic System was invented by Lotfi Zadeh.
Also, he observed, unlike other computers, it includes a range of possibilities between YES and
NO, in a human decision.

Implementation of Fuzzy Logic System

Basically, it can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities. That should be
range from mall micro-controllers to large. Also, it can be implemented in hardware, software, or
a combination of both in artificial intelligence.

Why Fuzzy Logic?

Generally, we use fuzzy logic system for the practical as well as commercial purposes.
We can use it to consumer products and control machines.
Although, not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.
Also, this logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.

Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture

Basically, four parts are shown in the architecture of fuzzy logic system-
a. Fuzzification Module
We use this module to transform the system inputs. As tha is is crisp number. Also, helps in
splitting the input signal into various five steps.
LP – x is Large Positive.
MP- x is Medium Positive.
S – x is Small.
MN – x is Medium Negative.
LN – x is Large Negative
b. Knowledge Base
In this, we have to store it in IF-THEN rules that was provided by experts.
c. Inference Engine
Generally, it helps in simulating the human reasoning process. That is by making fuzzy inference
on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.
d. Defuzzification Module
In this module, we have to transform fuzzy set into a crisp value. That set was obtained by an
inference engine.
Although, the membership functions always work on a same concept i.e fuzzy sets of variables.

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Fuzzy Logic Applications:
There are some areas of fuzzy logic system. These are-
a. Automotive Systems
o Automatic Gearboxes
o Four-Wheel Steering
o Vehicle environment control
b. Consumer Electronic Goods
o Hi-Fi Systems
o Photocopiers
o Still and Video Cameras
o Television
c. Domestic Goods
o Microwave Ovens
o Refrigerators
o Toasters
o Vacuum Cleaners
o Washing Machines
d. Environment Control
o Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters
o Humidifiers

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Advantages of Fuzzy Logic Systems:
 Generally, in this system, we can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
 Also, these logics are easy to construct and understand.
 Basically, it’s solution to complex problems. Such as medicine.
 Also, we can relate math in concept within fuzzy logic. Also, these concepts are very
simple.
 Due to the flexibility of fuzzy logic, we can add and delete rules in FLS system.

Disadvantages of Fuzzy Logic Systems:

 Till no designing approach to this fuzzy logic.
 Basically, if logics are simple, then one can understand it.
 Also, suitable for problems which do not have high accuracy.

d) Genetic Algorithms
Genetic Algorithms(GAs) are adaptive heuristic search algorithms that belong to the larger part
of evolutionary algorithms. Genetic algorithms are based on the ideas of natural selection and
genetics. These are intelligent exploitation of random search provided with historical data to
direct the search into the region of better performance in solution space. They are commonly
used to generate high-quality solutions for optimization problems and search problems.
Genetic algorithms simulate the process of natural selection which means those species who can
adapt to changes in their environment are able to survive and reproduce and go to next
generation. In simple words, they simulate “survival of the fittest” among individual of
consecutive generation for solving a problem. Each generation consist of a population of
individuals and each individual represents a point in search space and possible solution. Each
individual is represented as a string of character/integer/float/bits. This string is analogous to the
Chromosome.
It is a search heuristic that is inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural evolution. This
algorithm reflects the process of natural selection where the fittest individuals are selected for
reproduction in order to produce offspring of the next generation.

Foundation of Genetic Algorithms

Genetic algorithms are based on an analogy with genetic structure and behavior of chromosome
of the population. Following is the foundation of GAs based on this analogy –
Individual in population compete for resources and mate
Those individuals who are successful (fittest) then mate to create more offspring than others
Genes from “fittest” parent propagate throughout the generation, that is sometimes parents create
offspring which is better than either parent.
Thus each successive generation is more suited for their environment.

Why to use Genetic Algorithms?

 They are Robust
 Provide optimisation over large space state.

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  Unlike traditional AI, they do not break on slight change in input or presence of noise
 Application of Genetic Algorithms
 Genetic algorithms have many applications, some of them are –
 Recurrent Neural Network
 Mutation testing
 Code breaking
 Filtering and signal processing
 Learning fuzzy rule base set

e)Neural Networks
Artificial neural networks (ANN) or connectionist systems are computing systems vaguely
inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn" to
perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with task-specific
rules.
For example, in image recognition, they might learn to identify images that contain cats by
analyzing example images that have been manually labeled as "cat" or "no cat" and using the
results to identify cats in other images. They do this without any prior knowledge of cats, for
example, that they have fur, tails, whiskers and cat-like faces. Instead, they automatically
generate identifying characteristics from the examples that they process.
An ANN is based on a collection of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons, which
loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a
biological brain, can transmit a signal to other neurons. An artificial neuron that receives a signal
then processes it and can signal neurons connected to it.
In ANN implementations, the "signal" at a connection is a real number, and the output of each
neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections are
called edges. Neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The
weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Neurons may have a
threshold such that a signal is sent only if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically,
neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different transformations on
their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer), to the last layer (the output
layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.

The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human
brain would. But over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations
from biology. ANNs have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech
recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video
games, medical diagnosis, and even in activities that have traditionally been considered as
reserved to humans, like painting.

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(An artificial neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, inspired by a simplification
of neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node represents an artificial neuron and an arrow
represents a connection from the output of one artificial neuron to the input of another.)

f)Intelligent Agents
An intelligent agent is a program that can make decisions or perform a service based on its
environment, user input and experiences. These programs can be used to autonomously gather
information on a regular, programmed schedule or when prompted by the user in real time.
Intelligent agents may also be referred to as a bot, which is short for robot.
Typically, an agent program, using parameters the user has provided, searches all or some part of
the internet, gathers information the user is interested in and presents it to them on a periodic or
requested basis. Data intelligent agents can extract any specifiable information, such as included
keywords or publication date. In agents that employ artificial intelligence (AI), user input is
collected using sensors, like microphone or cameras, and agent output is delivered
through actuators, like speakers or screens. The practice of having information brought to a user
by an agent is called push technology.
Common characteristics of intelligent agents are :
o adaptation based on experience,
o real time problem solving,
o analysis of error or success rates
o and the use of memory-based storage and retrieval.

For enterprises, intelligent agents can be used for applications in data mining, data analytics and
customer service and support (CSS). Consumers can also use intelligent agents to compare the

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prices of similar products and notify the user when a website update occurs. Intelligent agents are
also similar to software agents which are autonomous computer programs.

Types of intelligent agents

Types of intelligent agents are defined by their range of capabilities and degree of intelligence:
 Reflex agents: These agents function in a current state, ignoring past history. Responses
are based on the event-condition-action rule (ECA rule) where a user initiates an event
and the agent refers to a list of pre-set rules and pre-programmed outcomes.
 Model-based agents: These agents choose an action in the same way as a reflex agent, but
they have a more comprehensive view of the environment. A model of the world is
programmed into the internal system that incorporates the agent's history.
 Goal-based agents: These agents expand upon the information model-based agents store
by also including goal information, or information about desirable situations.
 Utility-based agents: These agents are similar to goal-based agents but provide an extra
utility measurement which rates each possible scenario on its desired result and chooses
the action that maximizes the outcome. Rating criteria examples could be the probability
of success or the resources required.
 Learning agents: These agents have the ability to gradually improve and become more
knowledgeable about an environment over time through an additional learning element.
The learning element will use feedback to determine how performance elements should
be changed to improve gradually.

Examples of intelligent agents

 AI assistants, like Alexa and Siri, are examples of intelligent agents as they use sensors to
perceive a request made by the user and the automatically collect data from the internet
without the user's help. They can be used to gather information about its perceived
environment such as weather and time.
 Infogate is another example of an intelligent agent, which alerts users about news based
on specified topics of interest.
 Autonomous vehicles could also be considered intelligent agents as they use
sensors, GPS and cameras to make reactive decisions based on the environment to
maneuver through traffic.

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